Unit

3- Cell Biology
Unit 3 Schedule
• 3.1- Cell Theory: Prokaryote vs Eukaryote
• 3.2- Prokaryotes
• 3.3- Eukaryotes
• 3.4- Active and Passive Transport
• 3.5- Osmosis and Osmosis Lab Investigation Proposal
• 3.6- Osmosis Lab Data Collection
• 3.7- Cellular Respiration
• 3.8- Cell Cycle
• 3.9- S-phase (DNA Replication)
• 3.10- M-Phase (Mitosis)
• 3.11- Review Day
• 3.12- Unit 3 Exam
• 3.13- Cancer and Fall Final Review
• 3.14-Fall Final Exam
 Unit 3- Cell Biology

3.1- Cell Theory,

Prokaryote vs Eukaryote
Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
Member of the Royal Society

Father of “Cell Theory” based Published in

on observations of Cork cells 1665
Antony Leeuwenhoek
• A cloth merchant from the
Netherlands

• He designed lenses to see the

thread count of cloth he purchased

• He had NO credibility with the Royal

Society. He was not nobility, and not
a practiced natural philosopher.

• He created microscopes that were

the best technology of the time in
1673
Antony Leeuwenhoek- 1673

He sent a letter to the Royal Society from

Netherlands describing his findings.
Antony Leeuwenhoek
Described “Animalcules” in pond water and spit.

Samples sent to the Royal

Society by Leeuwenhoek
Included
drawings to show
his observations
Royal Society attempted to recreate his
findings

“…after vainly trying to see some of the things which he sees, I much
misdoubt me whether they be not illusions of his sight….”
• Christiaan Huygens
 In 1676, Antony Leeuwenhoek’s
findings were…

Hooke and the Royal Society didn’t have good enough

Magnification and Resolution
Magnification
Process of enlarging an image
Resolution
Ability to distinguish two points on an image
Microscopes
Leeuwenhoek’s Hooke’s Your microscope
(Single Lens) Microscope (Compound)
(Compound)
Now we have better technology!
Microscopes: Light, Scanning and Transmission Electron
Light microscope
•Uses visible light to detect small objects
•Our classroom light microscope can magnify a maximum of 1000x.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

•Produces images by scanning object with a focused beam of electrons
•Produces image that achieves a resolution better than 1 nanometer.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

•Produces images by transmitting a beam of electrons through an ultra-thin specimen, interacting
with the specimen as it passes through.
•Produces image that achieves a resolution of approximately 0.14 nanometer!
 Can you find
similarities in the the
electron microscope
picture?

Plant cell (root tip cell) imaged

with a Transmission Electron
Microscope (TEM)
Imaging: A.M. Wolters-Arts,
Radboud University Nijmegen.
Leeuwenhoek’s and Hooke’s observations led to the
Cell Theory:
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. Cells are the basic unit of living things.
3. New cells are produced from existing cells.
Cells come in all shapes and sizes

Amoeba

Plant cells
Two categories of cells:
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Greek roots
• “pro-” means first or
before
• “eu-” means true
• “-karyon” means kernel
Prokaryotes
• No nucleus- DNA is
free floating
• Have cytoplasm
• Have ribosomes
• Small (1-5
micrometers)
• All are single cells
• Bacteria are
prokaryotes
• Have a cell wall
Eukaryotes
• Have a nucleus- DNA is
contained within it
• Have cytoplasm
• Have ribosomes
• Have membrane bound
organelles
• Larger (10-100
micrometers)
• Some are single celled (ex.
Yeast)
• All multicellular organisms
have eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Make a Venn Diagram to help compare and contrast

types of cells
8 Characteristics of Living things
• All life is made up of units called cells.
• Living things reproduce.
• Life is based on a universal genetic code.
• Living things grow and develop.
• Living things obtain and use materials and
energy.
• Living things respond to their environment.
• Living things maintain homeostasis
• Taken as a group, living things evolve.
Why are Viruses NOT
considered living things?
• No, are not made of cells
• No, cannot reproduce without a host cell
• Yes, use the universal genetic code.
• No, do not grow and develop.
• We don’t know how they obtain and use
materials and energy.
• Yes, respond to their environment.
• Do they maintain homeostasis?
• Yes, taken as a group, viruses evolve.
Microscopic Units of measurement:
nanometer (nm) and micrometer (μm)

• A water molecule is
less than one Human hair at 200x magnification

nanometer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair

• A hair is 100,000
nanometers wide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water
Micro.magnet.fsu.edu
Exit Ticket
1. What is the cell theory?
2. What is something a eukaryote has that a prokaryote doesn’t?
3. True or False: Prokaryotes are larger than eukaryotes
4. True or False: Prokaryotes have a nucleus
5. Are bacteria prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
3.2- Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes
• No nucleus- DNA is free
floating
• Have cytoplasm
• Have ribosomes
• Small (1-5 micrometers)
• All are single cells
• Bacteria are prokaryotes
• Have a cell wall
Bacteria and Archaea
• There are two types of prokaryotes:
Bacteria and Archaea.
• Bacteria: A diverse domain of
prokaryotes that contain
peptidoglycan in their cell walls.
• Archaea: A domain of prokaryotes
without peptidoglycan in their cell
walls that are often able to survive in
extreme environments.
 Bacterial Structure
• Several common shapes: rods (bacilli),
spheres (cocci), spirals (spirilla).
• Bacteria contain cellular structures
common to all cells.

In your notes, draw the bacterial

cell above and label all of the
parts.
You Are Your Microbes-TedEd Video
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1X8p0vhsWRE

• After watching the video, answer the following questions:

1. How do gut microbes vary between people?
2. How does your diet impact your microbial environment?
 Differential Staining
• A common method of distinguishing
between types of bacteria is through use of
a Gram stain.
• The Gram stain takes differently in different
species of bacteria based on the type of cell
wall they possess.
Gram positive bacteria are
dark purple and Gram
negative bacteria are pink.
How would you describe the two
bacterial types in the image to the left?
Gram positive cocci and Gram negative bacilli
• Bacterial can also be Bacterial
classified based on how they
are arranged: Arrangement
• Diplo-: Two cells
• Strepto-: Chain of cells
• Staphylo-: Cluster of cells

How would you describe the

cells in the picture to the right?

Gram positive, cocci, staphylo; the species

pictured is: Staphylococcus aureus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus
Bacterial Survival
• Prokaryotes are very diverse with
regard to obtaining and releasing
energy.
• Prokaryotes can be heterotrophs,
photoheterotrophs, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria
photoautotrophs, or
chemoautotrophs.
• Additionally, prokaryotes can live
with (aerobe) or without (anaerobe)
oxygen. Some can survive in either
condition (facultative anaerobe).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli
Bacterial Reproduction
• Bacteria reproduce in asexually in a
process known as:
• Binary Fission: Asexual reproduction with
DNA replication and cell division resulting in
two genetically identical daughter cells.
• Conjugation: Formation of a pili
between bacterial cells allows for the
exchange of plasmids to move genetic
information between cells.
• Plasmids contain extra-chromosomal DNA
and often confer advantages such as genes
for antibiotic resistance, etc.
• Endospores: Thick walls that
protect DNA and some
Endospores
cytoplasm of bacterial cells to
allow cells to survive harsh
conditions.
• Usually made by Gram-positive
bacteria when resources are
scarce.
Green structures :
• Remarkably resistant to harsh endospores
conditions such as extreme
heat and lack of water. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore

• Genus Clostridium:
• Clostridium tetani: Bacteria
responsible for tetanus with
endospores found in soil;
produces a neurotoxin
(tetanospasmin) that causes
prolonged muscles spasms
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium_tetani
Check for Understanding!
• Distinguish between binary fission and conjugation
• Why do bacteria develop endospores?
• What type of bacteria usually form endospores?
 Bacterial Ecology
• Some bacteria, such as Rhizobium, are nitrogen fixers and
make atmospheric nitrogen accessible to living organisms.
• Some bacteria, such as Cyanobacteria, are producers and
harness energy and produce biomass.
• Some bacteria, such as actinomycetes, are decomposers
and help to recycle nutrients.

Bacteria
play
ecologically
important
roles!
Bacterial Disease Examples
3.3- Eukaryotes
Remember from last class…
What are main differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?

1. Eukaryotes are larger

2. Eukaryotes have a nucleus
3. Eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles
4. Eukaryotes make up some single cell and all multicellular organisms
Origin of Eukaryotes
• Eukaryotes are more
complex than prokaryotes
and appeared ~2.1 bya.
• Contain membrane-bound
organelles such as
lysosomes.
• Contain complex organelles
such as mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
• Cilia and Flagella are
complex structures made
out of proteins with other
important cellular
functions.
Endosymbiosis • Endosymbiotic Theory:
Mitochondria and
chloroplasts are the
descendants of small,
symbiotic bacteria living
inside large cells.
• Support:
• Similar in size to bacteria
• Have their own genome
• Some cells today contain
symbiotic bacteria and algae
Inner Life of the Cell
• Cells are extremely complex and crowded
• Your textbook oversimplifies them. In reality they are full of proteins,
enzymes, organelles, and other structures moving around.

• Inner Life of the Cell (3min)

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJyUtbn0O5Y
Eukaryote Organelles
• Nucleus
• ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)
• Rough ER
• Smooth ER
• Golgi Complex
• Lysosome
• Vacuole
• Mitochondria
• Chloroplast
• Ribosomes
Eukaryote Organelles
• Nucleus- store DNA, control center of cell
• Nucleolous- build ribosomes
• ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)
• Rough ER- helps build proteins, sends to golgi apparatus
• Smooth ER- helps build lipids, sends to Golgi apparatus
• Golgi Complex- (UPS of cells)- takes in proteins, packages them, ships them out of cell or
to other areas
• Lysosome- Contains digestive enzymes that break down materials
• Vacuole (in Plants)-storage of water and chemicals
• Mitochondria- Produce ATP by doing cellular respiration
• Chloroplast (in Plants)- Photosynthesis
• Ribosomes (in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes)- composed of RNA and Proteins, Produces
proteins
Other Terms to Know
• Cytoplasm- Aqueous portion of the
cell outside the nucleus
• Cytoskeleton- network of protein
filaments in a eukaryotic cell that
gives it shape and internal
organization. Also allows the cell to
move. (in green and red in the
picture to the right)
3.4-Active and Passive Transport
Remember from last class…
What structure surrounds a cell?

-Cell Membrane in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

-Cell Wall in Prokaryotes and some Eukaryotes (Plants)

Cellular Boundaries

Cell Membranes

Cell Walls
Cell Membrane: Boundary
 Phospholipid
• A phospholipid has a hydrophilic head
and two hydrophobic tails.
• How do those properties allow it to
form a cell membrane?
 Cell Membrane: Boundary
Function:
• Regulates what enters and leaves the
cell
• Provides protection and support
Components:
• Composed of lipid bilayer, made of
phospholipids
• Phospholipid: Membrane lipid
composed of a polar phosphate head
and two non-polar lipid tails.
• Fluid Mosaic model says many surface
and integral membrane proteins dot
the surface of cells.
Check for understanding

1. Do animal cells have cell

walls?
2. Do plant cells have cell
membranes?
Cell Wall:
Function:
Boundary and Structure
• Provide support and protection for the cell
• Present in plants, algae, fungi, and many prokaryotes
• Cell walls are outside of the cell membrane
• Allows water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other substances to pass
through easily
Components:
• Plant cell walls are made mostly of cellulose (polysaccharide)

Onion epidermal cells

Plant cell: Cell wall is green, Cell membrane is yellow
What is the purpose of a Cell Membrane?

The purpose of a cell membrane is to

Regulate Transport or
what comes into and goes out of a cell.
This is a good picture to
have in your notes
Cellular Transport Summary
• Passive Transport- Does NOT require energy. Molecules move WITH
the concentration gradient
• Diffusion of molecules
• Diffusion of water (Osmosis)
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport- DOES require energy. Molecules move AGAINST the
concentration gradient
• Protein Channels
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
Concentration Gradient
• A Concentration Gradient is a distribution of particles across a space
from high to low distribution. Particles will eventually move to be
equally distributed ( at equilibrium or no concentration gradient)
 On your notes: Label the high and low
Concentration areas, then draw an arrow to show
net movement of the particles
LOW Concentration HIGH Concentration
Particles will eventually move to be equally
distributed ( at equilibrium or concentration
gradient)
Equilibrium
Passive Transport- Diffusion
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of greater
concentration to an area of lesser concentration.
• Diffusion is a passive process
• Passive Transport: Does NOT require energy
Passive Transport- Facilitated Diffusion
• Some molecules are too big, or a too charged (+/-) to pass directly
through the cell membrane. Instead they pass through channel
proteins in a process called facilitated diffusion.

Does this
transport require
ATP?
No ATP is
required
Active Transport
• Requires energy (ATP)
• Integral membrane proteins do the work.
• Often moves solutes against their concentration gradient.
(ex: Na/K pump)
 What do each of these words mean?

• Two types of active transport include endocytosis and

exocytosis.

• Endocytosis:
• Phagocytosis:
• Pinocytosis:

• Exocytosis:
 What do each of these words mean?

• Two types of active transport include endocytosis and

exocytosis.
• Endocytosis: taking material into the cell
• Phagocytosis: taking in solid material (eating)
• Pinocytosis: taking in liquid material (drinking)
• Exocytosis: sending material out of a cell, usually by fusing a
vacuole (containing material) with the cell membrane

• Phago= to devour
• Pino= to drink
3.5-Osmosis and Osmosis Lab
Proposal
Remember from last class…
• You should be able to describe Passive and Active transport across the
cell membrane.
Cellular Transport Summary
• Passive Transport- Does NOT require energy. Molecules move WITH
the concentration gradient
• Diffusion of molecules
• Diffusion of water molecules (Osmosis) ß This is the topic for our lab
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Active Transport- DOES require energy. Molecules move AGAINST the
concentration gradient
• Protein Channels
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
 Osmosis: Diffusion of water
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane.

Why does osmosis occur?

Water will move across

a membrane until the
concentration of solute
is the same on both
sides.
**Reminder:
Solute- a substance
dissolved in solution
Solvent- a substance
that dissolves
something Hypotonic Hypertonic
 Practice with Osmosis

• In the boxes, describe where the net movement of water is occurring (into
the cell, out of the cell, or equal). Then below each beaker label the
solution as isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic.
Osmotic Pressure
(Check for Understanding)

• What would happen if you put an

animal cell in a hypotonic solution?
• What would happen if you put a plant
cell in a hypotonic solution?
• What kind of solution are animal cells
in so they don’t burst?
Osmotic Pressure
(Check for Understanding)

• Cells in a hypotonic solution will

eventually swell until they burst.
• Plant cells and other cells w/ cell walls
in hypotonic solutions (like fresh
water) prevent cell bursting with help
from the cell wall.
• Most animal cells are in an isotonic
solution (i.e. blood) .
Osmosis Lab Investigation Proposal
• Guiding Question: What effects to different concentrations of solute
have on the mass of a potato cell?
• Break into your lab groups and complete the Osmosis Lab
Investigation proposal
• Think: What’s the purpose of a potato?
• To store carbohydrates (Starch) for the plant to use later.
• Compared to distilled water, are potato cells Hypertonic or Hypotonic?
3.6-Osmosis Lab Data Collection

Note-No lecture
3.7- Cellular Respiration
Cells run on Glucose
• Photosynthesis- builds glucose

• Cellular respiration- breaks down glucose to produce ATP

Different
representations of a
glucose molecule
Both have 6 carbons
Video: Photosynthesis and Food (4min)
• http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-simple-but-fascinating-story-of-
photosynthesis-and-food-amanda-ooten

1. What are the Reactants of photosynthesis?

2. What are the Products of photosynthesis?
3. What is the main pigment in plants?
4. What energy powers the light-dependent phase?
5. What energy powers the Calvin cycle (Light-Independent)?
 What similarities and differences do you
notice about these two equations?
Photosynthesis Equation

6 CO2 + 6H2O + Sun à C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular Respiration Equation

C6H12O6+ 6O2à 6 CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
 Cellular Respiration is the Opposite of
Photosynthesis
1. Instead of Storing energy, it releases energy (ATP) to be used by cells
2. Instead of Producing oxygen and glucose, it uses those as reactants
3. Instead of occurring in the chloroplast, it occurs in the mitochondria

Cellular respiration: Process that releases energy (ATP) by breaking down

glucose and other food molecules in the presence of Oxygen.

Cellular Respiration Equation

C6H12O6+ 6O2à 6 CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Chemical Energy and ATP
ATP= Adenosine Triphosphate

What kind of biomolecule is ATP?

(Carbohydrate, Lipid, Protein, or Nucleic Acid?)
Remember the ATP-ADP Cycle
ATP= Adenosine Triphosphate à

Draw your own diagram

showing the ATP- ADP Cycle
ATP is a charged Battery
Cellular Respiration
Recharges the Battery

ADP is an uncharged
battery that can be re-
charged
Cell Respiration happens in three phases:
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle (a.k.a. Citric acid cycle)
3. Electron Transport chain
Phase 1: Glycolysis (Occurs in Cytoplasm)
• Glycolysis: Process by which one
molecule of glucose is broken in half,
producing two molecules of pyruvate.

• Does not require Oxygen!

• Takes place in the cytoplasm

• 2 ATPs are invested, 4 ATPs are produced,

for a net gain of 2 ATP molecules

• Is glycolysis in aerobic or anaerobic

conditions?
 Mitochondria
• The Krebs Cycle and the
Electron Transport chain occur in
the mitochondria.
• The mitochondria has two
membranes, the outer
membrane and the inner
membrane, that produces two
compartments.
• The inner membrane encloses a
central compartment containing
the fluid matrix.
• The outer membrane surrounds
the organelle, producing an
intermembrane space between
the membranes.
• The matrix is an area of LOW H+
concentration
• The Cristae (aka intermembrane
compartment) is an area of
HIGH H+ concentration
Phase 2: The Krebs Cycle (Occurs in Mitochondria)
(A.K.A. The Citric Acid Cycle)
• Krebs Cycle takes place in the
matrix of the mitochondria.

• Pyruvate combines with

coenzyme A to form acetyl
CoA.
• Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs
cycle

• Necessary to produce
energized electron carriers--
NADH and FADH2--for the
Electron Transport System

• Some ATP is produced (~2 ATP)

 Phase 3: The Electron Transport Chain
(Occurs in Mitochondria)
The energized electron carriers-- NADH and FADH2--made by the Krebs cycle donate
their electrons to the Electron Transport Chain (in the inner membrane) to supply
the energy to move H+ ions across the inner membrane from the matrix to the
intermembrane compartment (cristae).

The electron transport chain generates most of

the ATP produced by the mitochondria
(~36-38 ATP)
 Check for Understanding
• In the Intermembrane space,
there is a _____ concentration of
Hydrogen Ions, compared to the
Mitochondrial Matrix.
• Which way will the Hydrogen
Ions Diffuse?
• If the hydrogen Ions diffuse
through the ATP Synthase
Protein Channel, What type of
transport is that?
• Is energy required for the
movement of those ions?
Total Chemical Energy Harvested
Check for Understanding
1. What are the reactants of cellular respiration?
2. What are the products of cellular respiration?
3. Which organelle does aerobic respiration take place in?
4. Do plants do cellular respiration?
5. About how many ATP are produced from aerobic cellular
respiration?
 Overview of Cellular Respiration
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen) yields the MOST ATP.
It takes place in three stages:
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport

Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen) yields LESS ATP.

It takes place in two stages:

1. Glycolysis
2. Fermentation
Anaerobic Respiration:
Fermentation
• In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic
conditions), fermentation follows Yogurt and
glycolysis. cheese are
made using
• Fermentation: Process that takes place bacteria that
in cells under anaerobic conditions
where pyruvate is converted into produce
lactate or ethanol. lactate when
they do
• Two types of fermentation: fermentation
• pyruvate à alcohol (ethanol)
• pyruvate à lactate
• Takes place in the cytoplasm
• Fermentation does NOT produce ATP. Bread, beer, and
Its purpose is to regenerate the high wine are made using
energy electron carrier molecule NAD+. yeast that undergo
NAD+ must be available for glycolysis to alcoholic
continue. fermentation
3.8-Cell Cycle
WHAT IS CANCER?
Cancer is Uncontrolled Cell Division

•Cell division (mitosis) must be controlled,

otherwise growth will occur without limit (cancer)
• Uncontrolled growth occurs when cells don’t respond
to natural controls and continue to divide, forming
tumors
• Uncontrolled growth continues until all available
nutrients are used up (even killing normal cells)
 In Normal Cells
Natural controls exist on cell growth
1. When two cells touch each other they stop
growing (contact inhibition)

2. Cyclin proteins regulates the cell cycle. When

certain proteins are present, the cell will
continue to the next phase of the cell cycle.
Controlled by internal and external regulators.
 Controls of Cell Cycle
• Controls for the cell cycle can be
turned on and off.
• During the healing process:
• Injury stimulate cells to divide
rapidly.
• As injury heals, cells come
into closer contact, rate of
division slows.
• When cells touch, division
stops.
 Controls of Cell Cycle
• Controls for the cell cycle can be
turned on and off.
• Cyclins: a protein found in cells that
regulates the timing of the cell
cycle.
• Internal Regulators: proteins that
respond to events within the cell.
• External Regulators: proteins that
respond to events outside the cell.
• Growth factors: stimulate growth
and division.
• Molecules (sensors) on cells: slow
down or stop division when within
close proximity to another cell.
The Cell Cycle
Draw in your notes
Why do Cells Divide? Why can’t they just get
bigger and bigger?
Cell 1: 1nm x 1nm x 1nm
Cell 2: 10nm x 10nm x 10nm
Cell 3: 100nm x 100nm x 100nm

Calculate the Volume and Surface Area of each cell

Next, calculate (Surface area ÷Volume) for each cell (This is the SA:V ratio)

Which cell has the highest SA:V ratio?

Why are you made up of billions of small cells, instead of a few really big
cells?
Cells need a high Surface Area : Volume Ratio
1. Exchange of nutrients (glucose, oxygen) and wastes (Carbon
dioxide, toxins)
• The cell can only take in and expel nutrients at a certain rate. As volume
increases, the amount of nutrients to take in and toxins to expel increases-
but the cell can’t keep up (surface area doesn’t increase as fast as volume)
2. The DNA has to be able to meet the demands of the ENTIRE cell
(making copies of information for the cell to make proteins to carry
out cellular tasks)

When a cell reaches a certain size it will divide

A cell that breaks this rule: Valonia ventricosa
• Valonia is a type of algae that is a
single cell. Some can grow to be
the size of a human fist.
• How does the nucleus meet the
demands of the cell??
• It produces multiple nuclei inside
the single cell. (It undergoes
mitosis, without doing
cytokinesis)
Cell cycle
• 2 main phases
1. Interphase: phases of
growth and DNA replication
• G1 phase
• S phase
• G2 phase

2. M (Mitotic) Phase: division

phases
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
Interphase
• Interphase is the longest part of a cell's life
cycle. Cells grow, develop, & carry on all
their normal metabolic functions during
interphase
• Interphase consists of 3 parts --- G1, S, &
G2phases
Interphase
•G1 : 1st Growth Phase occurs after a cell has
undergone cell division
•Cells mature & increase in size by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
•S: Synthesis Phase (DNA Replication)
•The genetic material of the cell (DNA) is copied
•G2 : 2nd Growth Phase occurs after S Phase
and the cell makes all the structures needed to
divide
Cells in Eukaryote Multicellular Organisms
-Two categories of cells
• Stem Cells (undifferentiated)
• Specialized Cells (differentiated)
Specialized cells allow is to be functional,
multicellular organisms
• Specialized cells- different cell types that have different roles
• During development, stem cells differentiate into specialized cells

Based on their structure, What do

you think these cells are
specialized for?
Stem Cells
• Stem Cells- Unspecialized cells in
the body that can regenerate
themselves indefinitely. The
internal repair system.
After Mitosis:
• Remain a stem cell
undergoing mitosis.
• Undergo cell
differentiation and
become a tissue or organ
specific cell with a specific
function.
Can we take adult differentiated cells and turn
them into stem cells? Homework on BLEND!
• In 2006, Takahashi and Yamanaka published a paper in the journal
Cell
Induction of pluripotent stem cells: Figure 5

MEF cell is a mouse embryonic

fibroblast cell. It is found in animal
connective tissue. (differentiated
cell)
A teratoma is a tumor with more
than one type of tissue in it from
more than one germ layer.
(differentiated cells)
3.9-S-phase (DNA Replication)
Remember from last class…
• Interphase and Mitosis are the two main phases of the cell cycle.
What stages occur during Interphase?
Interphase
•G1 : 1st Growth Phase occurs after a cell has
undergone cell division
•Cells mature & increase in size by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
•S: Synthesis Phase (DNA Replication)
•The genetic material of the cell (DNA) is copied
•G2 : 2nd Growth Phase occurs after S Phase
and the cell makes all the structures needed to
divide

Today we’re going into detail in S-Phase.

S-Phase: DNA Replication
• Prior to mitosis or meiosis, DNA is replicated (copied).
• Replication: The duplication of DNA in a cell.
• Occurs during S phase of the cell cycle.

• Process:
• The two DNA strands separate, forming two replication forks.
• Two new complementary strands are synthesized using base-
pairing rules.
• Occurs in the 5’ to 3’ direction
• Semiconservative
DNA Replication: Key Players
• Helicase
• DNA Polymerase
• RNA Primer
• Leading Strand
• Lagging Strand
• Okazaki Fragments
Enzymes and Replication
• Replication is carried out by
several enzymes.
• DNA Helicase: Unzips the DNA
by breaking hydrogen bonds
between the two strands.
• DNA Polymerase: Joins
nucleotides to synthesize a
new complementary stand of
DNA and proofreads the
strand to ensure accuracy in
replication.
Replication
• Leading Strand: The DNA strand that is replicated without interruption
in the 5' to the 3' direction.
• Lagging Strand: The DNA strand that is replicated discontinuously in
the 5' to the 3' direction.
• Okazaki Fragment: Segments of DNA replicated on the lagging strand.

Overview
Leading Lagging
strand Origin of replication
strand

Primer

Lagging Leading
strand strand
Overall directions
of replication
Replication
• DNA Polymerase reads parent DNA in the 3’ à 5’ direction

• DNA polymerase synthesizes (creates) daughter DNA in the 5’ à 3’

direction
Eukaryotic Replication
• Replication begins at
many places on a DNA
molecule and proceeds
in both directions until
all chromosomes are
completely copied.
• Many proteins check
DNA for damage or
mismatches.
Eukaryotes
• Eukaryotic cell: has a membrane bound nucleus.
• Plants, animals, fungi, and Protista.
• Division is more complex: two stages for division
• Mitosis: division of the cell’s nucleus
• Cytokinesis: division of the cell’s cytoplasm

How do Eukaryotes
package all that DNA?
Eukaryotes package DNA
in Chromosomes
• Chromatin
• Substance that contains DNA
wrapped around Proteins
(bowl of spaghetti)
• Chromosome
• Condensed Chromatin
• 1 Chromosome =
• Before replication = 1
chromatid
• When replicated = 2
“sister” chromatids held
together by a centromere.
Telomeres
• Telomeres: The tips of eukaryotic
chromosomes. (Like the hard parts
on the tips of your shoelaces- they
prevent your laces from fraying)
• The telomeres are difficult to
replicate since replication can only
occur in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
• Telomerase: A special enzyme
that can replicate chromosome
ends.
Prokaryote Vs. Eukaryotes
• What are some differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?
• Prokaryotes do NOT have a nucleus
• Prokaryote DNA is in the Cytoplasm
• Prokaryotes have circular chromosomes, instead of linear chromosomes
Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotic cell: cells without a nucleus.
• Asexual Reproduction
• Binary Fission: Replicate DNA and divide. Offspring is genetically identical to the parent.
Prokaryotic Replication
• Replication in most
prokaryotes starts from
a single point on the
circular chromosome
and continues in two
directions until the
entire chromosome is
copied.
Check for Understanding!
• In your notes, draw a Venn diagram and
compare DNA replication in prokaryotes vs.
eukaryotes.
Exit Slip
1. Identify the enzyme responsible for addition of new nucleotides to
a lengthening strand of DNA.
2. Identify the enzyme responsible for separation of the double helix.
3. DNA is lengthened in the __________ direction.
4. Chunks of DNA replicated on the lagging strand are called
___________ .
5. These organisms have a single, circular chromosome.
3.10-M-Phase (Mitosis)
Remember from last class…
• What are the two main phases of the cell cycle?
Cell cycle
• 2 main phases
1. Interphase: phases of
growth and DNA replication
• G1 phase
• S phase
• G2 phase

2. M (Mitotic) Phase: division

phases
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
Mitosis (Nucleus split) Consists of 4 stages
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase
• Chromosomes become visible
when they condense into sister
chromatids
• Centrioles in animal cells move
to opposite ends of cell
• Nuclear membrane dissolves
Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up in middle
(equator) of the cell

• Meta = Middle
Anaphase
• The sister chromatids are pulled
apart and move toward
opposite ends of cell

• Ana = Backward moving

Telophase
• Nuclear membrane forms
around the chromosomes
• Nucleolus reform
• Chromosomes become less
tightly coiled & appear as
chromatin again
• Spindle disappears
• Cytokinesis begins
Cytokinesis- Cytoplasm split
• Cytoplasm of the cell and its
organelles separate into 2 new
daughter cells
• In animals, a groove called the
cleavage furrow forms pinching
the cell membrane of the parent
cell in two.
• In plants, a cell plate forms
down the middle of the cell
where the new cell wall will be.
Can you identify these
stages of mitosis?
Mitosis in real cells (1:30 min)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L61Gp_d7evo
Exit Ticket
1. Write out the stages of Mitosis in order
2. The division of a cell nucleus is called ____?
3. The division of a cell cytoplasm is called _____?
4. During which phase is cell DNA replicated?
5. How do bacterial cells divide?
Cell Cycle Review Video (8min)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI
3.11- Review Day
3.12-Unit 3 Exam
3.13- Cancer
Remember from last class…
• In the cell cycle, in which phase does cell division take place?
• What regulates when cells divide?
Cell cycle
• 2 main phases
1. Interphase: phases of
growth and DNA replication
• G1 phase
• S phase
• G2 phase

2. M (Mitotic) Phase: division

phases
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
 In Normal Cells
Natural controls exist on cell growth
1. When two cells touch each other they stop
growing (contact inhibition)

2. Cyclin proteins regulate the cell cycle. When

certain proteins are present, the cell will
continue to the next phase of the cell cycle.
Controlled by internal and external regulators.
Cancer
• Cancer is a disorder in which
body cells lose the ability to
control growth.
• Cancer cells do not respond to
normal signals that regulate
growth
• As cancer cells grow and divide,
they form a mass of cells called a
tumor.
How do Cancer Cells Behave Differently from
Healthy Cells (4min)?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmFEoCFDi-w
What causes Cancer?
• Defects in genes (mutations)
that regulate cell growth and
division
• Carcinogens- Sources of defects
• Smoking/chewing tobacco
• Exposure to radiation (x-rays)
• Exposure to sunlight UV radiation
• Viruses (HPV)
• Environmental Factors
• Asbestos, Radon gas
• Many factors are being investigated
 P53 gene
• Gene p53 halts the cell cycle if DNA is
damaged or chromosomes haven’t
been replicated correctly
• Causes Apoptosis (programed cell
death)
• Defect in this gene causes the cell to lose
information needed to respond to signals
that would normally control their growth.
• A large number of cancers are caused
by this defect.
Treatments for Cancer
• Surgery- physical removal of the
cancerous cells
• Radiation- High frequency
radiation injures and destroys
cells in a particular area
• Chemotherapy- targets rapidly
dividing cells with drugs
Treatments for Cancer- Surgery
• Removal of cancerous cells
• Not effective if cancer has
metastasized
• Examples
• mastectomy for breast cancer
• prostatectomy for prostate cancer
• lung cancer surgery for non-small
cell lung cancer
The goal of the surgery can be
either the removal of only the
tumor, or the entire organ
Treatments for Cancer- Radiation
• Ionizing radiation targets and
kills cancer cells to shrink tumors
• Also used to prevent tumor
regeneration after surgery
• Functions by damaging DNA of
cells, leading to cell death
• Doctors who perform this type
of treatment are called Radiation
Oncologists
Treatments for Cancer- Chemotherapy
• Targets rapidly dividing cells with
“anticancer” drugs
• Drugs target rapidly dividing
cells: cancer cells AND healthy
cells
• Because intestinal lining cells
and hair follicle cells are also
rapidly dividing, side effects
include:
• Nausea and vomiting
• Hair loss
How does Cancer Spread in the Body (5min)?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcigJn8UJNQ

• What is Metastasis?
Cancer Videos
53 minutes- Cancer Warrior
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/cancer-
warrior.html

20 minutes- Can we eat to starve cancer? Ted talk

• https://www.ted.com/talks/william_li?language=en#
t-31930