PRODUCTION PRACTICES FOR PERENNIAL CROPS

In this book, the production practices for perennial crops are treated
separately from those for annual crops. The reasons are: perennial crops are
mostly tree or tall- growing plants and they remain long in the field Certain
practices such as pruning, seedling and shade management, cover- cropping,
control of flowering and fruiting are essential features of perennial crops
production. Likewise, postharvest handling of products in which keeping quality
factors are important may require special treatment.
The fact remains, however, that the basic requirements for growth of all
crops are the same. Unfortunately, it is common observation in the Philippines
that the level of cultural practices such as weed control, fertilizer management
and inter- row cultivation given to perennial crops is far less intensive and
satisfactory compared to what is normally performed in growing annual crops. In
the management of coconut and fruit tree farms, for example, satisfactory weed
control and inter- row cultivation are seldom practiced. Thus, such operations, if
adequately practiced, can constitute a very important factor in increasing crop
yields. This has been the experience of long- established coconut plantations;
cultivation of space underneath trees by planting other crops has shown
significant improvements in coconut yield.
1. Selection Criteria and Varieties of Fruits and Plantation Crops
Fruit and plantation crops take a long time before they reach the bearing
stage. It is therefore, very important that the planting materials used are of
proven genetic and economic worth. In the Philippines, sources of reliable
planting materials are still limited. Growers can make use of planting materials of
their own choice if they are sure of a reliability and superiority of their source.
In Thailand, the fruit industry is highly developed and the source of quality
plant materials has come largely from the private growers and enthusiasts. In
the country, national and regional contests for the best fruit tree award have
been regularly conducted. There is a mechanism by which winning entries of
prized materials are multiplied and commercialized.
In recent years, public and private breeding institutions in S southeast Asia
have engaged in research and development and developed superior F hybrid
varieties of fruit and plantation crop such as coconut, oil palm, cacao, papaya
and pineapple. Wide distribution of superior materials are now possible with the
advent of micropropagation techniques such as tissue culture. In tissue culture
work, hundreds of plantlets reared on a chemical or culture medium can be
derived from one or a few growing points. In oil palm, plantlets ca be generated
from young leaf fragments (George 1996). Likewise, coconut seedlings can now
be generated from plumule explants (Chan, et al. 1998).
Selection criteria for fruits and plantation crops
A. Fruits
1. For the fresh fruit market, eating quality is the main consideration and the
important factors are sweetness and wholesome taste, non-fibrousness,
attractive color of flesh and rind, large fruitedness and small seededness. In
papaya, the export market prefers the small size of fruit characteristics of the
Solo variety; in bananas oversized as well as undersized fruits are discarded in
grading for export.
2. For processing into juice, the requirements are a higher level of acidity or
sourness of the fruit, a high percentage of total soluble solid and color imparted
to the juice. Before going into contract growing of fruit for processing, quality
requirements of the processing industry should be known.
3. Early bearing tendency and rapid attainment of peak production.
4. Regularity of fruit bearing. Some varieties produce fruits regularly every
season of the year while others bear fruits in alternate years.
5. Resistance to soil- borne diseases. There are fruit species that are highly
vulnerable to soil- borne fungal diseases especially when the area is under
drained. Some varieties or related wild species may have the resistance and they
can be used as rootstocks, to which scions of a desirable variety can be
attached.
6. Satisfactory yields. The acceptable yield levels ( in tons per hectare per year)
of representative fruit crops are:
Mango : 8-10 tons
Papaya : 15-20 tons
Rambutan : 4 tons
Banana : 40-50 tons
Calamansi : 2-3 tons
Durian : 3-4 tons
Pili : 1-2 tons
These fruit are of high value and at the aforementioned yield levels, the
gross value per hectare can very high.
B. Plantation Crops
The criteria for selection should relate to yielding ability, earliness and
regularity of fruiting, resistance to pests and disease, quality of the processed
product and other factors that are unique to the species.
To illustrate, here are the criteria for selection of mother trees as source of
planting materials for few important species.
1. Coconut
 Threes should produce 1200 to 1500 nuts per harvest per hectare at every
45 days (or total of eight harvests per year);
 Threes should have a rounded crown;
 Each tree should produce at least 60 to 80 nuts per year;
 A tree should have at least 30 to 36 open leaves;
 The nuts should be medium size; round-shaped and 4 to 4.5 of such nuts
should be sufficient to yield one kilogram of copra;
 A choice can be made between a tall and dwarf type of cultivar. Tall
growing types pose a difficulty in harvesting but trunks provide greater
volume of lumber.
2. Coffee
 A yield of one ton of clean dry beans per hectare should be obtainable for
the species of Robusta, excels and Liberica and 500 to 1000 kg per
hectare for Arabica.
 Resistance to coffee rust and berry borer. Arabica is susceptible to rust
and robusta to borer.
 Regular bearer; closer internodes; large cluster ofberries; uniform maturity
of berries.
3. Cacao
 Yield at 600 to 700 pods per tree per year should be attainable;
 Regular bearer;
 Should have resistance to pod borer; forastero and trinitario are relatively
resistant whereas Criollois susceptible since the pod wall is relatively thin;
 Pods should be of good size;
 Fresh seed should be large at 2.5 gm weight.
Varieties of representative fruit and plantation crops
The varieties are listedin table 29.
Table 29. varieties of representative fruit and plantation crops
Species Cultivar Features and
background
Pineapple Smooth Cayenne Fruit at 2.3-3.6 kg
cylindrical; leaves non-
spiny; used for canning
and fresh fruit market.
Queen Fruit small at less than
one kg; sweet, laves
spiny; grown for fresh
fruit. Commonly grown in
Bicol.
Red Spanish Medium sized fruit at 0.9
to 1.4 kg, sweet; leaves
spiny used for fiber
extraction.
Mango Carabao Excellent quality of fruit;
aromatic, and much
preferred in the export
market.
Pico Fruit oblong, somewhat
flattened with a distinct
beak at the apex, fruit is
sweet and aromatic.
Katchamita Also known as Indian
mango; usually eaten
when green-mature.
Banana Lacatan Local dessert banana;
skin thick and golden
yellow when ripe.
Latundan Local dessert banana;
fruit generally smaller;
skin is thin and fruit
easily separates from
“hand” when fully ripe.
Local dessert banana;
Bungulan fruit slightly curved; skin
 is thick, light green to
greenish yellow when
ripe.
Saba Local cooking banana;
commercially processed
into chips and ketchup
(at ripe, or unripe stage).
The male bud is used as
vegetable.
Dwarf and Giant Introduced cultivar grown
Cavendish for export. Fruit rejects
(unripe) can be
processed into ketchup.
The bunch is large and
yield is high.
Citrus, Mandarin Szinkom Fruit small (about 86 g.);
yellowish orange when
ripe; has a tendency to
dry up when over-ripe.

Ladu Fruit medium-sized

(about 117 g.); bright
orange when ripe;
remains juicy even when
thoroughly ripe.

King Fruit large (about 189

g.); rind rough and thick;
flesh dark orange and
juice.

Ponkan Introduced cultivar suited

to cooler climates in the
highlands.
Citrus, sweet orange Hamlin Introduced cultivar.
Valencia Introduced cultivar.
Perante Derived from Hamlin,
selected in Nueva Vizcaya
BPI station.
Pummelo Amoy Fruit medium to large;
rind medium thick and
 pinkish underneath; flesh
pale pink, fairly juicy and
sweet.

Siamese Rind thin, flesh colorless,

very juicy, sweet and
subacid.

Sunwi-luk Fruit small to large; rind

greenish even when well
matured; flesh is light
yellow, juicy, peculiarly
sweet and pleasant.
Rambutan Maharlika Introduced from
Indonesia. The flesh (aril
or sarcotesta) is pearly
white, thick and easily
comes off (with the
papery part of the
seedcoat) from seed. The
variety is suitable for
canning. Fruit cover turns
from yellow to red.

Seematjan Introduced from

Indonesia. Fruit is large,
flesh separate from seed.

Seenjonja Introduced from

Indonesia. Fresh is
translucent, rather thin
and does not separate
from seed.

Chanee Introduced from

Thailand. The flesh or aril
is yellowish, thick,
creamy and very sweet.
Odor of fruit is not very
strong.
 Mon thong Introduced from
Thailand. Has the same
fruit characteristics as
Chanee.

Native varieties Fruit is small, aril is thin

From Jolo and Lanao and odor of fruit is very
strong. Used in making
candles and other
confectioneries.

Cavite special Fruit is oblong and

cylindrical and 3-6 kg in
weight.

Solo Introduced from Hawaii

Sunrise (originally from Jamaica).
Waimanalo They constitute the
Kapoho export varieties.

Sinta (F1 hybrid) Developed at the institute

of Plant Breeding. It is a
Solo type and has
excellent fruit qualities.
(see fig. 65)
Typical (Laguna, San Trees are tall with
Ramon, Baybay, enlarged stem base and
tagnanan) bear in 6-7 years.
Javanica (Tambulilid, Tress dwarf to medium in
bilaka, green dwarf) height. It is early to
medium bearing, with
medium to large nuts.
Nana (Coconiño, Trees are dwarf with
mangipod, mamareng) cylindrical stem base.
Early to medium bearing
with very small nuts.
Coconut F1 hybrids: Early bearers and highly
Mawa (Malaysian yellow prolific. (see fig. 66 and
dwarf x West African 67)
Tall)
PCA 15-1 (Catigan Green
 Dwarf x Laguna Tall)
PCA 15-2 (Malayan Red
Dwarf x Tagnanan Tall)
PCA 15-3 (Malayan Red
Dwarf x Baybay Tall)
Coffee Arabica Grows in 900 and 1800
m; susceptible to coffee
rust, used for blending.

Robusta Tolerant to rust; lowland

type, used for instant
soluble coffee
manufacturing.

Liberica Tolerant to rust and

wider in adaptability;
derived coffee like
“kapeng barako” has
strong taste and flavor.

Excelsa Tolerant to rust, lighter

than Liberica in flavor.

Cacao Criollo Seed of superior quality,

trees are susceptible to
pests and diseases.

Forastero Seed of lower quality;

trees are hardy and high
yielding, resistant to pod
borer.

Trinitario Introduced from Trinidad,

a cross between Criollo
and Forastero; trees are
resistant to pod borer.
Abaca Maguindanao, Native varieties grown in
Tangongon, Mindanao.
Bongalonon
 Tinawagang Puti, Grown in Bicol
Tinawagang Pula,
Lausigon

Linawaan, Minenonga, Grown in Samar-Leyte

linlay

igure 65. the Sinta variety of papaya. It is an F 1 hybrid between two parents.
(photos courtesy of IPB)
Figure 66. Recommended F1 coconut hybrids bred at the Philippine Coconut
Authority (PCA). Top photo is PCA 15-1 (Catigan Green Dwarf x West African
Tall)and bottom photo, PCA 15-2 (Malayan Red Dwarf x Tagnanan Tall). (Photos
courtesy of PCARRD)
Figure 67. Other highly prolific F1 hybrids of coconut bred at the Philippine
Coconut Authority. Top photo shows hybrids, PCA 15-4 (Catigan x Tagnanan)
and bottom photo, PCA 15-6 (Catigan x Ploynesian Tall). (Photo courtesy of
PCARRD)
2. Preparation of Planting Materials and Care of Seedlings
 Fruits and plantation crops can be propagated by seeds and asexual
means. Whenever possible, the asexual means of propagation is preferred but
there are species which do not lend themselves to this method of propagation
and can only be multiplied through the use of seeds.
Use of seeds
It is the most practical way of propagation. Fruits like papaya, pili, jackfruit,
mangosteen, attis, guyabano, guava and plantation crops like coconut, lumbang,
oil palm and cacao are propagated commercially by seeds. Rootstocks for
asexual propagation of fruit crops are propagated by seeds.
But there are disadvantages associated with seed propagation: 1) plants
take a long time to bear fruit; 2) the resulting plants do not retain the
characteristics of the parents especially for cross-pollinated species; 3) plants
tend to grow into large trees.
A lanzones tree grown from seed will take from 12 to 16 years before
reaching bearing age whereas an asexually propagated one will take only 6 to 8
years.
The advantage of growing trees from seed, however, is the stronger anchorage
by the deeply entrenched root system which renders the tree resistant to strong
winds.
Seed propagation of horticultural species results in variability in
productiveness, quality characteristics of the fruit products, regularity of bearing,
growth habit and floral behavior such as the appearance of distinct maleness as
in pili rambutan and papaya.
Some species produce seeds but the embryo is not a product of
fertilization or union of the egg and sperm cell but rather of the unreduced egg
(2 n which is all maternal) or the nucellar tissues of the ovary of the maternal
plant. Thus, the embryo is a maternal product or an asexual structure and the
resulting plant will behave just like the parent source. Such type of the seed is
called an “apomict” and the process of formation is termed “apomixis”. This is
the case in mangosteen and lanzones.
Some apomictic species are polyembryonic, meaning two or more embryos
are produced in a single seed; only one is a product of fertilization and the rest
are nucellar embryos or apomicts. Philippine mangoes have 2 to 8 embryos,
citrus and lanzones 2 to 7 embryos per seed and all may give rise to seedlings.
Seed viability
Seeds of fruit and plantation crops may be categorized into two types
based on the initial moisture content at extraction and the wat viability is
affected by further losses in moisture while at storage.
1. Recalcitrant seeds, in which moisture content is initially high and loss by
desiccation or drying below the critical level (below 20 percent for
rambutan and rubber seeds) will result in rapid loss of viability: examples
are: mango, durian, rambutan, mangosteen, lanzones, santol, jackfruit,
tea, cacao, citrus, rubber, oil palm.
Storage of seeds in sand, sawdust or charcoal moistened to about
10 percent in polyethylene bags at 27 oC or refrigerated condition will
prolong storage life from the usual period of one or two weeks after
extraction to one to four months.
2. Orthodox seeds, which can be dried to prevent respiratory processes and
placed in air-tight containers to exclude oxygen. Refrigeration or use of
desiccants in ordinary room storage like calcium chloride, silica gel or
charcoal will help prolong viability for more than one year. Examples of
orthodox seed are atis, balimbing, chico, guayabano, passion fruit,
tamarind and coffee.
Seed propagation
Seeds of fruit and plantation crops are usually enclosed by a hard seedcoat
or mucilaginous material which would prevent entry of water and oxygen into the
seed and inhibit normal germination. The mucilage may also contain inhibitors of
germination. For ease in seed germination, the tough seedcoat has to be cracked
or the mucilaginous materials removed.
The following methods can be used:
1) Scarfication, to alter the permeability of the hard seedcoat.
1.1 soaking in water until the seedcoat sweels which can be done with
mango, jackfruit and chico seeds.
1.2 Dipping in boiling water for five minutes as in thecase of guava.
1.3 Dipping insolvents or sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide, nitric acid,
hydrochloric acid for 10 to 30minutes. Germination of abaca seeds is
enhanced by dipping in 2% HCI for 30 minutes.
1.4 Physical cracking of seeds by use of hammer or vise.
 1.5 Removal of seed coat; mango germinates in one week after removal
of seedcoat as compared to one month iof not removed.
1.6 Rubbing with sandpaper.
1.7 Removal of mucilage by applying rubbing pressure on seeds by hand
as with papaya, rubbing with sand or ash as can be done with cacao
and santol, or soaking in water for one day or placement in plastic
bags to allow fermentation to proceed for 3 to 5 days as with coffee
seeds.
Using of asexually propagated materials
Vegetables propagules derived from roots, stems and leaves and asexually
propagated seedlings are used as planting materials. The advantages in the use
of propagules are: 1) the resulting plants breed true-to-type; 2) applicable for
species that do not produce seeds or those that may produce seeds but are hard
to germinated; 3) trees are usually smaller and bear fruits earlier; 4) useful for
species with distinct maleness and femaleness as in pili and rambutan.
The kinds of vegetative propagules are:
1. Runners, which are specialized growing stem structures which arise from
the leaf axils of the plant and form roots of their own that render them
excellent propagating materials. Species are strawberry and blackpepper.
2. Slips, which are leafy shoots which arise from axillary buds which are
produced at the base of the plant or peduncle of the fruit as in pineapple.
3. Suckers, which are adventitious shoots that arise from underground stems
below the ground. Examples are banana and abaca.
4. Corms, which are underground solid stem structures which contain nodes
and internodes. The corm may be divided into several seed pieces.
Examples are banana and abaca.
5. Root cuttings, which are used in the propagation of breadfruit.
6. Leaf-bud cuttings, which are derived from axillary buds in stem and leaf.
The stem \s bearing the buds are cut into pieces and inserted in a rooting
medium. Examples are blackpepper and vanilla.
7. Stem cuttings which can be used in propagating sineguelas, macopa,
grapes, blackpapper, vanilla and kapok.
8. Asexual materials resulting from layerage, marcotting, graftage, budding
as practiced with many tree species.
9. Plantlets derived from actively dividing and growing tissues and callus
through test-tube or bottle micropropagation techniques using artificial
media have been commercialized in the propagation of bananas, abaca
 and orchids. Same technique has been found successful in the propagation
of bamboos and rattan.
True-breeding makapuno trees are commercially available at UPLB and lately,
in two research stations of the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA)through the
successful use of embryo culture techniques in the laboratory. The technique
was developed by Dr. Emerita V. de Guzman at UP Los Baños.
Since micropropagation techniques are done under aseptic or sterilized
conditions, the resulting plants are free o bacterial and fungal diseases. To
ascertain that the explants will be free of virus and mycoplasmal diseases, the
source should be as disease-free using ELISA (enzyme-linked, immune-
sorbent assay) techniques.
Nursery operation
The nursey is the place where stating plant materials are grown, cared for
and maintained until the plants are ready for transfer to the permanent site
for commercial growing.
1. Use of germination or rooting beds in a confined area used solely for
germinating seeds and seednuts or nothing of cuttings. For seed germination,
ordinary soil will do nut for rooting purposes, the medium should be of light
textured material such as a mixture of sand, garden soil and organic matter.
2. potting or transferring of young seedlings to individual containers. As soon
as seeds or seednuts have germinated or cuttings have adequately rooted,
each seedling is transferred immediately to its container where further growth
and development are allowed to proceed, boasted by fertilizer application and
regular watering. This is the mire recent development compared to earlier
practices by growers in which seedlings are allowed to developed on the
nursery bed until they are ready for transfer to the permanent site. Growing
of seedlings on individual containers has the advantage of providing seedlings
the headstart in vigor and development and the minimum of disturbance to
the root system in the process of transferring to the field. Some crops like
mangosteen are very sensitive to disturbances of the root system although
others like coffee and mango can withstand less refined handling.
The individual containers that may be used are pots made of peat or
unfired clay but the most practical are the thick black plastic bags which are
available in different sizes. The appropriate sizes (diameter and depth) are as
follows: 4-6” x 8” for papaya, coffee, cacao, pepper, 6-7’ x 10” for guava, atis
 and guayabano; 8” x 10” or 9” x 12” for rambutan and durian;’ 10-12” x 14”
for coconut. The plastics are provided with perforations to allow for aeration
and drainage. The plastic is removed during transplanting.
Size and age of seedlings at transplanting
Transplanting is done when seedlings of some species have attained at
least 30 cm in height and three to four leaves have developed. Age at this stage
will vary with species and is usually at 2to3 months for papaya, 4 to 6 months for
jackfruit and guayabano, 3 to 4 months for guava and 6-8 months for lanzones.
For other crops, seedlings are ready at 3 to 6 months for cacao and 6 to 10
months for coffee. Coconut will be ready at 6-9 months when leaves have begun
to split whereas oil palm requires an older age of 8 to 15 months when seedlings
have developed 5 to 8 leaves.
Shade may be provided by natural shade trees or artificial structures and
materials like nets, bamboo, slats, coconut fronds or plastics.
3. Plantation Establishment
Areas where crops can be established
Fruits and plantation crops can be established on lands that are level to
nearby level (0 to 3% slope), gently sloping to undulating (3 to 8%), and
moderately sloping (8 to 15%). The areas may be those that are alienable or
disposable with second growth forest, open-grassland, those already under
cultivation, or existing plantations that need replanting.
In establishing areas on slope that are predisposed to soil erosion, itmost
caremust be exercised that further degradation is prevented. Selective clearing
rather than total clearing and contour cultivation and terracing may have to be
done. On the other hand, flatlands may encounter drainage problems to which
plantation crops are sensitive, in which case drainage canals must be provided.

Land clearing
Open grasslands may be cleared by a combination of tractor mowing, use of
grass cutter or herbicidal application (i.e. using Roundup or Gramoxone).
Alternate plowing and harrowing can be done whatever practical. Land clearing is
important in carrying out the planting plan and straight-low planting. In slopping
areas, clearing of designated spots on which individual trees will be planted and
portions in which vegetation stands in the way making row alignments is all that
is necessary.
Laying out of planting plan
A planting plan is necessary as it will srve as a permanent record of
individual trees planted. A plan should include road ways and turn-around areas
for equipment operation and designated areas for laying out irrigation and
drainage facilities.
Spacing and arrangement of plants will depend on the system adopted.
1. The square or rectangular arrangement. To estimate the number of plants
required for a given area of farm, a simple formula can be used.
Area of farm (in square meters)
No. of plants = ---------------------------------------------------
S2 (in square meters)
Where:
S2 refers to the square of planting distance and if the distances are different as in
the rectangular arrangement, the product (S1xS2) can be substituted
2. Quincunx or Diagonal System. The quincunx uses a square arrangement
with an additional plant in the center. The additional plant may be of the
same crop or a filler of another species. It can be permanent or non-
permanent.
The number of plants required for a given area of farm is
determined with the use of a formula:

Area of farm
(sq m)
L1 W 1
No. of plants = ---------------------------- +
S S
S2 Filler species
 Where:
s2 = square of planting distance (meter) of the main crop
L = length dimension of the farm in meters
W = width dimension of the farm in meters
The quincunx system has the advantage of having more plants per unit
area of farm and better utilization of space especially when the trees have not
yet reached the full-grown stage. Bananas and papayas which are early bearing
crops are excellent filler plants.
3. Triangular or hexagonal arrangement. In this system, trees are set
equidistant to one another from every direction, forming an equilateral
triangle. The number of plants per unit of land area will be more than that
of the square system following the relationship:
Area (sq m) area
No. Of plants = -------------------- or ------------------- x 1.15
S2 x 0.866 S2
4. Contour terrace system. This system does not follow the conventional
spacing but arrangement is determined by slope and is made along
contour lines of the hilly land.
Planting
Direct planting may be done for some species whose seeds germinate
easily and establish quickly. An example is papaya in which 3 to 4 seeds are
sown per hill but only one seedling is retained. Mango and cashew seeds may
also be planted directly.
Asexually propagated materials such as those used for pineapple, banana
and abaca are planted directly to the field.
Transplanting
Seedlings that have been grown in pots or plastic bags and attained the
proper stage are transplanted. Holes are made on the ground the size of which
will depend on the characteristics of the soil and the crop. If the soil is fertile and
has a deep surface layer, a minimum size of hole just a little larger than the size
of the plastic bag container can be made.
 In heavy soils which are infertile and with a shallow top layer and for
crops that grow into a big tree, hole dimension can be as large as one cubic
meter. In planting, the excavated top soil should be returned first to the bottom
of the hole. The pot or plastic container is removed and the seedling is set firmly
by refilling the space with top soil and packed densely by thumping.
Transplanting should be done at start of the raniy season.
Distance of planting
] the planting distance and density for representative fruit and plantation
crops are indicated in Table 30.
High density planting of fruit crops
High density planting of orchard crops in the form of hedge-rows has been
in use in north America, Europe, Israel, Australia, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea
and in some parts of Southeast Asia.
To attain a high density, the seedlings are set at a spacing several times (2
to 10 times) closer than the conventional planting distance. The system,
produces greater yield per hectare especially at the early productive years of the
orchard. On a per tree basis, the yield is lower but this is more than
compensated for by the greater number of trees. At high density, the trees will
not grow very tall as they will be subjected to regular pruning. Thus, harvesting
and other operations will be facilitated.
Some mango orchards in Australia, Thailand and the Philippines have
practiced high density planting. A 5 x 5 meter distancing is adopted instead of
the usual 10 x 10 m. this spacing will be equivalent to 400 trees per hectare
instead of 100. Planting of more than 45,000 mango trees at 5 x 8 m spacing
began in 1986 in Guimaras.
Bondad (1995) has recommended a 4 x 6 m distancing for the establishment of
grafted Carabao mangoes but it should be accompanied by thinning aftersome
period of time. Thinning may commence in the fifth or sixth year after
establishment by removing alternately whole lines of in-row trees, leaving a 6 x 8
m spacing. The second thinning can be done in the 10 th year by removing
alternate rows of the 6 m adjoining rows. The remaining trees will have a
distance of 8 x 12 m. a third thinning may be necessary after sometime and the
permanent spacing will be 12 x 16 m. this thinning recommendation is based on
the observed rate of canopy spread which may differ according to location, in
which case adjustments in stages of thinning can be made.
 High density planting is accompanied by high management inputs which
include some importance operations like: regular pinching off of the terminal bud
of the shoot to promote the development of lateral buds; cutting of the top when
plant reaches 2 to 2.5 m in height; pruning of terminal shoots several weeks
after completing the first harvest; application of fertilizer and irrigation water
immediately after pruning to induce the development of new shoots as potential
bearers for the next season; induction of flowering whenever possible; pruning
of crown to maintain a height of 6 to 7 m and prevent overlapping of canopies of
adjacent trees. In mangos, failure to perform intensive cultivation required of
high density systems will result in trees becoming over crowded, making
leafhopper control very difficult.
Table 30. Planting distance and density for various fruits and
plantation crops.
Crops Planting distance (m) No. of plants/ha1
Agave 2.0 2500
Abaca 2.0 2500
African oil palm 8.0 157
Avocado 6.0-8.0 157-278
Banana 3.0-5.0 400-1111
Black pepper 2.5 1600
Cacao 3.0 1111
Cashew 4.0-6.0 278-625
Castor 0.5 40,000
Chico 6.0-8.0 157-278
Citrus 4.0-6.0 278-625
Coconut 8.0 157
Coffee 3.0 1111
Durian 8.0-10.0 100-157
Guava 4.0-6.0 278-625
Jackfruit 6.0-8.0 157-278
Lazones 4.8-6.0 278-625
Lumbang (tung) 8.0-10.0 100-157
Mango 8.0-10.0 100-157
Mangosteen 8.0-10.0 100-157
Papaya 3.0-4.0 625-1111
 Pineapple 0.25 x 1.0 40,000
Rambutan 6.0-8.0 157-278
Rubber 4.0-5.0 400-625

The incidence of anthracnose will be high because of more favorable condition

for the development of the fungus.
The operations for high density systems are labor-intensive and will entail
high costs. Negligence of the orchard will result in overcrowding of the trees and
a loss in fruit quality and productivity.
Providing shade to seedlings
For crops needing shade trees such as lanzones, rambotan, durian and
cacao, pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) can be planted as a temporary shade crop. It
is fast-growing and a nitrogen ficer. Later, a more permanent shade crop like
Madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium can be planted. Among the aforementioned
crops, only lanzones will need shade at the mature stage.
4. Soil Fertility Management
Certain general principles in soil fertility management have been dealt with
in a similar topic under annual crops and only supplementary information as they
relate to perennial crops are presented in this chapter.
Determination of fertilizer needs
Establishment plants will show some visual signs of whether they are
receiving an adequate or a deficient supply of the major elements like N, P and
K. trees that are deficient in nitrogen will show varying degrees of yellowing of
the canopy and a stunting appearance. A deficiency in phosphorus is manifested
by a marked violet discoloration at the leaf midrib and as the deficiency
intensifies, the leaf color becomes dull grayish green and a burning appearance
occurs along the leaf margin. A deficiency in potassium shows a discoloration of
leaves to pale green; brown dry spots develop from tip to the margin of the
leaves, resulting in the drying of the margins.
Soil and Plant tissue analysis
Soil analysis using the laboratory techniques or the soil test kit has been
discussed under annual crops as a gauge in determining nutrient availability in
the soil. Certain levels of organic matter, phosphorus and potassium, upon soil
analysis, could be related to either a sufficiency or deficiency of the elements in
sustaining the needs of the crop. The same information can be used in
determining the rates of fertilizer application for horticultural crops.
For long-term crops and where facilities are available, leaf tissue analysis
would be a more accurate option in determining-the nutrient status of soils since
the amount of nutrient elements actually absorbed provides a better picture of
what is really available. Critical levels or sufficiency levels of each nutrient in the
tissues can be established to serve as basis in determining fertilizer
requirements. This technique is highly sophisticated and can only be afforded by
highly commercialized plantation operations.
The adequacy levels of N, P, and K in the tissues for a few representative
crops are shown in table 31. It can be noted in table 31 that the adequacy levels
differ from crop to crop but the variations are not very wide. In the absence of
similar benchmark information for other crops, results of leaf tissue analysis can
be assessed by comparing them with reported data for a similar crop.
If the levels of N1P1 and K in the tissues go below the adequacy level, then
fertilizer application becomes a must.
Rable 31. Percentage of N1 P1 and K considered adequate in the leaf
tissues of representative crops.
Percentage of dry matter
Crop K
N P
Banana 2.8-4.0 0.20-0.25 3.1-4.0
Mango 1.0-1.5 0.08-0.18 0.3-1.2
Coffee 2.5-3.0 0.15-0.20 2.1-2.6
Citrus 2.4-2.6 0.12-0.16 0.7-1.2
Oil palm 2.7-2.8 0.18-0.19 1.3
Coconut 2.0 and up 0.12 and up 1.0 and up

Fertilizer recommendation
The fertilizer recommendations for some important crops are indicated in
table 32. The rates are in grams of N1 P1 and K per tree per year. A combination
of rates of commercial fertilizers or compost containing known percentages of
nutrient to be applied per tree per year can be computed. For illustrative
purposes, such computation has been done for coconut.
 Based on results of soil analysis, tissue analysis or any visual indication of
hunger signs or deficiency of major elements that warrant fertilizer application,
rates can be used as a starting point. Adjustments in rates can be made in later
stages of crop development depending on actual performance and appearance of
individual plants.
Method of Time of
Crop NPK in g/tree/year
application application
Coconut

1-2 yrs old 84-40-180 or Ring application at 1 m Onset of rainy

400 gm ammonium sulfate radius and covered with Season and
200 gm superphosphate soil start of dry
300 gm muriate of potash season
per tree per year

3-4 yrs old 168+0+360 or Ring application at 2 m

800 gm ammonium sulfate radius and covered with Onset of rainy
600 gm muriate of potash soil season and
per tree per year start of dry
season
336+40+480+ or Ring application at 2 m
5 yrs old and 1600 gm ammonium sulfate radius and covered with
up 200 gm superphosphate soil Onset of rainy
1400 gm muriate of season and
potash/tree/year or start of dry
25-50 kg of cattle manure season
and compost per tree per
year

Coffee and
Cacao

Non-bearing 450+450-450 Band application and At start or

covered with soil end of rainy
season
Bearing 750+450+450 One half of N and all of
P and K as band
application
One half sidedressing

Abaca 200+60+200 Ring application at 2-4 spilt

radius of 15 cm applications
 per year
Banana 160+60+200 Ring application at 60 2-4 splits
cm radious

Pineapple
1month 60+50+150 All in band application
4 months 55+0+0 All in band application
7 months 60+50+150 All in band application
10 months 55+0+0 All in band application

Rubber
1 month 65+65+65 All in ring application at
25 cm from base
6 to 12 65+65+65 All in ring application at
months 30 cm from base

18 to 24 125+125+125 All ring application 40

months cm away

30 months and 500+500+500 All recommended as Every 6

up broadcast months
Mango
Seedling
42+42+42 Band application 8 cm At planting
below roots and 10 cm
to the side

Non-bearing 160+70+70 Twice a year around Start of rainy

the tree season and
before the
start of dry
season

Bearing 210+210+210 Apply twice a year in 6- Start of rainy

8 holes around the tree season and
before the
start of dry
season

Application of fertilizer
 Fertilizer should be applied where there is the greatest concentration of
feeder roots. The distance from the trunk should be 1.5 cm for lanzones, 0.6 to
0.9 m for citrus and cacao, 0.3 m for papaya and 1.2 to 2.0 m for coconut.
Another indicator is the canopy drip line. Fertilizer should be applied at
least 0.3 to 0.5 m away from the trunk and up to any point within the drip line.
Methods of Application
The fertilizer may be applied in two ways: broadcasting within the canopy
drip line, accompanied by cultivation to mix with the soil; application in band or
trench in which several holes or a trench is dug around the canopy drip line and
fertilizer is applied and covered with soil.
Compost application and green manuring
Animal manure and plant residues as compost are good sources of
nutrients but will have to be applied in large quantities. From 10 to 30 tons per
hectare of compost may be required. The compost can be applied around the
tree within the canopy drip line and incorporated with the soil. Green manuring
may be substituted for compost application. A number of leguminous species like
Crotaloria and Sesbania can be used. The green manure crop is turned under at
flowering stage when the proportion of nitrogen to carbon is at maximum.
Use of Mycorrhiza
As already mentioned in chapter 3, mycorrhizal inoculation technology has
been developed in relation to the early establishment of fast-growing forest trees
reforestation purposes. The technology has had a spin-off application to field and
horticultural crop production. A type of endomycorrhiza has been found to
enhance the growth of papaya, banana, mango, rambutan and citrus. The
mycorrhiza can be applied as an inoculant to the soil in the immediate vicinity of
the roots of fruit trees. The commercial inoculant, Mykovam, is available at
BIOTECH, UPLB. When mycorrhiza are applied, the plants are benefitted in terms
of increased absorption of phosphorus, zinc and other elements already in the
soil, increased absorption of water and control of pathogenic root infections. The
technology can complement fertilizer usage.
5. Management Practices for Orchard and Plantation Crops
Water management
 Water management refers to application of water at the proper time and
removal of excess supply through proper drainage in order to sustain crop
productivity.
Fruit and plantation crops are generally deep-rooted and once established,
they can carry on with normal growth even during the dry season of the year.
Except for large plantations (i.e. banana and pineapple) which are export-
oriented, irrigation of established plantation crops is generally not widely
practice in the Philippines. On the other end, excess water during the rainy
periods will have a debilitating effect on plants and provisions for drainage are
essential.
Supplemental irrigation during pronounced dry seasons is necessary for
newly established seedlings. For established plantations, irrigation is beneficial
in increasing yields, enhancing the quality of the harvests and inducing early
flowering. It has been observed that after a dry spell, irrigation induces
flowering in Lanzones, citrus and durian and fruiting commences ahead of the
regular season. Therefore, irrigation should be considered as an important
factor in maximizing profits in perennial crop production.
Lanzones, coffee and cacao have their feeder roots in the upper 60 cm of
soil and while trees may survive the hot summer months, yields are somehow
affected. Bananas and abaca are shallow rooted and feeder roots are in the
top 15 cm and 30 cm, respectively. This is the reason why abaca ca not adapt
in central Luzon where there is a pronounced dry season. Coconut and palm
oil have much of the feeder roots concentrated in the top 30 cm of soil but
trees have deeper roots that anchor them firmly. During severe dry seasons,
buttom drop and premature nutfall are observed in coconuts. Mango has a
very deep root system which extend to several meters. On the other hand,
rambutan, lanzones, mangosteen and durian are sensitive to droughty
conditions and they perform better in climates where there is a better
distribution of annual rainfall.
Several systems of irrigation may be employed for perennial crops.
1. Surface irrigation, either by furrow or basin irrigation. Furrow irrigation
is used on relatively flat land whereas basin irrigation is employed on
land with an even terrain but where sections occupy even areas
along the contours. Such sections can be enclosed by ridges and each
will constitute a basin, into which irrigation water can be introduced.
 2. Sprinkler irrigation which uses: 1) lateral distribution or moveable pipes,
each equipped with a riser and a sprinkler head; 2) orchard sprinklers
which are small impact heads designed to cover spaces between
adjacent trees. The sprinklers are hose-fed and connection in series
along a lateral hose, each at a pressure of 10 to 30 psi and capable of
covering a diameter of 4.5 to 9 meters. The sprinkles can be properly
spaced and located under the tree canopies and provide relatively
uniform volumes of water for each individual tree. The system can be
installed at a fairly low cost.
3. Trickle Irrigation. The system has been described in an earlier section
under annual crops. Water delivery is through small emitter openings
which discharge small amounts of water directly to the area
immediately surrounding each plant. The problem of clogging of the
emitter openings by algae which proliferate fast in a tropical
environment is often encountered. To minimize the problem, a filtration
system has to be installed. However, while the system is highly efficient
in terms of water use and economy, its sophistication involves a high
investment cost and its use has to be weighed carefully.
4. Native systems of irrigation. One system employs use of bamboo tubes
or large plastic bottles with small perforations at the bottom. They are
properly propped and suspended just above the base of the stem, to
allow water to drip to each tree. In Thailand, eastern jars are each
buried closely to a tree. During the wet season, the jar will collect water
and in the dry season capillary action forces the water off the jar
through the pores and wets the immediate soil vicinity of the plant.
Drainage, as a part of water management, is necessary to remove excess
water during the wet season and prevent waterclogging at the root zone of the
plants especially in flat and underdrained areas. Exclusion of oxygen in the root
zone will have a telling effect on the plant and a few days of having standing
water will eventually kill the trees of highly sensitive crops like durian, papaya,
rambutan and avocado. Waterlogging also enhances the development of the
phytopthora disease of perennial crops. Durian is known to be very sensitive to
soil borne fungal diseases.
To prevent drainage problems, laying out of drainage canals in
strategically located portions of the farm can be made. Primary canals can be as
deep as 1 to 1.5 m whereas secondary and tertiary canals which may crisis-cross
the low-lying area are made shallower.
Erosion control
Soil erosion refers to the physical removal of the surface soil by the action
of water and, in the case of arid regions, by wind. Erosion problems are
accentuated by incessant rains, ruggedness of terrain, defective tillage practices,
and the absence of significant vegetative cover to keep the soil particles
together, allow water infiltration and impede surface run-off of rain water.
Soil erosion is a universal problem but particularly more so in countries like
the Philippines in which forested areas have been irresponsibly cleared and
destroyed. At the farm level, loss of surface soil will mean a decline in fertility
and farm productivity. It will contribute to the greater problem of ecological
degradation.
Erosion control is therefore, a very important aspect of production
management which may be carried in a number of ways.
1. Cover cropping and mulching. Cover cropping involves the growing of
creeping and bushy plants with dense vegetative growth under trees like
citrus, cacao, rubber and coconut. The cover crops are allowed to grow
without much interruption unless they pose as competitors for limited
water during unusually long periods of dry weather, in which case they
may be cut and allowed to reestablish later.
Mulching is the laying out and deposition of cut plant residues on
bare space under trees. Both cover cropping and mulching reduce the
impact of action of water on soil erosion especially in undulating areas.
They reduce significantly the growth of weeds.
Species of cover crops that mat be used are: tropical Kudzu
(Pueraria phasioloides); centrosema (Centrosema pubescens);
calapogonium (Calapogonium mucunoides); stylosanthes (Stylosanthes
gracilis),which is acid and drought tolerant and an excellent fodder to
animals; and widelia (Widelia trilobata).
2. Contour planting. It is a system of cultivation in which tillage is made
across the slope following the contour lines. The row of plants along a
contour line occupies a common or the same elevation; different rows
occupy different elevations. Contour farming, as opposed to a system
where tillage and row orientation go up and down the slope, is effective in
checking the downward flow of water and sheet erosion.
 For better water conservation and to make even more effective the
control of water flow and erosion, strip planting with closely spaced plants
of an appropriate species can be done. Such planting will constitute a
hedgerow. A strip may be one or two hedgerows of ipil-ipil ( Leucaena
leucocephala), kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), Albicia falcataria and Parkia
roxburghii. All of these species are nitrogen-fixers and can provide alarge
amount of herbage for green-manuring purposes. Vetiver grass ( Vetiveria
zizanioides) may also be used as a contour hedge. It is a perennial grass
and produces an extensive and deep not system. Once established, vetiver
lasts for years and it does not readily burn as cogon grass.
Hedgerows may be planted at every 5 to 10 meters of space
devoted to the cash or main crops depending on the gradient of the slope.
The hedges can build up natural terraces with time.
3. Bench terracing. It is a system of creating series of flat strips along the
step edges of a slope which otherwise are subject to severe erosion. Each
terrace is cut and formed along the slope in stairway fashion and is
supported by a vertical retaining wall of earth or rock. The rice terraces of
Bontoc Province were built in this way. Small-scale terracing can be
practiced in cerain sections of the farm in which slopes may exceed 18
percent.
Pruning
Pruning is a physical process of judicious removal of plant parts like
growing points (or meristems), foliage and branches to attain some specific
purposes. Pruning may result in an overall reduction in height, general
configuration and total photosynthetic area of plant. The total yield of the plant
may be reduced but the quality and size of the marketable fruits may be
enhanced because the allocation of the supply of photosynthate, water and
nutrients to the competing end-sites referred to as “sinks” will be more equitable.
The extend of pruning should maintain a good balance between loss in total yield
and compensation in quality factors of marketable fruits.
Pruning is of two types based on the nature of making the cuts:
1. Headling-back, in which the cuts are made at the terminal portion of the
plant. This type capitalizes on what is known as “apical dominance”. The
main growing point or apical meristem of the plant produces a
concentration of auxin, a phytohormone, which is translocated downward
 and creates an inhibitory effect on the buds immediately situated below a
meristem. Removal of the terminal growing point will cut off the supply of
auxin and lateral buds just below the cut can sprout and develop freely to
constitute the new lateral branches. Later, the terminal buds of these new
branches may again be nipped off to induce multiple branching.
2. Thinning-out, which is the complete removal of any number of branches.
The remaining branches retain their apical dominance, suppress the
development of the lateral buds and grow into sturdy boughs.
Pruning is practiced to achieve certain objectives:
1. To control the height, size and shape of the crown. Pruning is done at the
early stage of development of the plant. It consist of a series of pinching
or removal of the terminal shoots of the plant beginning at the early stage
when it has reached a meter of height. The purpose is to lessen the height
of the main axis of the plant, induce lateral development of branches and
form a framework for a more balanced crown. This type of pruning is done
on crops like mangoes, coffee and citrus to make picking of fruits less
time-consuming and convenient.

1. Auxins, either in the form of IAA (Indole-3-acetic acid), IBA (Indole-3-

butyric acid) or NAA (1-napthalene acetic acid). Trade name: Hormex
a. On mango and citrus, IBA at 1000 ppm is used to strengthen union of
stock and scion and rooting of marcots, respectively.
b. On black pepper, NAA at 100 ppm induces rooting in cuttings.
2. Daminozide (common name)

Trade name: Alar 85

Suppresses vegetative growth, controls harvest quality and maturity of

fruits.

a. Grapes: 0.5 to 1% of alar applied when 6 to 7 young leaves have

developed in young shoots results in increased fruit set.
b. Chrysanthemum: 0.25 to 0.5% of chemical when applied three days
after setting once or two times at 30-day interval results in reduced
stem elongation.
c. Poinsettia: 0.5 to 1% of chemical foliar applied at 3 to 30 days after
setting results in reduced stem elongation.
 d. Has been used regularly on fruit bearing trees like apples, cantaloupes
and tomatoes. Lately, there is a move to ban the usage of Alar in the
USA because of probable health hazard.
3. Potassium nitrate, an non-hormone, which can be applied as foliar spray to
induce flowering in mangoes at 1 to 2% of dilute solution. This flower
inducer technology in carabao mangoes was discovered by Dr. Ramon
Barba, which has made possible the intensified and year-round production
of mangoes in the Philippines.
4. Calcium carbide (“Carburo”) which emits ethylene, is applied to the heart
of ready-to-flower pineapple plants, usually at 12 to 14 months after
planting, to induce fruiting. Calcium carbide can also hasten the ripening
process of fruits like mangoes and banana.
5. Ethepon (common name)

Trade name: Ethrel

a. Robusta coffee: Ethrel at500 to 12500 ppm as a single foliar spray at

green maturity stage of berries results in high proportion of ripe berries
as high as 98%.
b. Rubber: Brushing of Ethrel to strips of scraped bark beneath the
tapping cut at 200 mg/tree at 2 monthly intervals prolongs duration of
latex flow by delaying plugging of severed end of latex vessels.
c. Pineapple: Ethrel applied asfoliar spray at 25 to 1,200 ppm will induce
fruiting.
d. Papaya: Application of ethrel as foliar spray results in a 4-fold increase
in papain yield; the quality of the fruit is improved by increasing the
level of total and reducing sugars and decreasing acidity.
6. NAA at 25 ppm and BOH (Beta-hydroxyl-ethyl hydrazine) at 2,500 ppm
foliar spray can induce fruiting in pineapple.
7. Paclobutrazol or “Cultar”, a plant regulator that inhibits gibberellin
biosynthesis.
a. Durian: at 5 to 10 g active ingredient per 2 liters of water, application
can stimulate flowering and increase the number of fruits in big trees as
done in Malaysia. Smaller trees require less dosage.
b. Rambutan: application of Cultar promotes early flowering by 10 to 12
days.
c. Mango: application results in early flowering of mango in Thailand.
 d. Ornamentals like poinsettia: application of chemical makes the plant
more bushy in growth.
8. Gibberellic acid (GA), a growth promoting substance
a. Gladiolus corms: GA at 500 to 2,500 ppm at 12-hour soaking results in
termination of dormancy.
b. Grapes: 0.5 to 1 ppm on white Malaga during cluster development at pre-
bloom stage results in increased length of cluster; at a concentration of 50
ppm applied at 10 to 14 days after full bloom, it produces long and heavy
berries.
c. Cacao: GA at 250 ppm applied on fruits at about 1.5 to 2.75 cm size
promotes fruit growth and size.
d. Garlic: GA at 2.6 g in 500 ml of water (or 16 liters of the GA mixture per
2000 sq m of planting) can increase bulb yield by 56%.

6. Major Pest of Fruit and Plantation Crops

Many kinds of pests and diseases afflict fruit and plantation crops which
can cause great losses and inflict a crippling effect on the industry. Examples are
the virus diseases that caused the collapse of a once thriving citrus industry in
Batangas and the papaya industry in Cavite; the cadang-cadang disease which
destroyed the coconut plantings in San Miguel Island in Bicol; the pod borer
which affects the profitability of cacao production. Philippine exports of fresh
fruits are constrained by the rigid requirement imposed by buyer countries that
the materials undergo the vapor heat treatment (VHT) to eliminate the fruitfly
and seedweevil pest.

Control of pests and diseases of perennial crops is seldom practiced by

small growers. However, if the country is to expand the production of high-value
crops and meet the discriminating requirements of the markets, then control of
pests and diseases should be given proper attention.

Development of control strategies should be anchored on the principle of

public and environment safety.

This section presents only few major pests and diseases that affect the
fruit and plantation crop industries.

Insect pests
 1. Leafhopper in mango. It sucks the sap of young shoots, inflorescence and
fruits. Use of pyrethroid is very effective; Azodrin and Tamaron 50 can also
be used as spray.
2. Fruitfly of mango, papaya, jackfruit, etc. the larvae tunnel into the fruit and
make it unfit for consumption. Control is through the use of attractants or
protein hydrolysate bait mixed with Malathion, bagging of fruits, and vapor
heat treatment (VHT) of fruits for 10 minutes at 46 oC and fruits air-dried
immediately to maintain quality.
3. Cacao pod borer. The larva bores into the pod and eats up the tissues.
Control is by use of Trichogramma, Bacillus thuringiensis, Lindane and
resistant varieties like Trinitario and Forastero.

Major Diseases

1. Leaf mottling (greening) of citrus caused by fastidious bacteria. Affected

plants show a reduction of leaf size and young leaves develop a leathery
consistency; plants assume an upright habit of growth, turning dark olive
green; fruits are undersized and show premature color change. Control is
by use of disease-free budwoods and spraying of mathalion or pyrethroid
to eliminate the insect vector.
2. Anthracnose of mango. It is caused by a fungus and is a humid weather
disease favored by rains and showers. Affected fruits show black sunken
spots when ripe. Protection of plants is with the use of systemic benomyl
(Benlate) and triazole (Score 250 E.C.) and protectants like mancozeb and
Captan. The most practical is by dipping newly harvested fruits in water
heated at 52 to 55oC for 10 minutes, then cooling them in running top
water and aire-dried before packing.
3. Papaya ringspot virus. The virus is transmitted by aphids and is also
believed to be seedborne. The disease is very serious in Cavite, Laguna
and Batangas. The leaves become wrinkled and chlorotic until finally the
crown of the tree becomes disproportionately small. Water-soaked spots
appear on stems and dark green ringspot on fruits.

There is no known varietal resistance although reports indicate that

a transgenic variety of Solo papaya which carries the coatprotein gene
from the same virus has shown resistance although it is restricted only in
Hawaii. The newly developed F1 hybrid variety of papaya at the Institute of
Plant Breeding, UPLB, is an early bearer (in 8 months) and the first crops
 of fruits can escape the effects of the disease. After completing the
harvest, the plants can be removed and replaced with a new set of
seedlings.

4. Leaf spot or Sigatoka disease of banana. This is caused by a fungus. The

disease is native of Southeast Asia. The leaves show gray to dark
individual spots which later coalesce to form a light-brown, dried-up
appearance of the entire tissue. Control is with the application of benomyl
(Benlate), a preventive spraying with Mancozeb, Bordeaux mixture (of
copper sulfate, calcium carbonate and water).
5. Abaca mosaic virus disease and bunchy top. These are caused by viruses.
Mosaic is characterized by the chlorotic nature of the leaves which impairs
the photosynthetic function whereas bunchy top is manifested by a
bunching appearance of the leaves at a common point. Control is through
clean culture and removal of alternate hosts of the mosaic virus like canna
and use of disease-free planting materials. Varieties and related species of
abaca show varying degrees of resistance and susceptibility.
6. Cadang-cadang disease of coconut. The disease is caused by a viroid. The
disease is associated with aging trees in which the leaves become
progressively necrotic until the tree fails to produce any more nuts. In the
advanced stage the whole crown collapses. Control is by replacing cadang-
cadang infected tress with new seedlings. Young trees especially if
receiving proper nourishment are not readily infected with the disease.
The law prohibits coconut planting materials to be taken out of the Bicol
area to prevent the spread of the disease.
7. Nematodes of banana and citrus. Nematodes are tiny worm-like or pear-
shaped organisms which attack the rot system of many economic crops. In
commercial banana plantations, soil fumigation with methyl bromide used
to be the standard practice of control. But methyl bromide is now banned
in many countries because of its probable hazardous effect on human
health as well as the ill-effects that it causes in the depletion of the ozone
layer. A biological control agents against nematodes, a fungus known as
Paelomyces lilacinus is now available in the form of a commercial product
which can be applied directly to the soil. The product, biocon, is available
in UPLB. The fungal isolate was a research discovery of Dr. Romulo
Davide.
7. Harvesting and Post-production Handling and Storage

Harvesting

Harvesting at the right stage of physiological maturity of fruits and other

plant products will ensure the quality (sweetness and juiciness in the case of
fruits) of the harvests. Some fruits found in commercial stalls are sour or lack the
desired quality because they are harvested at the immature stage and then force
to ripen. On the other hand, delayed harvesting beyond the proper maturity
stage of the products will affect quality and shorten shelf-life in the market.

It is important, therefore, that the maturity indices for fruits and plantation
crops be known and used as guide by the grower.

The maturity indices for representative crops are as follows:

1. Mango fruit mature in 120 days from flowering.

2. Citrus – budded fruit trees bear fruits in 3 to 5 years. Fruits mature in 5 to
6 months from flowering.
3. Banana – appearance of inflorescence (Shooting) in 5 to 8 months from
planting in Lacatan, Bungulan and latundan and 6 to 12 months in Saba.
Harvesting can be made after 3 to 4 months from flowering. The
angularity of banana fingers can also be used as an index; the rounder the
finger, the more mature the fruits are.
4. Pineapple – fruit maturity is in 11 to 12 months from flowering. After 12 to
14 months from planting, the plant starts flowering.
5. Coconut – nuts mature in 11 to 12 months from flowering. An
inflorescence appears almost every month. Harvesting is done every 45
days or eight times a year. Two bunches per tree are usually harvested.
San Ramon variety needs only 3 to 3.5 nuts to make 1 kg of copra
whereas for Laguna 4 to 5 nuts are needed.
6. Coffee – maturity of berries is in 8 to 9 months after flowering. Use of a
ripening agent (Ethrel) which releases ethylene will enhance simultaneous
(synchronous) ripening of the berries and lessen the number of hand-
pickings.
7. Cacao – the tree fruits in 2 to 3 years from transplanting. Flowering to
harvesting take 5 to 6 months.
8. Abaca – stalks are ready in 18 to 24 months from planting. A rudimentary
leaf (flagleaf) appears, after which the inflorescence will appear.
Harvesting is made when the flagleaf appears.

Harvesting of fruits should be done with utmost care. Fruits should not be
allowed to drop to the ground in free-fall, lest they get mauled and bruised.
They should be picked by hand wit the use of a long pole with a net and a
hook at the end. Harvested fruits should not be exposed to the sun because
increases in fruit temperature will accelerate the metabolic processes and
consequent ripening. The fruit should be handled carefully during sorting,
packing, loading and unloading. Nearly ripe and unripe fruits or diseased and
damage fruits should not be mixed with healthy ones in the same container.
For storage purposes, rigid containers that can withstand stacking without
getting deformed must be used.

Post-production handling

Post-production handling involves practices done after harvesting the crop

up to the point when the products are subjected to primary processing as in
the case with plantation crops or placed in storage as with orchard crops.

Primary processing is the handling of products to make them suitable to

the needs of manufacturers or consumers. In plantation crops, this usually
involves drying, a combination of fermentation and drying and other
operations that may be required. With fresh fruits, primary processing
consists of washing and cleaning and further treatment to eliminate harbored
pests and diseases. Handling of fruits in storage aimed at lengthening shelf-
life is a very important process.

Secondary processing is the conversion of primary products into forms that

reach the consumers. This includes food processing of food crops and
industrial processing of plantation crops. Secondary processing may no longer
be a part of crop production but belongs more aptly to the area of food
technology.

Post-production handling is crucial in preventing further losses of produce due

to deterioration and in preserving its quality. For perishable products like
fruits and vegetables, losses after harvest can be very high and may be due
to improper methods of harvesting, processing, packing, storage and
transporting the products. These results in the deterioration of the product
and a reduction of the desired quality. In copra trade, for example, the
international markets are quality conscious and have set a strict standard on
aflatoxin content, which should not exceed 20 ppb (parts per billion).
Aflatoxin is produce by molds which infect improperly dried and stored copra.
In cacao trade, chocolate manufacturers prefer beans that have undergone
fermentation. Much of locally produced beans are products of sun-drying but
by-passing fermentation.

Storage of perishable products

The quality and shelf life of fruits can be preserved through a number of
ways, some simple and some costly to undertake.

1. Evaporative cooling and prevention of moisture loss from fruits by

providing a highly humid condition in the immediate vicinity of fruits.
Evaporative cooling occurs on the surface of the fruit when water
evaporates because the heat emanating from the fruit is utilized and
dissipated. A simple evaporative cooler can increase the relative humidity
by 10 to 20% and decrease the temperature by 1 to 6 oC relative to the
under ordinary room condition. In providing a humid condition within the
immediate vicinity of the commodity, transpiration or loss of moisture from
the fruit is minimized and shriveling is prevented.

There are simple and practical ways of providing a humid condition

for fruits in storage: a) placement of chopped and moistened banana
bracts in between spaces of fruits placed in crates or baskets; b) sprinkling
of water on the surface of the fruit as is done with rambutan; c) burying
fruits in moist cean sand, sawdust or coconut coir; d) storing of fruits in a
clay jar with water at the bottom and fruits elevated on a platform; e)
storing fruits inside a wet cloth tent which can be readily improvised.

2. Refrigeration, either in shipment or storage of fresh fruits. The

temperature is maintained at 10 to 15 oC, which slows down the respiration
processes. In mangoes, low temperature storage at 20 oC prolongs ripening
to 14 to 20 days, compared to 10 days at ordinary temperature. In
banana, storage life is prolonged to 21 to 30 days at 10 to 15 oC. Pineapple
can be stored for 3 weeks at 11 oC. at lower temperatures below 10oC,
 most tropical fruits suffer from discoloration, development of sunken areas
or pitting and failure in ripening. Refrigeration is a costly process but is
must in the export-import fruit business.
3. Controlled atmosphere storage. In this process, the supply and level of
oxygen and carbon dioxide are manipulated through the use of gas
generators and appropriate control devices on properly designed storage
structures. The principle is that oxygen is a reactant of respiration while
carbon dioxide is a product of the same process. Reducing the
concentration of oxygen below 21% and increasing the level of carbon
dioxide beyond 0.03% will slow down the rate of respiration up to certain
limits. Too low a level of oxygen will trigger fermentation resulting in a
fermented mal-odor and off-flavor. Likewise, an excess in the
concentration of carbon dioxide will lead to injury, discoloration and off-
flavor. Different fruits have different limits of oxygen and carbon dioxide
balance for good storage. A good balance between the two gases specific
to each fruit species has been worked out and is available in the literature.

Controlled atmosphere storage (CAS) should be less costly to

operate, thus, it is used as a supplement to refrigeration in advanced
countries. CAS can be used both in shipping and storage of fruits after
reaching their points of destination.

4. Modified atmosphere storage. This uses the same principle of oxygen and
carbon dioxide control to retard the respiration process in fruits. The
system is more practical and cheap to apply by using plastic bags. Fruit in
small packages or crates are enclosed in a plastic bag which can exclude
oxygen from outside air and trap the carbon dioxide that is being emitted.
A typical modified atmosphere system is one in which fruits are kept inside
plastic films, usually the low density polyethylene bags, with air inside the
bag removed before sealing. This is employed in exporting Cavendish
bananas from Mindanao to the Middle East to prolong the greenlife of the
fruits. Some degree of control on the concentration of gases can be made
by providing tiny punctures or pinpricks on the plastic film. The number of
pinpricks depends on the fruit species. Calamansi and other fruits store
well with 10 pinpricks per bag whereas Saba banana does not require any
pinpricks. For fruits kept in polyethylene bags, blocks of potassium
 permanganate (mixed with clay and ash) may be inserted to remove the
ethylene gas evolved by fruits which hastens ripening.

The used of modified atmosphere storage is very practical yet it is

seldom practiced by small fruit stall operators and vendors.

Primary processing methods for plantation crops

Different crop commodities, by nature of morphology of source, require

some specialized techniques in processing. Some of the primary techniques are
illustrated for a few crops.

1. Abaca
The steps are:
- Topping or removal of crown leaves;
- Harvesting of the pseudostems or referred to as “tumbling” with the
use of a sharp cutting blade;
- “tuxying” or separation of the bracts which contain the fibro-vascular
bundles;
- Extraction of fiber with the use of native “Hagutan” or stripping
machine;
- Cleaning of fiber and drying;
- Grading and baling of fiber.
2. Coffee. There are two methods: the wet process and the dry process.
Steps in the wet process:
- Hand-picking of ripe berries;
- Soaking of berries in a soaking tank to loosen the pulp and separate
the floaters or light berries;
- Depulping of berries with a machine;
- Fermentation in tanks for 2 to 3 days;
- Washing of parchment coffee;
- Drying for 24 to 48 hours to 12 to 16% moisture;
- Dehulling of parchment coffee in a dehuller or kiskisan rice mill
adjusted for the purpose;
- Grading.

Steps in dry process:

- Harvesting
- Drying
- Dehulling
 - Grading

3. Cacao. The steps in using the fermentation process:

- Harvesting;
- Seed extraction from pod;
- Fermentation for 3 to 7 days and to allow products of fermentation to
drain out. Phenolic compounds are removed by fermentation; bitterness
of chocolate is minimized and richness of butterfat is enhanced by the
process;
- Drying of beans to 6 to 7% moisture.

4. Coconut

- Harvesting of nuts;
- Dehusking with a “tapasan”;
- Splitting of nuts;
- Drying in a “tapahan” or smoke kiln for 16 hours; the drying platform of
tapahan should be elevated to more than 2.4 meters above the firebed
to prevent burning and sooting by smoke; sundrying will require about
7 days; to overcome the deficiencies of the smoke kiln, a well-designed
copra dryer has been developed. It is called the Los Baños multi-crop
dryer, developed by Dr. Ernesto P. Lozada, in UP Los Baños (fig. 68).
The end-product is white copra which is free of contamination of
smoke, molds and dirt;
- Grading

5. Rubber

The steps are:

- Tapping with a tapping knife;

- Latex collection with the use of a metal spout and collection cup; latex
is collected after 3 hours of tapping;
- Pre-classification and standardization of latex for dry rubber content;
- Coagulation in aluminum tanks or pans bytreating with acetic andformic
acid diluted to 1% solution;
- Pressing or milling of coagulum into sheets using a hand – or power-
operated machine;
- Dripping of wetsheets;
 - Smoking or drying of sheets for 4 to 5 hours in specially constructed
smoke house; initial drying is at 45oC and final drying is maintained at
60oC;
- Sorting, grading, baling into sizes at 50 kg each.

Figure 68. The Los Baños multi-crop dryer which generates clean heat at a slow
but uniform temperature distribution, continuously and safely for 4-8 hours
without tending. The component parts of the dryer are: the burner that burns
the fuel (shards of raw coconut shells) completely with minimal smoke
emissions; a plenum chamber whose sides are provided with openings for air
supply, observation pots, doors and cleaning ports; and the product holding bean
at the top. The structure is made of G.I. sheets, collapsible and can be
assembled with ease. Drying of copra to 5-8% moisture takes 20-24 hours,
utilizing only 500 shells to dry 1,000 nuts. To date (year 2000), 500 dryers have
been sold to Papua New Guinea, 200 dryers and 300 burners in the Philippines.