Atomic structure

The word atom is derived from Greek root, and it is composed of two words A and TOM.
(ATOM = A + TOM)
The word ATOM was coined by ancient Greek philosophers “Leucippus” and his pupil
“Democritus”
Where A means not and TOM means divided hence ATOM means “not divided”
Many theories have been explained to describe atom such theories are given below

Classical model of atom

Based on Particle behavior of matter (electron)
1. Maaharshi Kanad’s atomic model
2. Dalton’s atomic theory
3. Thomson’s atomic model
4. Rutherford’s atomic model
5. Bohr’s atomic model
6. Sommerfeld’s model

Wave mechanics model/ quantum mechanical model

Based on wave nature of matter (electron)
It include
1. De Broglie’s dual nature of matter
2. Uncertainty principle of Heisenberg/ Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle
3. Schrodinger’s wave equation

Dalton’s atomic model

→ According to this model atom is a smallest indivisible and indestructible particle
of a matter that can be nether produced and nor destroyed.
→ Properties of a matter are because of atom.
→ Atoms of an element are identical and different elements also have different type
of atom.
→ Chemical reactions are rearrangement of atom.
Drawbacks –
→ Atom can be subdivided into sub atomic particles like electron, proton and
neutron.
→ This model could not explain about fractional mass of an element
→ Atom can be either produced or destroyed by nuclear fusion and fission.
→ Properties of a matter are because of valence electrons not atom.
Note –
Atom → Molecule (it is a smallest unit of a matter that represents entire properties
of a matter)
Matter can be either elements (same atom) or compound (different atom)
Molecule = Mole (Poly) + cule (Tiny particles)
 Sub atomic particles or fundamental particles of an atom
Electron Proton Neutron
0 1 1 1
Notation -e or β 1P or 1H on
Experimented by William Crooke
Discovered by J.J.Thomson Goldstein James Chadwick
Named by Stony Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick
Basis of discovery Cathode ray Anode ray experiment By the following Rxn
9 4 12 1
experiment 4Be + 2He → 6C + on
Charge (-) 1.6 X 10-19Cb(MKS) (+) 1.6 X 10-19Cb(MKS) Charge less
(-) 4.8 X 10-10 esu(CGS)
1 unit
Molar charge 1.6 X 10-19 X Na
= 96500 Cb
= 1 Feradey
Mass 1.9 X 10-28 gm 1.673 X 10-24 gm Mn ≈ Mp
1.9 X 10-28 X Na amu 1.673 X 10-24 X Na amu 1.675 X 10-24 gm
= 5.5 X 10-4 amu ≈ 1 amu
Specific charge (e/m) -1.76 X 108 cb/gm

Cathode ray experiment: The discovery of electron

At low pressure, gases conduct electricity: William Crookes

Q How does electron come from cathode?
Ans

Properties of cathode rays

1. Cathode rays are not visible
2. They are produced by the negative electrode or cathode and travel towards the
anode (in straight way).
3. They come out from cathode perpendicularly (90 degree angle)
4. They produce X ray when strike metals (Mosley’s observation)
Mosley’s determination of atomic number
 Atomic number is fundamental property of atom was told by Henry Mosley.
5. They travel in straight lines and produce/ cast sharp shadows of metallic objects
placed in their path; a shadow of the metal object is formed at the end opposite to
the cathode.

6. They cause mechanical motion (they rotate) of a small pin-wheel placed in their
path. This shows that cathode rays are a beam of particles (cathode rays compose
of material particles) having mass and possessing kinetic energy.

7. They are deflected by the both electric and magnetic field.

8. They are beams of tiny, negatively charged particles called electrons.

9. They produce fluorescence when they strike the glass wall of discharge tube.
10. They produce heat when strike metal foil
11. Velocity of such rays are less than velocity of light
 12. They ionize gas particle when they strike gas particles

13. Specific charge of cathode rays is constant.

(Does not depend on gas)
(Does

Specific charge measurements

Calculated by Thomson

Magnetic force

Magnitude of magnetic force is F = qVB

Centrifugal force due to circular motion
F = MV2/r
Then qVB = MV2/r
q/M = V/Br
The value of r is obtained from the dimension
dimension of the tube and the displacement of
the electron spot on the fluorescent screen.
Electric force
When electric and magnetic field strength are counterbalanced (to calculate
velocity),
Magnetic force = electric force
(qVB) = (qE)
Thus V = E/B
V can be calculated if E and B are known
Then we can assume that
Specific charge (q/M) = E/B2r
And value will be – 1.76 X 108 Cb/gm
Where
B = magnetic field strength
E = strength of electric field
V = velocity of electron
m = mass of the electron
e = charge on electron
ele
r = radius of the circular path of the electron in the magnetic field

Specific charge (q/m) of electron:-

electron:
Mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-28
28
gm
-19
Charge of electron = 1.6 X 10 C
fic charge = 1.6 X 10-19/ 9.1 X 10-28
Specific
Coulomb per gm
Specific charge = 1.76 X 108 Cb/gm

Q Calculate the specific charge for deuterium in Cb/gm?

Ans –
(q/M)D = 1.6 X 10-19/2amu
1 gm = NA X amu
(q/M)D = 4.8 X 104 Cb/gm
Q Determine ratio of specific charge for isotopes
isotopes of hydrogen?
Ans –
Protium (1H1) = 1/1
Deuterium (1D2) = 1/2
Tritium (1T3) = 1/3
Q Calculate specific charge for proton, neutron, and electron and α particle
and arrange in increasing order of specific charge?
Ans –
(q/M)P = 1/1
(q/M)n = 0
(q/M)e = 1/1/1887 = 1887
 (q/M)α = 2/4
(q/M)e > (q/M)P > (q/M)α > (q/M)n

Determination of the charge on an electron: Milikan’s oil drop

experiment

Magnetic field was uniform

At equilibrium
mg = qE
q = mg/E = n(1.6 X 10-19)
Note:
X ray ionize air, and oil droplet become ionized after capturing of released
electrons
Charge was calculated by Milikan’s oil drop experiment
First discovered subatomic particle = electron
Last discovered sub atomic particle = neutron (because of zero charge)
Universal subatomic particle = electron and proton (neutron is absent in
Protium)
 Unstable subatomic particle is neutron
1 1 0
0n → 1P + - e
Heaviest subatomic particle is neutron
Order = Mn > Mp > Me
Me ≈ 0
Mp ≈ Mn
Specific charge for electron was calculated by Thomson
Velocity order = EMV/ light > Cathode rays > anode rays
Specific charge for cathode rays is constant but for anode rays depends on
nature of gas in discharge tube.

Note –
Charge of specie is integral multiplication of charge of electron
Charge of species = ne-; where n = 1, 2, 3…. Whole number
For example
Charge of A+2 = 2 X 1.6 X 10-19 Cb
Q Calculate charge of O2-
Ans = 2 X charge of electron
Note –
1F ≡ 96500 Cb
1F ≡ 1 mole electrons
For instance –
MnO4- (1 mol) → Mn+2; calculate total Faraday
Ans = 5F
Q Calculate charge in faraday on 2.8 gm N-3
Mole of N-3 = 2.8/14 = 0.6 mole
So charge will be 0.6 F
Q Calculate molar mass of electron?
Mass of 1 mole = 9.1 X 10-28gm X Na
= 5.5 X 10-4 gm
= 0.55 mg
Q Calculate total number of electron in 1kg mass?
Mole = (1 X 103 gm)/ (mass of 1 mol electron)
Mole = 103/ 9.1 X 10-28Na
Number of electron = 103 X Na/ 9.1 X 10-28Na
= 1031/ 9.1

Mass of electron relative to hydrogen

Molar mass of hydrogen = 1.008 gm
Mass of one hydrogen = 1.67 X 10-24gm
Mass of electron = 9.1 X 10-28 gm
Mass of (electron/ Hydrogen) = 9.1 X 10-28 gm/ 1.67 X 10-24
Mass of (electron/ Hydrogen) ≈ 1/ 1837
Note – mass of moving particle
M = mo/ √(1-V2/C2)
Where mo is resting mass
V ↑ → m↑ ↑, (e/m)↓
↓
Note – resting mass of electromagnetic waves is zero and velocity is equal to velocity of
light then moving mass will be infinite.

Manifestation of atom

Q Calculate total number of proton, electron and neutron in given examples –

1. 11Na23
2. 6C12
3. 30 70Zn+2
4. Phosphide ion (1531P-3)
5. Phosphonium ion (PH4+)
6. PO4-3
7. oCH3
8. :CH3
9. :NH3
10. 7 mg of nitrogen atom
11. 16 mg of oxygen atom

Some atomic species

Examples Properties
1
Isotopes/ Z = same 1H Protium (H) Chemical properties are
2
isoprotic A = differ 1H Deuterium (D) similar and physical
3
A-Z = differ 1H Tritium (T) properties will be differ
Isobar Z = differ Ar40 physical properties are
A = same K40 similar and Chemical
A-Z = differ Ca40 properties will be differ
31
Isotones/ Z = differ 15P Both physical and
32
isoneutronic A = differ 16S chemical properties are
A-Z = same differ
11
Isodiaphere Z = differ 5B Both physical and
23
A = differ 11Na chemical properties are
A-Z = differ differ
(n-p = A-2Z) = same
Isoelectronic Same electron HF, H2O
Isostears Same number of N2O, CO2
 electron Electron = 22
Same number of Atom = 3
atom
Fractional atomic mass is because of presence of isotopes
Specific charge of isotopes are different from other one
If an element has more than one isotope then its atomic mass will be average of
atomic mass of all isotopes
For example
Element X has three isotopes XA1, XA2 and XA3; relative availability is a: b: c
Then average atomic mass = (A1a + A2b + A3c)/ (a+b+c)

Thomson’s atomic model

Indian version/ water melon concept/ rasgulla chasani concept

According to this model electrons (negative charge) are dispersed in positive sphere like
seed in water melon.

In the 19th century, Thomson described the atom as a ball of positive charge containing a
number of electrons.

Drawback;
He could not explain Rutherford’s experiment.
He could not explain line spectrum of the atom

Rutherford’s atomic model/ Rutherford’s α scattering experiment

radioactive source – lead
Experiment
Rutherford took radioactive lead as a source and thin gold foil surrounded by ZnS
screen and bombarded α particles on gold foil and observed some interesting
facts which were
Observation –
1. Most of the α particles passed through the gold foil without undergoing any
deflection
2. A few α particles underwent deflection through small angles
3. Very few α particles (1 out of 10 lac) deflected back i.e. through an angle of nearly
180o

Conclusion –
1. Since Most of the α particles (up to 90%) passed through the gold foil without
undergoing any deflection that means there must be sufficient empty space within
the atom.
2. Since few particles deflect from their path and it is possible because of repulsion
that means a positive charge is concentrated in very small volume which is known
as nucleus
Note – nucleus was discovered by Rutherford
3. Radius of Nucleus –
Radius of nucleus
[(r) α A1/3] and r = roA1/3
Where ro is radius constant = 1.33X10-15 m
10-15 m = 1 ferme
And radius of atom is 10-10 m
Ratio of radius of atom and nucleus (rA/rn) = 105
4. Volume of nucleus
VN = (4/3) ΠRN3
VN = (4/3) Π(roA1/3)3
VN = (4/3) Π(ro3A)
VA/VN = 1015
VA = 1015 VN
 5. Density of nucleus
Density = m/v
Density = (A X amu)/ (4/3) Πro3A
And amu = 1.67X10-27 Kg
Density = 1017kg/m3
Conclusion –
[Radius α A1/3
Volume α A
Density α Ao]
6. Number of deflected α particles on θ angle –
[N α 1/ {sin4(θ
θ/2)}]
θ↑ → N↓ ↓

Q Calculate total number of deflected α particles on 90o angle, if 400 α particles are
deflected on 60o angle?
Ans = [N α 1/ {sin4(θ θ/2)}]
4
N1/ N2 = sin (θ θ2/2)/ sin4(θ
θ1/2)
N1/ 400 = sin4(30)/ sin4(45)
N1/ 400 = [{(1/2)/ (1/√ √2)}4] = ¼
N1 = 100
7. Distance of closest approach
(TE) initial = (TE) final
(KE+PE) initial = (KE+PE) final
½ MV2 + 0 = 0 + KQ1Q2/Rm
½ MV2 = K (2e) (ze)/Rm
Rm =?

Rutherford’s planetary model

Rutherford’s atomic model also known as Rutherford’s planetary model because
according to this model electrons revolve around the nucleus as like planet
around the sun
Drawbacks;
1. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic radiation; if a body is revolve in an orbit then
it achieve acceleration and according to Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic
radiation when a positive charge move with acceleration then it would
continuously emit electromagnetic waves.
 Hence conclusion is that if revolving electron is emitting electromagnetic waves
then its path must be spiral and it will be captured by nucleus due to attraction,
but Rutherford could not explain it
The main problem with Rutherford’s model was that he could not explain why
negatively charged electrons remain in orbit, when they should instantly fall into
the positively charged nucleus. This problem would be solved by Danish physicist
Niels Bohr in 1913
2. Rutherford could not explain Zeeman and stark effect
3. He could not explain line spectrum of atom
α scattering effect is shown by all heavy metals like Ag, Au, Pt, Pd etc.
Density of nucleus does not depend on atomic mass

Bohr’s atomic model

Bohr carefully observed “Rutherford’s atomic model, Planck's quantum theory and
Einstein’s Photo electric effect” and proposed Bohr’s atomic model

Planck's quantum theory

Quantum (Plu.Quanta) - is the minimum possible amount of a physical entity (physical
properties) involved in an interaction.
Quantized physical entity = any physical entity which has quantum or that can be
quantized
Quantization = phenomenon
Example – mass and charge of an electron
All possible value of a quantized physical entity = n X value of quantum
Where n = 1, 2, 3… whole number
According to Planck’s quantum theory, energy is radiated from a source in small particle
called photon

Photon – quantum of light is photon (or of any other form of electromagnetic radiation)

Minimum possible value of photon is hc/λ λ

λ
All possible value of light = nhc/λ
Note – frequency of light depends on source, if the source is common then frequency of
ray will be constant
Velocity of photon is equal to light and it does not depend on source
Resting mass of a photon is zero but mass of a moving photon is
λ
E = hc/λ
E = mc2
λ
M = h/cλ

Photoelectric effect
Bohr’s atomic model
Postulations of Bohr’s model –
• According to Bohr, electrons revolve around nucleus in definite energy levels
called orbit or shell or stationary energy level and during this as long as electron
does not radiate and absorb energy
• When electron absorb energy then it jumps in higher energy level and return in
stationary energy level by ejecting photon
• Electron revolve in orbit which has angular momentum (mvr) h/2Π Π and integral
multiplication of plank’s constant divided by 2Π Π
Angular momentum (mvr) = nh/2Π Π
Where r = radius of Bohr’s orbit
M is mass of electron and v is velocity of electron
• Angular momentum is quantized and its quanta is h/2Π Π

Significance of Bohr’s atomic model

1. Radius
2. Diameter
3. Velocity
4. Energy
5. Angular momentum
6. Angular velocity
7. Time period
8. Frequency
9. Current
10. Magnetic field
11. Magnetic momentum
Note
1. Ground state
2. Excitation energy
3. Ionization energy
4. Separating energy
Spectra (sin. Spectrum)