UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communications:

 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using
the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Fundamental Characteristics:

 The effectiveness of a data communication system depend on four fundamental

characteristics:

 Delivery

 Accuracy

 Timelines

 Jitter

Five Components of Data Communication:

1. Message

2. Sender

3. Receiver

4. Medium

5. Protocol
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Direction of data flow:

Simplex

Half Duplex

Full Duplex

1. THE INTERNET:

An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each other.
The most notable internet is called the Internet, and is composed of thousands of
interconnected networks.

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  The figure shows the internet as several backbones, provider networks, and
customer networks.
 At the top level, the backbones are large networks owned by some communication
companies such as sprint, Verizon (MCI), AT&T, and NTT.
 The backbone networks are connected through some complex switching systems,
called Peering points.
 At the second level, there are smaller networks, called Provider networks that
use the services of the backbones for a fee.
 The provider networks are connected to backbones and sometimes to other
provider networks.
 The customer networks are networks at the edge of the internet that actually use
the services provided by the internet. They pay fees to provider networks for
receiving services.

 Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet Services Providers
(ISPs). The backbones are often referred to as international ISPs; the provider
networks are often referred to as national or regional ISPs.

Accessing the Internet:

The internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become

part of it. The user, however, needs to be physically connected to an ISP. The physical
connection is normally done through a point-to-point WAN.
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 Using Telephone Networks:

1. Dial-up service:
 The first solution is to add the telephone line a modem that converts data to
voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and imitates
making a telephone connection.
 Unfortunately, the dial-up service is very slow, and when the line is used for
internet connection, it cannot be used for telephone connection.

2. DSL Service: The DSL service also allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice
and data communication.

Using Cable Networks:

 The cable companies have been upgrading their cable networks and connecting to
the internet.
 A residence or a small business can be connected to the internet by using this
service.
 It provides a higher speed connection, but the speed varies depending on the
numbers of neighbors that use the same cable.

Using Wireless Networks:

Wireless connectivity has recently become increasingly popular. With

the growing wireless WAN access, a household or a small business can be connected to
the internet through a wireless WAN.

Direct Connection to the Internet:

A large organization or a large corporation can itself become a local

ISP and be connected to the internet.

2. PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS:

 Protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspect of data communication between computers
on a network.

 These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network:
access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

 A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.

 The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.

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  Protocols are to computers what language is to humans. Since this article is in English,
to understand it you must be able to read English. Similarly, for two devices on a network
to successfully communicate, they must both understand the same protocols.

Elements of protocol:

i) Syntax

The structure or format of the data.

ii) Semantics

 Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.

 How were a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on
that interpretation.

iii) Timing

Refers to two characteristics:

 When data to be sent

 How fast it can be sent

STANDARDS:

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

ANSI(AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute)

American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, now IEEE)

 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)

 American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now American Institute of Mining,

Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers)

 American Society for Testing and Materials (now ASTM International)

 ITU (International Telecommunications Union-formerly CCITT)

ISO (International Organization for Standards)
 EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute)
 W3C - World Wide Web Consortium

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3. LAYERED TASKS:

 Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip

level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses.

 To ease network engineering, the whole networking concept is divided into multiple
layers. Each layer is involved in some particular task and is independent of all other
layers.

 But as a whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these layers.

 Layers share data between them and they depend on each other only to take input and
send output.

 In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into
small tasks.

 Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process
the task only.

 Every layer does only specific work.

 Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to
execute its piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation
header and tail.

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4. OSI MODEL:

 The model was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) in
1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.

 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a descriptive network

scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of
network technologies.

 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.

 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers
over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems.

 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

A LAYERED NETWORK MODEL

• The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each specifying particular
network functions.

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• The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.

• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.

• Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other
computers.

• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are
concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.

• The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—Layers 7,
6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.

APPLICATION:

• The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.

• It provides network services to the user’s applications.

• It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI layer,
but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.

• Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and
bank terminal programs.

PRESENTATION:

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• The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one
system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.

• If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a
common format.

• Provides encryption and compression of data.

• Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

SESSION:

• The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.

• This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages using
dialogue control.

• It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages their
data exchange.

• The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.

• Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

TRANSPORT:

• The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity between
host applications reliably and accurately.

• The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles the
data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.

• Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).

NETWORK:

• Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.

• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be
delivered.

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 • The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.

• Routers operate at Layer 3.

• Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

DATA LINK:

• The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmission
across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.

• The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.

• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address in
order for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each
other.

• Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of
frames, and flow control.

• Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

PHYSICAL:

• The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.

• It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for

activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems.

• Converts bits into electronic signals for outgoing messages

• Converts electronic signals into bits for incoming messages

• This layer manages the interface between the the computer and the network medium
(coax, twisted pair, etc.)

• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.

• Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.

5. TCP/IP:

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 • TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources
across a network

• TCP stands for “Transmission Control Protocol”

• IP stands for “Internet Protocol”

• They are Transport layer and Network layer protocols respectively of the protocol suite

• The most well known network that adopted TCP/IP is Internet – the biggest WAN in the
world

• TCP/IP was developed very early

• Technologies were widely discussed and circulated in documents called “Request for
Comments” (RFC) – free of charge

• Supported by UNIX operating system

• Because TCP/IP was developed earlier than the OSI 7-layer mode, it does not have 7
layers but only 4 layers

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model:

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets)
another application running on different computer.
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Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model
Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

 Lowest layer of the all.

 Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.

 Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

 Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork

layer is called a internet layer.

 It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.

 It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.

 Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.

 IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.

 The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:

o Delivering IP packets

o Performing routing

o Avoiding congestion

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Layer 3: Transport Layer

 It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

 Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport

layer.

 The applications can read and write to the transport layer.

 Transport layer adds header information to the data.

 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer.

 Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the protocol
stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote

machine and run applications on it.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol that allows File transfer amongst computer
users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.

3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport

electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.

4. DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts
connected over a network.

5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.

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Merits of TCP/IP model

 It operated independently.

 It is scalable.

 Client/server architecture.

 Supports a number of routing protocols.

 Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

 In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

 The model cannot be used in any other application.

 Replacing protocol is not easy.

 It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Differences between OSI and TCP/IP:

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet

Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around
standard, acting as a communication gateway which the Internet has developed. It is a communication
between the network and end user. protocol, which allows connection of hosts over a network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not guarantees
the delivery of packets. delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is more

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 reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
and Session layer. Session layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented 6. Network Layer is Connection less.

and Connection less.

7. OSI is a reference model around which the 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
networks are built. Generally it is used as a model.
guidance tool.

8. Network layer of OSI model provides both 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides
connection oriented and connectionless connectionless service.
service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
easily replaced as the technology changes.

11. OSI model defines services, interfaces and 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
protocols very clearly and makes clear clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
distinction between them. It is protocol
independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

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6. ADDRESSING:

A network address is any logical or physical address that uniquely distinguishes a n/w node
or device over a tele comm. network.

Physical Addressing:

 The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as
defined by its LAN or WAN.

 It is the lowest level address.

 It is included in the frame and used by the data link layer.

 The size and format of this addresses are vary depending on the network.

 Most local area networks use a 48 bit physical address written as 12 hexadecimal
digits, every byte is separated by a colon as shown below

 07:03:02:01:2C:4B

Logical address:

 Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of
underlying physical networks.

 Physical addresses are not adequate in a internetwork environment where different n/w’s
can have different address formats.

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 A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely,
regardless of underlying physical n/w.

 The logical addresses are designed for this purpose.

 A logical address in the internet is currently a 32 bit address.

 The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but logical addresses will remains
the same.

Port address:

 Using IP addresses, a packet reaches the network layer of the receiving node. The next
task is handover the packet to the appropriate transport layer protocol.

 The protocol type field in the IP header is used to identify the transport layer protocol
used by a particular datagram or packet.

 TCP, UDP, ICMP are the examples of transport layer protocols.

 Each protocol has unique value in IP Protocol.

 A port address is 16 bit address represented by one decimal number.

 Example: 765

Application Specific Addresses:

 Some applications have user friendly addresses that are designed for the specific
application.

 HTTP,SMTP,FTP,TCP are the examples

 Email addesses
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  URL

7.LINE CODING REVIEW:

A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission line.
This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such as inter-
symbol interference.

Properties of Line Coding

Following are the properties of line coding −

 As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth used
is much reduced.

 For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.

 The probability of error is much reduced.

 Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.

 Power density is much favorable.

 The timing content is adequate.

 Long strings of 1s and 0s are avoided to maintain transparency.

Types of Line Coding

There are 3 types of Line Coding

 Unipolar

 Polar

 Bi-polar
Unipolar Signaling
Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK.

The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0.

There are two variations in unipolar signaling

 Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

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  Return to Zero (RZ)
Unipolar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse called
as Mark, which has a duration T0 equal to the symbol bit duration. A Low in data input has no
pulse.

The following figure clearly depicts this.

Advantages

 It is simple.

 A lesser bandwidth is required.

Disadvantages

 No error correction done.

 Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.

 No clock is present.

 Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of 1s and 0s).

Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it
immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit
duration.

It is clearly understood with the help of the following figure.

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Advantages

 It is simple.

 The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.
Disadvantages

 No error correction.

 Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.

 The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.
Polar Signaling
There are two methods of Polar Signaling. They are −

 Polar NRZ

 Polar RZ
Polar NRZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse, while a Low in
data is represented by a negative pulse. The following figure depicts this well.

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Advantages

The advantages of Polar NRZ are −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −

 No error correction.

 No clock is present.

 The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Polar RZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it
immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit
duration.

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Advantages

The advantages of Polar RZ are −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −

 No error correction.

 No clock is present.

 Occupies twice the bandwidth of Polar NRZ.

 The signal droop is caused at places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Bipolar Signaling
This is an encoding technique which has three voltage levels namely +, - and 0. Such a signal is
called as duo-binary signal.

Even in this method, we have two types.

 Bipolar NRZ

 Bipolar RZ
From the models so far discussed, we have learnt the difference between NRZ and RZ. It just
goes in the same way here too. The following figure clearly depicts this.

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The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms. The pulse duration and symbol
bit duration are equal in NRZ type, while the pulse duration is half of the symbol bit duration in
RZ type.

Advantages
Following are the advantages −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

 Occupies low bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.

 This technique is suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines, as signal drooping
doesn’t occur here.

 A single error detection capability is present in this.

Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages −

 No clock is present.

 Long strings of data cause loss of synchronization.

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