Abstract

The current study demonstrates the combined use of ERT and seismic methods as a tool

to assess geotechnical models used to evaluate subsidence due to ground water level drop

at the area of Valtonera in (northwestern Greece). More specifically, the purpose is to

generate geotechnical simulation models of land subsidence corresponding to the

geophysical models.

On the basis of existing geological, hydrogeological and geotechnical information study

areas for conducting geophysical measurements were selected. 2D geoelectrical and

seismic profiles were measured at the places of the documented cracks. The purpose of

the geophysical investigation was to extract lithologic information over existing cracks

along with mechanical characteristics of the soil, so as to generate the geotechnical model

of the area.

On the basis of the interpreted geophysical models geotechnical models were generated

and 2D parametric analysis was applied using the finite elements parametric software

RS2 (Rocscience). The result of the simulations was to evaluate the subsidence and to

predict possible locations for imminent cracks.

Simulations showed that the resulting geotechnical model heavily depends on the initial

model which means that the use of geophysical models can increase the accuracy of the

geotechnical simulations which can become more realistic.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fissures due to land subsidence is a major natural hazard which has been documented in

many areas all over the world. The over pumping of groundwater is one of the factors

which induces this phenomenon in the last decades (e.g. Rapsini et al., 2014, Burbey,

2002, Rojas et al., 2002, Soulios et al. 2011, Trinh M. Thu and Delwyn G. Fredlund,

2000). The overexploitation of free or confined aquifers leads to the differential

compaction of subsurface formations as the water, which fills the pores, is abstracted.

Land subsidence, is a result of reduce of pore pressure and effective stress increment

(Keller & Blodgett, 2007).

Geotechnical problems, such as land subsidence or landslides, have been documented

during the last decades, in many areas worldwide close to mines. The investigation of

these problems is fulfilled through geotechnical models. The prediction of the degree of

subsidence can be achieved through geotechnical models (Poland, 1984). Consequently,

it is important that these models are as realistic as possible. The purpose of this study is

to generate simulation models of land subsidence corresponding to the geophysical

models.

On the basis of existing geological, hydrogeological and geotechnical information study

areas for conducting geophysical measurements were selected. 2D geoelectrical and

seismic profiles were measured at the places of the documented cracks. The purpose of

the geophysical investigation was to extract lithologic information over existing cracks

along with mechanical characteristics of the soil, so as to generate the geotechnical model

of the area.

On the basis of the interpreted geophysical models geotechnical models were generated

and 2D parametric analysis was applied using the software RS2 (Rocscience). The result
of the simulations was to evaluate the subsidence and to predict possible locations for

imminent cracks.

The area of under investigation belongs to the Amyntaion basin at Florina, Northern

Greece. In the wider region of the Amyntaion basin, extensive earth fissures has been

documented, since 1993, causing damages to the buildings. The village of Valtonera is

particularly affected by this phenomenon as it is located, approximately, 2km away from

the coal mine of Amynteon (Fig. 1). This case was studied by Tsourlos et al. (2007) and

Loupasakis et al. (2014), who concluded that the land subsidence is attributed to extensive

ground water extraction that takes place in the area around the open pit mine, in order to

keep the mine dry.

Figure 1: Satellite image of the wider area of Valtonera.

2. The Case of Valtonera

The wider area of Amyntaion basin belongs to the Pelagonian geotectonic zone of Greece,

the formations of which, constitute the pro-Neogene bedrock and overlapped by Neogene

and Quaternary sediments, where the Amyntaion-Ptolemaida basin developed (Tsourlos

et al., 2007).

The bedrock consists of crystalline-schist which is overlapped by Triassic–Jurassic

carbonate cover. The Neogene sediments, which unconformably and partially overlaid the

rocks of Pelagonian zone, are gravels from metamophic rocks, marls, sandy marls, sands

and clays with xylite orizons. These formations compose the lignite-bearing Komninon

formation (IGME) and belong to Upper Miocene-Pliocene (Velitzelos & Petrescu, 1981).

In Figure 2 a simplified geological map is depicted.

The area of Western Macedonia is affected by an extensional field strain, which is active

by Middle-Upper Miocene till now. Particularly, in the area of Western Macedonia, two

tensile strength facts were conducted. The first group of NW–SE to NNW–SSE direction

faults formed the large Florina-Amyntaion-Ptolemaida-Kozani-Serbion basin and the

Grevena basin, while the second group of NE–SW to ENE–WSW direction faults shaped

the initial large basin of Florina to Florina basin, Amyntaion-Ptolemaida basin and

Servion basin (Pavlides, 1985; Pavlides and Mountrakis, 1987).

The village of Valtonera is located on western fringe of the Amyntaion-Ptolemaida basin

and it is affected by tectonic line Aetos-Xino Nero-Petron. The direction of this fault is

NNE-SSW, its length is approximately 14km and it extends from villages Sklithron,

Agripitsa, Aetos to Xino Nero, Petres (Tsourlos et al, 2007).

Figure 2: Simplified geological map of wider area

The hydrogeological interest focuses on the formations of Quaternary deposits. The

lithostratigraphy of sediments is dominated by sands and it is partially characterized by

fine-grained and coarse-grained formations. Between sandy formations, two types of clay

formations are interpolated, the green-ashy-green clay which overlies the conglomerate

base, and yellow-brown clay (Fig.3). The sandy formations are the main formations
which transmit the aquifer and they are exploited, in order to keep the open lignite mine

dry.

Figure 3: Geological column of the area

The phenomenon is attributed to extensive ground water extraction that takes place in an

area around the open pit in order to keep the open lignite mine dry. The influence of the

human activity on the ground water piezometry was examined in previous studies

(Tsourlos et al, 2015; Aggelitsa, 2011; Tzaboglou, 2015). In Fig.4b the recorded

subsidence based on recent GPS measurements is depicted and is as high as 0.5m the last

4 years especially at the areas closer to open pit. The subsidence is well correlated (Fig.

4b) to the water level drop in the area which exceeds the 40m over the few last years.
Figure 4 (a) Location map of the geophysical survey, (b) recorded subsidence in relation to the water level drop, (c)
map with the measured ERT lines , (d) photo of a fissure crossing a house in Valtonera.

3. Geophysical Survey

As part of a multidisciplinary study in the area, an extensive geophysical survey took

place mainly focused in the areas that mostly suffered from the earth fissures. The

extensive geophysical survey involved electrical and seismic surveys and aimed to study

of the area just below the existing cracks by performing relatively high resolution

measurements in an attempt to retrieve information regarding the lithology, hydrogeology

and tectonics of the region along the cracks. The location of the measured geophysical

Lines is depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Map with the measured geophysical line.

3.1 ERT and Seismic profiles

In the current study, the results of seven ERT lines were processed, centred over known

fissures which aimed into providing lithological information regarding the subsurface.

All ERT lines had a length of 115m (24 electrodes, 5m spacing) and were collected using

the dipole-dipole array. The inversion of resistivity data was carried out by using the

DC2DPRO software (Kim, 2009) and 2-D resistivity models were produced. The total

depth of the resistivity models estimated approximately 35m.

Further, an equal number of seismic profiles measured with the Multichannel Analysis of

Surface Waves (MASW) and refraction techniques. Seismic lines were conducted over

the central part of the ERT sections (also centred over the known fissures) in order to

delineate the near-surface velocity model of S-waves and P-waves beneath the studied

areas. Seismic lines had a length of 46m using 24 geophones (2m spacing) while inter-

shot distance was also 2m at locations between the geophones. Data acquisition

parameters are displayed in Table 1. The depth of S-wave velocity models estimated 15-

20m.

Table 1: Seismic Data acquisition parameters

Number of seismic profiles 6

Number of geophones 24

Receiver interval 2m, 1.5m

Geophone type 4.5Hz, vertical component

Spread length 46m, 34.5m

Number of shots per spread 27

Depth 15-20m

Sampling interval 1ms

Record length 1s

Shots interval 2m

3.2 Results of geophysical survey

Two typical inverted ERT sections (V1-V3) and the corresponding S-waves and P-waves

interpreted sections are shown in Figure 6. In view of V1 (Fig. 6b) a characteristic lateral

variation of the resistivities at the 55th meter of the line is evident. It coincides with the

surface location of the crack (noted in the figure by an arrow). The respective photo of

the measurement in relation to the crack is shown in Fig 6a. The near perpendicular
lateral lithological change corresponds to a contact of a mostly clay formation (blue

colours) to a sandier formation (green-yellow colours). Also, on surface a formation of

relatively high resistivity appears (red colour) corresponding to coarse materials (sandy-

gravelly). This formation is abruptly interrupted at the 55m of the section possibly due to

the existence of fault. In Figure 6f an inverted geoelectrical section V3 is shown. A lateral

discontinuity between sandier formations (red-yellow colour) with clay materials (blue

colours) is evident. Note the stratigraphic discontinuities at the 50-52m of the section,

which are at the same location where the crack appears. The lithological variation occurs

at the left part of the section (0-52m) which exhibits a displacement of 15m.

The respective 2D MASW sections (Fig. 6, c, g), do not exhibit significant S-wave

velocity variations both laterally and vertically. In both section S-wave velocity ranges

between 120-190 m/s. As a result, the clay-silt and sand-clay formations cannot be

discretized.

The P-wave section in both V1 and V3 (Fig. 6d, h) exhibit significant velocity variations

only along the depth axis. In particular, at the depth of 6m the velocity of P-waves is

approximately 1400-1500 m/s for both sections suggesting a water saturated formation.
Figure 6: Inverted sections of ERT lines V1 and V3 with the corresponding 2D MASW and refraction profiles. The
respective photographs showing the location of the lines in relation to the fissures are also depicted.

The MASW and refraction sections do not provide detailed information regarding the

lateral variation of the structure of the subsurface however P and S-wave velocities were

used in this work for estimating important geotechnical parameters of the soils, namely

Young’s Modulus and Poisson ratio (Simons et al., 2002) which are crucial for the

subsequent geotechnical modelling.

Geotechnical parameters (Young’s Modulus, Poisson ratio) and the density were

estimated by:

Adams (1951) (1)

3𝑉𝑃2 −4𝑉𝑆2
𝐸 = 𝜌[ 𝑉
2 ]
( 𝑃 ) −1
𝑉𝑆
 1 1 Adams(1951), Salem (1990) (2)
𝑣 =2− 𝑉
2
( 𝑃 ) −1
𝑉𝑆

𝜌 = 0.31𝑉𝑃 0.25(g/cm3) Gardner et al. (1974) (3)

In addition, the Shear wave velocity is an important factor for geotechnical site

classifications, as it indicates the soil ground stiffness. In this study, seismic site

characterization was based on Eurocode – 8 (CEN, 2003). For this purpose, the mean

shear-wave velocity Vs15 defined for the depth interval of 0-15m. The mean shear-wave

velocity Vs15 was calculated in accordance with Eq. 4:

∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑧𝑖
𝑉𝑆30 = 𝑧 (4)
∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑖
𝑉𝑠𝑖

where zi is the thickness of the i-th layer of the soil column between 0-15m and Vsi is the

S-wave velocity of the corresponding layer.

The Vs15 values of the total seismic profiles, ranged between 146-183 m/s. According to

Eurocode – 8, the most profiles belongs to Class D. Due to this, the formations are

characterized from loose-to-medium cohesion soil. The P-wave and S-wave velocity

models do not provide detailed geological information, but the values of P-wave and S-

wave velocity are in accordance with typical P and S wave values of sandy and clay

formations (Bourbie et al, 1987).

Poisson ratio (v) is estimated around 0,48 (Table 2) which indicates the existence of

saturated formations (Craig, 1794).

Table 2:Geotechnical parameters estimated obtained from seismic methods techniques and site classification of soil
with guidelines of Eurocode-8.

Young's
Vs15 ρ Poisson ratio
Profile Modulus E Ground Type
(m/s) (Kg/m3) v
(Mpa)
V1 183 1732 0,49 168 C
 V3 177 1659 0,47 138 D

V4 179 1597 0,48 134 D

V5 146 1693 0,49 85 D

V8 171 1600 0,48 130 D

V9 169 1579 0,46 143 D

4. Geotechnical Modelling

The ground subsidence mechanism as a result of water level drop was investigated by

conducting simulations using the two-dimensional finite element software RS2

(Rocscience Inc). The simulations were applied on several geotechnical models

corresponding to the studied geophysical lines which were measured over existing

fissures. The geotechnical model parameters were obtained from the corresponding

seismic data as well as from previous geotechnical studies carried out in the same region

(Loupasakis et al, 2014). Further, the detailed structural information which was retrieved

by the ERT sections was introduced directly into the geotechnical model and provided a

more realistic basis for calculations as opposed to the oversimplified lithological models

that are typically used when structural information is missing.

4.1 Construction of simulation models

The main part of the study is the construction of geotechnical simulation models using

the geophysical models derived from geophysical measurements.

More specifically, the geoelectric sections were used for the construction of the

geotechnical models. Electrical resistivity data were extracted from the DC2DPro

program in .txt format. This file was inserted into design program, a resistance contour

line cross section was created and a simplified lithological model exported as .dxf file
which was inserted to the finite element geotechnical software RS2 (Rocscience Inc)

(Figure 7).

Figure 7: Conversion example of geophysical resistivity model to geotechnical model.

4.2 Parameters settings of analysis

The analysis carried out taking into consideration important settings which define the type

of analysis, the geotechnical soil properties and the hydrogeological prevailing conditions

of the study area.

In the context of the preparation of the simulations, Plain strain analysis was defined,

which refers to cases in which the stress components do not change in the direction of an

axis (eg. x) (Kavvadas, 2006). In addition, the Effective stress analysis was selected,

which relates the deformations of the ground to the water pressure in the pores.

For the distribution of water pore pressure, the Steady State Finite Element Analysis

method was defined. According to this, the water pore pressure is calculated in

accordance with the determined groundwater boundary conditions, using the same finite

element mesh as the stress analysis.

The geotechnical simulations can be executed by using a variety of failure criteria such

as Mohr-Coulomb, Griffith and Hoek-Brown criteria. In this study, the criterion which

were applied to simulations was that of Mohr-Coulomb. According to this criterion, the
stress strength (shear strength τ, nomral strength σ) is affected by a) the slope φ (angle of

internal friction) and b) the cohesion (c).

4.3 Geotechnical soil parameters

The simulations of geotechnical models, as mentioned above, were executed by using the

Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. In the context of simulations, it is necessary to define

the mechanical parameters of the formations.

In the geological simulation models, three formations were used and they were derived

from bibliographic data (Loupasakis et al., 2014; Kouka, 2010) in combination with the

geological section obtained from electrical resistivity tomography model. These

formations were: a) clay-silt sands, b) sandy clay silts and c) clay-silt sands with gravels.

The geotechnical soil mechanic parameters are shown in Table 4.

Table 3: Soil parameters

Clay silt sands

Soil
Clay-silt sands Sandy clay silts
with gravels
Parameter

φ 26.5 20 41
C (kPa) 82 78 5
γ (kN/m3) 25.1 22.1 25.9
kx (m/day) 2.94 0.16 56.6
ky (m/day) 2.94 0.16 56.6
E (MPa) 50 30 90
v 0.3 0.3 0.3
ψ 0 0 0

4.4 Results of Parametric analysis

To illustrate the effectiveness of the lithology discontinuities at the geotechnical

simulations, the parametric stress analysis and the simulations, firstly, executed to a

simple theoretical model (Fig. 8). In the second phase, parametric analysis were applied
on geotechnical models which were produced by the corresponding geoelectrical section.

The calculations carried out by using the same settings and geotechnical parameters

which were described above.

Figure 8: Simplified theoretical model

The ground subsidence mechanism was investigated by gradual decrease of the

piezometric surface: initial depth of ground water surface was considered to be at 5m

below ground level (b.g.l.) and was lowered at 6 consequent steps (-2.5, -5, -7.5, -10, -

15, -20m) steps up to a depth of 25m b.g.l.

In Figure 9, the distribution of the resulted vertical displacements of the theoretical

simulation model caused by a 10m water level drop is depicted. In Figure 10, diagram

with calculated results of the vertical displacements for different groundwater drop levels

is shown.
Figure 9: Distribution of resulted soil deformations for ground water level drop -10m and -20m and vertical
displacements.

16

14
Vertical displacement (cm)

12

10

8
Simple
6
Γραμμική (Simple)
4

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Groundwater drawdown (m)

Figure 10: Calculated results of the vertical displacements for different groundwater drop levels for the realistic and
the simplified models.

In Figures 11, 12 and 13, the interpreted electrical resistivity tomography of V1, V3 and

V5 profiles, the corresponding geotechnical simulation model and the distribution of

deformations and vertical displacements are shown. The vertical displacement starts at

the area of the lateral discontinuity and coincides with the surface location of the crack

(Fig. 11c. 12c, 13c). In Figure 13c, small surface deformations of soil are observed close
to 5cm. No fissures have been recorded at these areas along the profile V5, but it can be

linked with future crack events.

Figure 11: (a) Inverted sections of ERT lines V1. (b) realistic geotechnical model derived from the geoelectrical section
V1, (c) vertical displacement model for the realistic geotechnical section
Figure 12: (a) Inverted sections of ERT lines V3. (b) realistic geotechnical model derived from the geoelectrical section
V3, (c) vertical displacement model for the realistic geotechnical section
Figure 13: (a) Inverted sections of ERT lines V5. (b) realistic geotechnical model derived from the geoelectrical section
V5, (c) vertical displacement model for the realistic geotechnical section

The calculated vertical displacements results of profiles V1, V3 and V5 are depicted at

the Figure 13. In the view of diagram of vertical displacements – water drop level (Firg.

14), a linear correlation of groundwater drawdown and vertical displacement, is observed.

The results of total realistic simulation models (V1, V3 and V5) were compared with the

simple theoretical model results (Fig. 14). It is observed that the realistic simulation

models present smaller magnitude of subsidence than the theoretical model. This is due
to the fact that the offset value expected along surface raptures depends on fault offset

and groundwater drawdown (Loupasakis et al., 2014). The percentage difference of land

subsidence compared with theoretical model, is shown at the Table 5.

Figure 14: Calculated results of the vertical displacements for different groundwater drop levels of profiles V1, V3 and
V5.

Table 4: Percentage difference of land subsidence.

Model % Differation

V1 6,8

V3 21,4

V5 12,2

In the last part of this study, parametric analysis applied to a large scale geotechnical

simulation model. The simulation section is obtained from a length of 1000 m

geoelectrical section with depth of 230 m. The interpreted geoelectrical section is shown

in Fig.15a and the corresponding simulation model is depicted in Fig.15b.

In the view of the distribution of vertical displacements and derfomations (Fig. 15c), a

normal horizontal distribution of subsidence is noticed. This is due to the fact that the

formations are horizontal layered. The maximum land subsidence is observed at 800-

1000m of the section and it coincides with the surface location of recorded crack.

Furthermore, deformations between 5-8cm has been created (Fig.15c) near to lateral

lithological change. These deformations do not coincide with recorded surface cracks but

they can be connected with future crack events. The diagram of vertical displacements

and groundwater drawdown is depicted in Figure 16.

Figure 15: (a) Inverted sections of long ERT lines L6. (b) realistic geotechnical model derived from the long
geoelectrical section L6, (c) vertical displacement model for the realistic geotechnical section L6
 3

2,5
Vertical displacement (m)

1,5
L6
1 Γραμμική (L6)
y = 0,0554x - 0,0074
0,5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Groundwater drawdown (m)

Figure 16: Calculated results of the vertical displacements for different groundwater drop levels of large scale model
L6.

According to the results of the simulations, the largest vertical movements occur in the

areas where fine clay formations dominate. The surface cracks occur in both surface

lithological discontinuities and deeper lateral changes. There is a linear correlation of the

groundwater drop with the vertical displacements and the size of subsidence depends on

the water drop level. The size of vertical displacements are close to recorded GPS

measurements of the area.

Finally, the accuracy of land subsidence mechanism is approached through the use of

large-scale geotechnical models. More specifically, the large-scale section made vertical

displacements closer to the recorded values of the area. However, smaller-scale models

have caused significant subsidence and can predict new cracks.

Conclusions

The main objective of this study was to evaluate geotechnical models of land subsidence

using ERT and seismic methods (MASW and seismic techniques). The case study carried
out at village Valtonera, near to the open pit mine of Amyntaion, where suraface cracks

have been recorded and many buildings have been damaged.

The ERT proved particularly useful in delineating the structural information of the area

while seismic methods provided important geotechnical properties of soil. Information of

both techniques was integrated into the geotechnical model and the simulated vertical

displacement results for the tested area compares with the field observations.

Simulations showed that the resulting geotechnical model heavily depends on the initial

model which means that the use of geophysical models can increase the accuracy of the

geotechnical simulations which can become more realistic.

This study is a contribution to research, and therefore the continuation of research in the area

is required. More specifically, it is suggested:

- The production of more large-scale geotechnical models using the electrical

resistivity tomography method for the improvement of the geotechnical model.

- The improvement of the seismic methods measurements in order to evaluate

geotechnical parameters with accuracy.

- The correlation of geotechnical models and geotechnical field measurements are

required, so as the geotechnical model be more realistic.

- The application of different methods, such as seismic reflection, georadar, which may

produce high resolution analysis geological models.

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