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Lab 9

Mikolaj Pal
L03
Masoud Sarabi
10 December 2019

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Introduction
The most important aspect of any electronic circuit is the main input, which can come in
many forms, including sinusoidal, triangle, and square waves. For the most part this input was a
given with the usage of the function generator in previous labs. However, the actual internal
workings of this generator in generating these waves was not thoroughly investigated, until this
lab, where an operating function generator with frequency and amplitude alteration available was
constructed. During the first week, a relaxation oscillator was constructed that output both a
square wave and triangle wave. This was later modified by adding a potentiometer that allowed
the variation of the output frequency. The second week added a waveshaper and amplifier that
created the additional sine wave output. In both weeks, the outputs were viewed and measured
using the oscilloscope.

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Part 1
Part A: Relaxation Oscillator

Figure 1: Relaxation oscillator.


For Part A, the relaxation oscillator circuit shown above in Figure 1 was built with the
components listed in Table 1 below. The original resistor for R4 was swapped out with one of a
slightly lower value due to material availability. For the voltage connections of Vdd and Vss,
input values of ± 15 volts were used to power the operational amplifiers with the power supply.
Using the oscilloscope, the outputs of the square wave Vsqr and triangle wave Vtri were viewed
as shown in Figure 2. The maximum and minimum values and frequencies measured were
recorded in Table 2 and were within the specified tolerances.
Table 1: Relaxation oscillator BOM.

Reference Component Value


Designator or Part Number
R1 100 kΩ
R2 100 kΩ
R3 5.1 kΩ
R4 250 240 kΩ
D1 1N4732
D2 1N4732
U1 LM741
U2 LM741
C1 1 nF

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Table 2: Part A measurement log.

Quantity Required Value Measured Value


and Tolerance
Square What is the positive peak value? +5 V ±20% 4.4 V
Wave What is the negative peak value? -5 V ±20% -4.4 V
Verification What is the frequency? 1 kHz ±5% 941.1 Hz
Triangle What is the positive peak value? +5 V ±20% 4.8 V
Wave What is the negative peak value? -5 V ±20% -5 V
Verification What is the frequency? 1 kHz ±5% 940.7 Hz

To regulate the square wave voltage output from the first operational amplifier, the two
Zener diodes D1 and D2 are connected series-opposing to the ground. These two diodes are used
as a voltage clamp, which in this case symmetrically limits the amplitude on both positive and
negative ends. If diode D1 were the only diode used, there would be no negative voltage
amplitude and the opposite would be true for solely having D2. The purpose of resistor R3 is to
reduce the output current and possible further oscillations in the voltage and current.
The Schmitt trigger has the switching thresholds of ±5 volts, which were close to or
exactly at the voltage values recorded above in Table 2. The purpose of the trigger was to
eliminate noise and generate clear outputs. Once either the upper or lower thresholds are
achieved from the input, the output will be either switched high or low. This clear switching in
between high and low creates the square wave that is later used in the inverting integrator to
create a clear and crisp triangle wave, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Square and Triangle waveforms.

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Part B: Adding Frequency Control

Figure 3: Relaxation oscillator with variable frequency.


The circuit from Part A was modified with the addition of a 100 kΩ potentiometer and
the replacement of R4 with a 10 kΩ resistor. With the DC power supplies on, the oscilloscope
was used to view the Vsqr and Vtri waves. At first, the potentiometer was turned to view the
lowest frequency, shown in Figure 4 and recorded in Table 3 below. Subsequently, the highest
frequency was viewed as shown in Figure 5 and recorded in Table 3. Lastly, in preparation for
the second week of this lab, the frequency was tuned to 3 kHz within the ±10% specification.
Table 3: Part B measurement log.

Quantity Measured Value


Frequency What is the frequency with the potentiometer turned to 1.78 kHz
Control one extreme?
Verification What is the frequency with the potentiometer turned to 6.64 kHz
the other extreme?

Shown above in Table 3 are the real oscillation frequency limits as measured in the
experiment at their respective potentiometer extremes of 0 Ω and 10 kΩ. These were subject to
real-world limitations such as imperfect component values, component wear, or imperfect
tuning. Because the resistor and potentiometer are in series, they can be considered as a single
resistor in series with capacitor C1. To find the theoretical frequency limits, the low and high
total resistances were equated into the capacitor impedance equation and were solved for the
frequency, as shown in Listing 1. The theoretical oscillation limits are 1.446 kHz and 15.915
kHz, of which the higher frequency is more than double than the measured value.

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1
|𝑍𝐶 | =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
10,000 = ≫ 𝑓ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ = 15.915 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑓𝐶1
1
100,000 + 10,000 = ≫ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 1.446 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑓𝐶1
Listing 1: Frequency Calculations.

Figure 4: Waveforms at low extreme.

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Figure 5: Waveforms at high extreme.

Figure 6: Waveforms at 3 kHz.

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Part 2
Part A: Double Check Your Relaxation Oscillator

Figure 7: Relaxation oscillator from last week.


The circuit from the previous week was double-checked for unintended short circuits,
loosened connections, and missing wires or components. Next, the ±15-volt Vdd and Vss
voltages were applied and the waveforms Vsqr and Vtri viewed and measured with the
oscilloscope to verify being at 3 kHz and the required ±5 volt amplitude.

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Part B: Waveshaper and Amplifier

Figure 8: Waveshaper with amplifier.


Alongside the relaxation oscillator built in the previous week, the waveshaper circuit
shown above was built using the materials listed in Table 4 below. For R6, the original 3.15 kΩ
resistor was swapped out for a slightly smaller 3 kΩ resistor due to component availability. With
the DC voltage supplies turned on, the waveforms of Vtri and Vsin were viewed simultaneously
as shown in Figure 9, with the maximum and minimum values and frequency of Vsin recorded in
Table 5, which were within the required tolerance.

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Table 4: Waveshaper and amplifier BOM.

Reference Designator Component Value or Part Number


R6 3.15 3 kΩ
R7 1.8 kΩ
R8 2.7 kΩ
R9 1 kΩ
R10 3.6 kΩ
D3 1N4007
D4 1N4007
D5 1N4007
D6 1N4007
D7 1N4007
D8 1N4007
U3 LM741

Table 5: Part B measurement log.

Quantity Required Value Measured Value


and Tolerance
Sinusoidal What is the positive peak value? +5 V ±10% 5.3 V
Wave What is the negative peak value? -5 V ±10% -5.6 V
Verification What is the frequency? 3 kHz ±5% 3.03 kHz

Figure 9: Sinusoidal output and Triangular input waveforms.

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Figure 10: Waveshaper transfer characteristic.
Shown above in Figure 10 is the transfer characteristic for the waveshaper circuit. Vtri is
the triangle wave input while Vop3 is the output for the operational amplifier input for gate 3.
The transfer characteristic shows how much clipping there is of the original triangle wave in
order to form the required sinusoidal waveform, which was further amplified with the
operational amplifier circuit to its required ±5-volt amplitude level.

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Part C: Output State with Amplitude Control

Figure 11: Updated waveshaper/amplifier circuit.


The circuit from Part B was modified with the addition of two transistors, a load resistor,
and a 10 kΩ potentiometer, as listed in Table 6 below. With the DC voltage supplies turned on,
the waveforms of Vtri and Vsin were viewed simultaneously as shown in Figure 12, with the
maximum and minimum values and frequency of Vsin recorded in Table 7, which were within
the required tolerance. Potentiometer R10 was adjusted in order to achieve the required 3 kHz
frequency.
Table 6: Waveshaper and amplifier BOM.

Reference Component Value or


Designator Part Number
Q1 2N2222
Q2 PN2907
RL 1 kΩ
R10 10 kΩ potentiometer

Table 7: Part C measurement log.

Quantity Required Value Measured Value


and Tolerance
Output What is the positive peak value? +5 V ±10% 4.8 V
Stage What is the negative peak value? -5 V ±10% -5 V
Verification What is the frequency? 3 kHz ±5% 3.03 kHz

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Figure 12: Sinusoidal output and Triangular input waveforms.
Shown above is the sinusoidal output Vout, which differs from the same waveform
shown in Figure 9 in Part B. Both are similar in their form and their operation frequency.
However, they differ in both of their positive and negative magnitudes, due to the addition of
NPN transistor Q1 and PNP transistor Q2. This reduction has come from the base-emitter and
collector-emitter voltages that have reduced the amplitudes closer to their ideal values. Crossover
distortion is the distortion caused by the switching in between the two transistors, which are
configured to be a Class B emitter-follower. This is visible above in Figure 12, as the small
notches in the middle of the output waveform that are caused due to the transistors not
combining both output halves correctly, caused by their configuration. Implementing a small
forward-biased base current will reduce this or implementing a feedback loop that will correct on
itself. An additional option is to modify the configuration into a Class AB power amplifier, with
the addition of two biasing diodes in series and in the same direction as each other, as shown in
Figure 13.

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Figure 13: Ideal Class AB amplifier. Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_AB_Bipolar.svg
The maximum voltage swing calculated in Q2 of the prelab was 29.3 volts, since the DC
input voltages used to power the circuit were ± 15 volts and the saturated voltage collector-
emitter voltages for Q1 and Q2 were 0.3 and 0.4 volts respectably. Additionally, the maximum
and minimum voltages of the output were found to be 14.7 and -14.6 volts respectably. The
overall amplification was calculated in Q4, being the formula shown in Listing 2 below,
modified to fit the resistances for the circuit built in this part, as shown in Figure 10. To
completely avoid clipping, the absolute value of the minimum output voltage needs to be taken
into consideration for the output. The positive and negative peak values of Vsin were
approximately ± 5 volts. Dividing the absolute value of the minimum voltage of the output by
this voltage gives the voltage amplification, which can be used to find the value of potentiometer
R10 that yields the desired output, which was found to be 1920 Ω.
𝑅9 5 𝑉
, 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅9 + 𝑅10 14.6 𝑉
1000 5
=
1000 + 𝑅10 14.6
𝑅10 = 1920 Ω
Listing 2: Q4 amplification equation and clipping calculations.

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Discussions and Conclusion
In the lab, a function generator was constructed using a relaxation oscillator connected to
a waveshaper to produce three output waveforms: square, triangle, and sinusoid. Both sub-
circuits were first constructed without a potentiometer, which was later added on in the second
part of each respective week segment. This allowed frequency and amplitude variation, which
are important in achieving the desired output. During the construction of both sub-circuits, the
voltage amplitude and frequency of the outputs were measured and found to be within
specifications. Once the potentiometer in the first sub-circuit was added, the upper and lower
frequency extremes were found by measurement and recorded. However, the upper extreme from
the frequency calculations was found to far exceed the recorded extreme. The second
potentiometer, the amplitude control, was adjusted to the required frequency output of 3 kHz and
output the required 5-volt amplitude. The calculations done in the prelab questions corresponded
correctly to the required circuit, with the only discrepancies occurring in a couple of the
resistance values, where the calculated resistances had to be replaced with slightly differentiating
resistors due to material availability in the lab.
The most important thing I’ve learned in this lab is the way to construct the function
generator and how to adjust it for the output I desire. In my future career, different electronics
may require different inputs in order to function properly and having a built-in function generator
will ensure that it is powered by the desired voltage and frequency. Waveshapers, like the one
built in the second week of this lab, are often used by musicians to modify their sound for an
abrasive or distorted sound in their music. The relaxation oscillator built in the first week of this
lab is used in the control of lighting arrays for proper blinking and electronic beeper for
generating noise at the proper frequency and sound level.

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Appendix A

Figure 14: New transistor for 1A load current.

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Figure 15: Current specifications for new transistor.

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Appendix B: Prelab Questions and Verification

Figure 16: Part 1 Prelab question Q1.

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Figure 17: Part 1 Prelab question Q2.

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Figure 18: Prelab Q3 waveform and TA Verification.

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Figure 19: Part 2 Prelab questions Q1 and Q2.

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Figure 20: Part 2 Prelab questions Q3 and Q4.

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Figure 21: Part 2 Prelab TA Verification.

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Appendix C: Postlab Signoffs

Figure 22: Part 1 signoff.

Figure 23: Part 2 signoff.

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