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The word translation derives from the Latin translatio meaning "to carry across" or "to bring
across”. The modern Romance languages use words for translation derived from that source or from the
alternative Latin traduco ("to lead across"). The Germanic (except Dutch) and Slavic languages likewise
use calques1 of these Latin sources.
The Ancient Greek term for translation, μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), has supplied
English with metaphrase (a "literal," or "word-for-word," translation) — as contrasted with paraphrase ("a
saying in other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis). Metaphrase corresponds, in one of the more recent
terminologies, to "formal equivalence"; and paraphrase, to "functional (dynamic) equivalence."
A competent translator shows the following attributes:
a very good knowledge of the language, written and spoken, from which he is translating (the source
language - SL);
an excellent command of the language into which he is translating (the target language - TL);
familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated;
a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlates between the two languages; and
a finely tuned sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and when to paraphrase, so as to
assure true rather than spurious equivalents between the source- and target-language texts.
A competent translator is not only bilingual but bicultural. A language is not merely a collection of words and
of rules of grammar and syntax for generating sentences, but also a vast interconnecting system
of connotations and cultural references whose mastery, writes linguist Mario Pei, "comes close to being a
lifetime job."
Fidelity (or faithfulness) and transparency, are the dual ideals in translation, but often at odds. A 17th-
century French critic coined the phrase "les belles infidèles" to suggest that translations, like women, can
be either faithful or beautiful, but not both.
Faithfulness is the extent to which a translation accurately renders the meaning of the source text,
without distortion.
Transparency is the extent to which a translation appears to a native speaker of the target language to
have originally been written in that language, and conforms to its grammar, syntax and idiom.
A translation that meets the first criterion is said to be "faithful"; a translation that meets the second,
"idiomatic". The two qualities are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary according to the subject, type and use of the text,
its literary qualities, its social or historical context, etc.
The criteria for judging the transparency of a translation appear more straightforward: an unidiomatic
translation "sounds wrong"; and, in the extreme case of word-for-word translations generated by many machine-
translation systems, often results in patent nonsense.
Nevertheless, in certain contexts a translator may consciously seek to produce a literal translation.
Translators of literary, religious or historic texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text, stretching
the limits of the target language to produce an unidiomatic text. A translator may adopt expressions from the
source language in order to provide "local color".
Current Western translation practice is dominated by the dual concepts of "fidelity" and "transparency".
This has not always been the case, however; there have been periods, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in
the 18th century, when many translators stepped beyond the bounds of translation proper into the realm
of adaptation.
1
In linguistics, a calque (pron.: /ˈkælk/) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-
word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") or root-for-root translation.
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Adapted translation retains currency in some non-Western traditions. The Indian epic, the Ramayana,
appears in many versions in the various Indian languages, and the stories are different in each. Similar examples
are to be found in medieval Christian literature, which adjusted the text to local customs and mores.
The question of fidelity vs. transparency has also been formulated in terms of, respectively,
"formal equivalence" and "functional [or dynamic ] equivalence". The latter expressions are associated with
the translator Eugene Nida and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible, but the two
approaches are applicable to any translation.
"Formal equivalence" corresponds to "metaphrase", and "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase".
"Functional equivalence" (or " dynamic equivalence") conveys the essential thoughts expressed in a
source text — if necessary, at the expense of literality, original sememe2 and word order, the source text's active
vs. passive voice, etc.
By contrast, "formal equivalence" (sought via "literal" translation) attempts to render the text literally, or
"word for word" (the latter expression being itself a word-for-word rendering of the classical Latin verbum pro
verbo) — if necessary, at the expense of features natural to the target language.
There is, however, no sharp boundary between functional and formal equivalence. On the contrary, they
represent a spectrum of translation approaches. Each is used at various times and in various contexts by the
same translator and at various points within the same text — sometimes simultaneously. Competent translation
entails the judicious blending of functional and formal equivalents.
Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false
equivalents such as "false friends" and false cognates3.
2
A sememe (from the Greek: σημαίνω (sēmaino), "mean, signify") is a semantic language unit of meaning, correlative to a morpheme.
The concept is also meaningful insemiotics
3
In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus (blood
[1]
relative). Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are not considered cognates.
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1. Introduction
under the circumstances the process of learning an L2 would be much easier /ˈnoʊ.men.kleɪ.tʃɚ/
than it actually is. In this regard, Culler (1976) believes that languages are
not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically
from those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world
their own (p.21-2). The conclusion likely to be drawn from what Culler
disparity among languages. The bigger the gap between the SL and the TL,
the more difficult the transfer of message from the former to the latter will
be.
I. Technical procedures:
a. analysis of the source and target languages;
b. a through study of the source language text before making
attempts translate it;
there are at least three global strategies employed by the translators: (i)
dealing with whole texts) and local (those dealing with text segments)
strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of
translation problems.
strategies relate to what happens to texts, while other strategies relate to what
the basic tasks of choosing the SL text and developing a method to translate
(2005:16) divides this into two types, namely global strategies and local
methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences
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explained in detail.
4. Opting for a word in the TL which seems similar to or has the same
"relevance" as the SL term.
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institutions and personnel which are specific to the SL culture" (p.2), Harvey
(2000:2-6) puts forward the following four major techniques for translating
CBTs:
The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988b)
proposes:
appearance, nonetheless, their use can assist the TT readers to make better
discrepancies.
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particular person, place or thing" and are spelled "with a capital letter," play
an essential role in a literary work. For instance let us consider personal PNs.
They may refer to the setting, social status and nationality of characters, and
There are some models for rendering PNs in translations. One of these
models is presented by Hervey and Higgins (1986) who believe that there
exist two strategies for translating PNs. They point out: "either the name can
Hervey and Higgins (1986) refer to the former as exotism which "is
replaced by indigenous TL names that are not their literal equivalents, but
"normally, people's first and sure names are transferred, thus preserving
nationality and assuming that their names have no connotations in the text."
connotations and implied meanings are significant. Indeed, there are some
names in the Persian poet Sa'di's work Gulestan, which bear connotations
solution of the mentioned problem is as follows: "first translate the word that
underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then naturalize the translated
the strategy in question. As it seems it is only useful for personal PNs, since
a translated text, states, it can be utilized merely "when the character's name
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Source: http://www.bokorlang.com/journal/41culture.htm
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INEQUALITY REEXAMINED
Oxford, 1992
person’s achievement in this respect can be seen as the vector of his or her
achievements such as being happy, having self-respect, taking part in the life
of the community, and so on. The claim is that functionings are constitutive
and doings) that the person can achieve. Capability is, thus, a set of vectors
another. Just as the so-called budget set in the commodity space represents a
livings.
dependent on the nature of his or her being, i.e. on the functionings achieved.
important for the wellness of that person’s being. But, it may be asked, how
can choose to have) will constitute the person’s freedom – the real
the goodness of the social state, importance may be attached to the freedoms
JACQUES DELORS
LEARNING:THE TREASURE WITHIN
UNESCO
Report to UNESCO of the International Commission
оn Education for the Twenty-first Century
the ideals of peace, freedom and social justice. As it concludes its work, the
Commission affirms its belief that education has a fundamental role to play
in personal and social development. The Commission does not see education
as a miracle cure or a magic formula opening the door to a world in which all
ideals will be attained, but as one of the principal means available to foster a
pushed – for economic and financial reasons – down to the bottom of the
agenda, the Commission wishes to share this conviction with the widest
thinking principally about the children and young people who will take over
from today’s generations of adults, the latter being all too inclined to
affection for children and young people, whom we need to welcome into
society, unreservedly offering them the place that is theirs by right therein – a
place in the education system, to be sure, but also in the family, the local
brought to mind, so that greater attention is paid to it, even when choosing
Our century has been as much one of sound and fury as of economic
and social progress – progress that in any case has not been equally shared.
At the dawn of a new century the prospect of which evokes both anguish and
hope, it is essential that all people with a sense of responsibility turn their
содржина предложена од
Проф д-р Деан Илиев и Проф д-р Татјана Атанасоска
variety of reasons. First of all, questioning allows the teacher to check her/his
to be retaught, and at what level to pitch the lesson. This immediate feedback
to the teacher of how well pupils have grasped the topic is one of the
Questioning allows pupils to practice and master the topic taught before
having to go to the next topic. Being able to correctly answer questions also
enhances a pupil’s feelig of mastery, which will in turn enhance the pupils
al., 1993)
they used to work out a particular answer This will help them develop verbal
skills they will need not only in school but the workspace as well.
questioning entails. This evidence, taken from the research discussed earlier
(Brophy and Good, 1986; Bennett et al., 1981; Rosenshine; Cooper et al.,
mentioned that a lot of researches believe the lesson should start with a
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review of what was learnt previously. This is the first part of teaching where
interaction and questioning are crucial as they are the best way of checking
interaction, it is not the only form of interaction possible, and indeed in some
which in some cases may not be appropriate to the goal of the lesson.
allowing them to think things through and verbalize their thinking; and lastly,
to voice their own opinions in public and the ability to do so in clear and
concise way).
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Alternatively the teacher can get pupils to read up a particular topic before the
lesson. Discussion can also follow brief presentations on a topic by the teacher
or pupils.
and to the point. As with direct instruction, teachers need to set out clearly the
purpose of the discussion from the start. It can be useful to provide pupils with
a couple of ‘pointer’ questions in order t focus the discussion, and to link the
discussion to pupils’ prior knowledge. During the discussion the teacher needs
to keep pupils firmly on task, and avoid them wandering off the different
subjects. Writing down the main points to emerge from the discussion on the
board or a flipchart can help focus pupils and also emphasize the fact that the
During the discussion, the teacher needs to respond to pupil ideas in such
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processes. This can be done by seeking clarification (‘Could you clarify that
for me…’), by reflecting on pupil ideas (‘That’s a novel idea, what I think
you’re trying to say is…’), and by getting pupils to consider other points of
view.
At the end of the discussion, it is once again useful for the teacher to
briefly summarize the main points to have come out of the discussion,
followed by a debriefing focusing on the process and how well the discussion
did or did not proceed. Both can be done by the teacher or (often more
subject of the lesson, and also on the maturity of the pupils as well as their
in which the views of all pupils are valued is essential. All these factors will
also determine the amount of teacher direction and structure given to the
discussion.
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One of the tensions that have been found to exist in lessons is that
between questioning and discussion. Research has found that in some cases
teacher questions can function in such a way that they abort classroom
1997).
the whole-class lesson, has been that it may be advantage boys and
disadvantageous to girls and to shyer pupils. The reason for this is seen to lie
in the more assertive nature of boys, and the (obviously) less assertive nature
of shy pupils in the classroom. This means that boys will be more likely to
volunteer to answer questions and to dominate lessons, and also for shier
pupils to avoid doing so. In this way the more assertive boys may start to
certain pupils, the so called ‘free rider effect’. This refers to the fact that
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certain pupils may choose to avoid actively taking part in the lesson and let
others do all the work, either because they are unsure or unwilling.
however. Thus, when questioning, teachers need to make sure that all pupils
get to answer questions, not just the pupils who volunteer or are the most
persistent. A way to make sure that this is done is to round the class in a
which names can quickly be ticked off. Teachers also need to make sure that
girls get as much chance to answer questions as boys. Among younger pupils
Another thing the teacher must avoid is the temptation to target mainly
those pupils who s/he thinks are most likely to answer the question correctly.
In order to avoid weaker pupils getting answer wrong too often, which will
not help them to attain a feeling of mastery, it may be necessary to vary the
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-14896985
Tech Know's L J Rich finds out whether her holiday video of a squirrel that chirps
like a Star Trek communicator will be "memed".
Two men stand on a small stage in the cellar of a Soho bar. One is
Doubtless other stages in Soho have hosted stranger sights, given the
number of vice dens, cabaret joints and nightclubs that line the streets of this
But the reason for them being on stage has more to do with the other
The event being held in this cellar is Kitten Camp; a monthly meeting
at which the most widely shared memes from the last few weeks are
Combat kitten
The memes are presented in an adversarial style with the cat and dog
backing different ones. It is trend-to-trend combat, a kind of 8 out of 10 cats
for the net set.
This month's memes include, among other things, a cat made out of a
pop tart, cats firing machine-guns, armed apes running amok, and the follow-
on to planking - leisure diving.
The man in the cat costume is Kitten Camp organiser Chris Quigley.
During the day he works at Rubber Republic, an ad agency that specialises in
making viral content for the web. But once a month he dresses up as Jess The
Cat to talk about memes.
Why a cat?
"Because the kitten is the king of memes," he said.
source: BBC NEWS Technology: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-14896985
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About 11 to 15 billion years ago all of the matter and energy in the
Universe was concentrated into an area the size of an atom. At this instant,
matter, energy, space and time did not exist. Then suddenly, the Universe
began to expand at an incredible rate and matter, energy, space and time
came into being (the Big Bang). As the Universe expanded, matter began to
coalesce into gas clouds, and then stars and planets. Our solar system formed
about 5 billion years ago when the Universe was about 65 % of its present
Figure 5a-2: Our solar system began forming about 5 billion years
ago as gas clouds coalesce into planets and a star. Today, the solar system
contains nine commonly recognized planets and the sun. (Source: NASA).
the Big Bang theory. In a previous section, we learned that scientists test
the Big Bang theory that have been tested by this process are:
1. If the Big Bang did occur, all of the objects within the Universe
documented that the galaxies in our Universe are indeed moving away from
each other.
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Bang theory. This prediction suggests that the initial explosion that gave
birth to the Universe should have created radiation with a spectrum that
gravity. The collapse of the Universe ends when all matter and energy is
compressed into the high energy, high-density state from which it began.
This scenario is of course called the Big Crunch. Some theorists have
suggested that the Big Crunch will produce a new Big Bang and the process
of an expanding Universe will begin again. This idea is called the oscillating
Universe theory.
Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/5a.html
Created by Dr. Michael Pidwirny & Scott Jones University of British Columbia Okanagan
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PYRAMIDS
The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and
their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of many different shapes
and sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the
Middle Kingdom.
There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt.
The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza at the
beginning of the Old Kingdom. The most well-known of these pyramids was
Story
The pharaoh Khufu, like the pharaohs before him, began planning his
'house of eternity' as soon as he took the throne. A spot was chosen for
building on the west bank of the Nile. Cemeteries were usually built on the
west bank because the sun 'died' on the western horizon every night.
Khufu's architects were wise and experienced men. They knew the
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importance of building the pharaoh's final resting place so that its sides faced
directly north, south, east and west. They planned a large pyramid - the
largest one ever built in ancient Egypt. The outlines of the pyramid were
Then the building began. Large blocks of stone were cut from
quarries nearby. They were dragged by groups of men across the desert to
the site of the pyramid and set in place. Most of the workers were farmers
who worked on building the pyramid during the flood season when their
After the first level of blocks was in place, the workers built ramps of
mudbrick, limestone chips and clay. The workers dragged the large stones up
pyramid. As they built each level, they also built up the ramps around the.
pyramid
shining metal (either gold or electrum) was placed on the top of the pyramid.
Then, blocks of white limestone from quarries across the Nile were used to
cover the pyramid. The blocks were trimmed to make the outside of the
pyramid smooth.
walkway, two temples, other pyramids, boat pits and the mastabas of nobles.
Source: http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/pyramids/home.html
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Introduction
space and ơ-space, point-countable base, and uniform base. The method of
covers), the mutual disposition of these elements (star finite, point finite,
properties of paracompactness type has been singled out, together with the
class of paracompacta.
space has important significance. Here, first and foremost, is the notion of a
that it has universal significance for general topology, in particular for the
theory of uniform spaces, the theory of dimension and the general theory of
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continuous maps. The method of covers permeates the very heart of the
theory of cardinal invariants via the notions of Lindelöf space and compact
covers and inverse spectra is general homology theory, which is one of the
problem, which is in the main stream of the method of covers, new profound
all finite sets are closed, that is, T1-spaces. The notation is the same as in
that covers X.
smallest infinite cardinal τ such that for each U the cardinality of the