Anatomy of the cerebellum

The anatomy of the cerebellum can be viewed at three levels. At

Cerebellum
the level of gross anatomy, the cerebellum consists of a tightly
folded and crumpled layer of cortex, with white matter underneath,
several deep nuclei embedded in the white matter, and a fluid-filled
ventricle in the middle.[1] At the intermediate level, the cerebellum
and its auxiliary structures can be broken down into several
hundred or thousand independently functioning modules or
"microzones".[1] At the microscopic level, each module consists of
the same small set of neuronal elements, laid out with a highly
stereotyped geometry.[2]

Contents Drawing of the human brain, showing

cerebellum and pons
Gross anatomy
Gross anatomical divisions
Phylogenetic and functional divisions
Cellular anatomy
Deep nuclei
Cortical layers
Molecular layer
Purkinje layer
Granular layer
Relationship with cerebral cortex Vertical midline cross-section of the
Blood supply human cerebellum, showing folding
pattern of the cortex, and interior
Variations among vertebrates
structures
Peduncles
Details
Development
Part of Metencephalon
Additional images
Artery SCA, AICA, PICA
References
Vein superior, inferior
Identifiers
Gross anatomy NeuroLex birnlex_1489 (http://www.ne
ID urolex.org/wiki/birnlex_148
The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain, with the large
9)
mass of the cerebral cortex above it and the portion of the brainstem
called the pons in front of it. It is separated from the overlying TA A14.1.07.001 (http://www.un
cerebrum by a layer of tough dura mater; all of its connections with ifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/
other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA
the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes 98%20EN/14.1.07.001%20
the pons; the metencephalon in turn is the upper part of the Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm)
rhombencephalon or "hindbrain". Like the cerebral cortex, the Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres; it also contains a narrow midline zone called the vermis. A set of
large folds are conventionally used to divide the overall structure into ten smaller lobules.

Because of its large number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the rest of the
brain put together, but it only takes up 10% of total brain volume.[3] The cerebellum receives nearly
200 million input fibers; in contrast, the optic nerve is composed of a mere one million fibers.

The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that the bulk of the structure is made up of
a very tightly folded layer of gray matter, the cerebellar cortex. It has been estimated that if the human
cerebellar cortex could be completely unfolded it would give rise to a layer of neural tissue about 1 meter long
and 10 centimeters wide—a total surface area of 500-1000 square cm, all packed within a volume of 100-150
cubic cm.[4][5] Underneath the gray matter of the cortex lies white matter, made up largely of myelinated nerve
fibers running to and from the cortex. Embedded within the white matter—which is sometimes called the
arbor vitae (Tree of Life) in the cerebellum because of its branched, tree-like appearance—are four deep
cerebellar nuclei.

The cerebellum can be divided according to three different criteria: gross anatomical, phylogenetical, and
functional.

Gross anatomical divisions

On gross inspection, three lobes can be distinguished in the cerebellum: the flocculonodular lobe, the anterior
lobe (rostral to the "primary fissure"), and the posterior lobe (dorsal to the "primary fissure"). The latter two
can be further divided in a midline cerebellar vermis and lateral cerebellar hemispheres.

Figure 3: Cerebellum and surrounding regions;

sagittal view of one hemisphere. A: Midbrain. B: Figure 4: Schematic representation of the major anatomical
Pons. C: Medulla. D: Spinal cord. E: Fourth ventricle. subdivisions of the cerebellum. Superior view of an "unrolled"
F: Arbor vitae. G: Tonsil. H: Anterior lobe. I: Posterior cerebellum, placing the vermis in one plane.
lobe.

Phylogenetic and functional divisions

The cerebellum can also be divided in three parts based on both phylogenetic criteria (the evolutionary age of
each part) and on functional criteria (the incoming and outgoing connections each part has and the role played
in normal cerebellar function). From the phylogenetically oldest to the newest, the three parts are:
 Functional
denomination Anatomical
Role
(phylogenetic parts
denomination)
The vestibulocerebellum regulates balance and eye movements. It receives
Flocculonodular vestibular input from both the semicircular canals and from the vestibular
lobe (and nuclei, and sends fibres back to the medial and lateral vestibular nuclei. It
Vestibulocerebellum
immediately also receives visual input from the superior colliculi and from the visual
(Archicerebellum)
adjacent cortex (the latter via the pontine nuclei, forming a cortico-ponto-cerebellar
vermis) pathway). Lesions of the vestibulocerebellum cause disturbances of balance
and gait. There is another small region, known as the biventer lobule.
The spinocerebellum regulates body and limb movements. It receives
proprioception input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord (including the
spinocerebellar tract) and the trigeminal nerve, as well as from visual and
auditory systems. It sends fibres to deep cerebellar nuclei (including the
fastigial nucleus) which in turn project to both the cerebral cortex (via
Vermis and
midbrain and thalamus) and the brain stem (via reticular formation in the
intermediate
Spinocerebellum pons, and vestibular nuclei in the medulla oblongata), thus providing
parts of the
(Paleocerebellum) modulation of descending motor systems. The spinocerebellum contains
hemispheres
sensory maps as it receives data on the position of various body parts in
("paravermis")
space: in particular, the vermis receives fibres from the trunk and proximal
portions of limbs, while the intermediate parts of the hemispheres receive
fibres from the distal portions of limbs. The spinocerebellum is able to
elaborate proprioceptive input in order to anticipate the future position of a
body part during the course of a movement, in a "feed forward" manner.
The neocerebellum is involved in planning movement and evaluating
sensory information for action. It receives input exclusively from the cerebral
cortex (especially the parietal lobe) via the pontine nuclei (in the pons,
forming cortico-ponto-cerebellar pathways) and dentate nucleus (in the
Cerebrocerebellum Lateral parts of
cerebellum), and sends fibres mainly to the ventrolateral thalamus (in turn
(Neocerebellum, the
connected to motor areas of the premotor cortex and primary motor area of
Pontocerebellum) hemispheres
the cerebral cortex) and to the red nucleus (in turn connected to the inferior
olivary nucleus, which links back to the cerebellar hemispheres). The
neocerebellum is involved in planning movement that is about to occur[6]
and has purely cognitive functions as well.

Much of what is understood about the functions of the cerebellum stems from careful documentation of the
effects of focal lesions in human patients who have suffered from injury or disease or through animal lesion
research.

Cellular anatomy
As explained in more detail in the Function section, the cerebellum differs from most other brain areas in that
the flow of neural signals through it is almost entirely unidirectional: there are virtually no backward
connections between its neuronal elements. Thus the most logical way to describe the cellular structure is to
begin with the inputs and follow the sequence of connections through to the outputs.

Deep nuclei
The four deep nuclei of the cerebellum are the dentate, emboliform, globose, and fastigii nuclei and they act as
the main centers of communication, sending and receiving information to and from specific parts of the brain.
In addition, these nuclei receive both inhibitory and excitatory signals from other parts of the brain which in
turn affect the nuclei's outgoing signals.[7](The globose and the emboliform nuclei make up the interposed
nucleus).

Cortical layers
The cytoarchitecture (cellular organization) of the
cerebellum is highly uniform, with connections organized
into a rough, three-dimensional array of perpendicular
circuit elements. This organizational uniformity makes the
nerve circuitry relatively easy to study.

There are three layers to the cerebellar cortex; from outer

to inner layer, these are the molecular, Purkinje, and
granular layers. The function of the cerebellar cortex is
essentially to modulate information flowing through the
deep nuclei. The microcircuitry of the cerebellum is
schematized in Figure 5. Mossy and climbing fibers carry
sensorimotor information into the deep nuclei, which in
turn pass it on to various premotor areas, thus regulating
the gain and timing of motor actions. Mossy and climbing
fibers also feed this information into the cerebellar cortex, Figure 5: Microcircuitry of the cerebellum.
Excitatory synapses are denoted by (+) and
which performs various computations, resulting in the
inhibitory synapses by (-). MF: Mossy fiber. DCN:
regulation of Purkinje cell firing. Purkinje neurons feed Deep cerebellar nuclei. IO: Inferior olive. CF:
back into the deep nuclei via a potent inhibitory synapse. Climbing fiber. GC: Granule cell. PF: Parallel fiber.
This synapse regulates the extent to which mossy and PC: Purkinje cell. GgC: Golgi cell. SC: Stellate cell.
climbing fibers activate the deep nuclei, and thus control BC: Basket cell.
the ultimate effect of the cerebellum on motor function.
The synaptic strength of almost every synapse in the
cerebellar cortex has been shown to undergo synaptic
plasticity. This allows the circuitry of the cerebellar cortex
to continuously adjust and fine-tune the output of the
cerebellum, forming the basis of some types of motor
learning and coordination. Each layer in the cerebellar
cortex contains the various cell types that comprise this
circuitry.

Molecular layer
This outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex contains two
types of inhibitory interneurons: the stellate and basket
cells. It also contains the dendritic arbors of Purkinje
neurons and parallel fiber tracts from the granule cells.
Both stellate and basket cells form GABAergic synapses
Figure 6: Confocal micrograph from mouse
onto Purkinje cell dendrites.
cerebellum expressing green-fluorescent protein in
Purkinje cells
Purkinje layer
The middle layer contains only one type of cell body—that of the large Purkinje cell. Purkinje cells are the
primary integrative neurons of the cerebellar cortex and provide its sole output. Purkinje cell dendrites are
large arbors with hundreds of spiny branches reaching up into the molecular layer (Fig. 6). These dendritic
arbors are flat—nearly all of them lie in planes—with neighboring Purkinje arbors in parallel planes. Each
parallel fiber from the granule cells runs orthogonally through these arbors, like a wire passing through many
layers. Purkinje neurons are GABAergic—meaning they have inhibitory synapses—with the neurons of the
deep cerebellar and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. Each Purkinje cell receives excitatory input from
100,000 to 200,000 parallel fibers. Parallel fibers are said to be responsible for the simple (all or nothing,
amplitude invariant) spiking of the Purkinje cell.
Purkinje cells also receive input from the inferior olivary nucleus via climbing fibers. A good mnemonic for
this interaction is the phrase "climb the other olive tree", given that climbing fibers originate from the
contralateral inferior olive. In striking contrast to the 100,000-plus inputs from parallel fibers, each Purkinje
cell receives input from exactly one climbing fiber; but this single fiber "climbs" the dendrites of the Purkinje
cell, winding around them and making a large number of synapses as it goes. The net input is so strong that a
single action potential from a climbing fiber is capable of producing a "complex spike" in the Purkinje cell: a
burst of several spikes in a row, with diminishing amplitude,[8] followed by a pause during which simple
spikes are suppressed.

Just underneath the Purkinje layer are the Lugaro cells whose very long dendrites travel along the boundary
between the Purkinje and the granular layers.

Granular layer
The innermost layer contains the cell bodies of three types of cells: the numerous and tiny granule cells, the
slightly larger unipolar brush cells[9] and the much larger Golgi cells. Mossy fibers enter the granular layer
from their main point of origin, the pontine nuclei. These fibers form excitatory synapses with the granule cells
and the cells of the deep cerebellar nuclei. The granule cells send their T-shaped axons—known as parallel
fibers—up into the superficial molecular layer, where they form hundreds of thousands of synapses with
Purkinje cell dendrites. The human cerebellum contains on the order of 60 to 80 billion granule cells, making
this single cell type by far the most numerous neuron in the brain (roughly 70% of all neurons in the brain and
spinal cord, combined). Golgi cells provide inhibitory feedback to granule cells, forming a synapse with them
and projecting an axon into the molecular layer.

Relationship with cerebral cortex

The local field potentials of the neocortex and cerebellum oscillate coherently at (6–40 Hz) in awake behaving
animals.[10] These appear to be under the control of output from the cerebral cortex.[11] This output would be
mediated by a pathway from layer 5/6 neurons in the neocortex through that project either to the pons or the
inferior olive. If through the pons this would go to mossy fibers that synapse with granule and Golgi neurons
with the granule cells then targeting Purkinje neurons via their excitatory parallel fibers. If the inferior olive it
would go via excitatory climbing fiber inputs to Purkinje neurons.[11] These return this output back to the
cerebral cortex through the ventrolateral thalamus completing the loop.

The corticopontocerebellar pathway is the largest pathway associated with the cerebellum. Arising in the
cerebral cortex these fibers first terminate ipsilaterally in the pontine nuclei. Then the fibers decussate and
form the middle cerebellar peduncle, terminating in the cerebellar cortex as mossy fibers. This pathway
transmits signals that inform the cerebellum about the movement in progress and the upcoming movement.
This helps the continuous adjustment of motor activity.[12]

The initiation of the movement is relayed to cerebellum via the corticoreticulocerebellar pathway. Those
synapse ipsilaterally in the reticular formation, then via the inferior and middle peduncles into the cerebellar
vermis.[12]

The motor cortex and somatosensory cortex projects onto the ipsilateral inferior and accessory olivary nuclei,
then forming the olivocerebellar tract. Cortico-olivary fibers synapse bilaterally in the inferior olivary nucleus.
The order is preserved in the olivocerebellar tract projections onto the ‘body maps’ in the contralateral
cerebellar cortex. Under resting conditions in animal experiments, groups of olivary neurons discharge
synchronously at 5 to 10 Hz (impulses/s). In the cerebellar cortex, the response of Purkinje cells takes the form
of complex spikes.[13]
The cerebellum send its projections back to the cerebral cortex via the Cerebellothalamic tract.

The cerebellar lateral expansion, or the neocerebellum, may be associated with cognitive functions, and it is
anatomically linked with the lateral prefrontal cortex. It shows greatest activity during speech, with a one-sided
predominance consistent with a possible linkage (via the thalamus) with the motor speech area.[13]

When lesions occur in the association areas linked to the cerebellum by corticopontocerebellar fibres, the
cognitive affective syndrome may occur. This results in cognitive defects in the form of diminished reasoning
power, inattention, grammatical errors in speech, poor spatial sense, and patchy memory loss.[13]

Blood supply
Three arteries supply blood to the cerebellum (Fig. 7): the
superior cerebellar artery (SCA), anterior inferior
cerebellar artery (AICA), and posterior inferior cerebellar
artery (PICA).

The SCA branches off the lateral portion of the basilar

artery, just inferior to its bifurcation into the posterior
cerebral artery. Here, it wraps posteriorly around the pons
(to which it also supplies blood) before reaching the
cerebellum. The SCA supplies blood to most of the
cerebellar cortex, the cerebellar nuclei, and the superior
cerebellar peduncles.[14]
Figure 7: The three major arteries of the
The AICA branches off the lateral portion of the basilar cerebellum: the SCA, AICA, and PICA
artery, just superior to the junction of the vertebral arteries.
From its origin, it branches along the inferior portion of
the pons at the cerebellopontine angle before reaching the
cerebellum. This artery supplies blood to the anterior
portion of the inferior cerebellum, the middle cerebellar
peduncle, and to the facial (CN VII) and vestibulocochlear
nerves (CN VIII). Obstruction of the AICA can cause
paresis, paralysis, and loss of sensation in the face; it can
also cause hearing impairment. Moreover, it could cause
an infarct of the cerebellopontine angle. This could lead to
hyperacusia (dysfunction of the stapedius muscle,
innervated by CN VII) and vertigo (wrong interpretation
from the vestibular semi-circular canal's endolymph
acceleration caused by alteration of CN VIII).

The PICA branches off the lateral portion of the vertebral

arteries just inferior to their junction with the basilar
artery. Before reaching the inferior surface of the
cerebellum, the PICA sends branches into the medulla,
supplying blood to several cranial nerve nuclei. In the
Figure 8: Illustration showing regions supplied by
cerebellum, the PICA supplies blood to the posterior the three cerebellar arteries.
inferior portion of the cerebellum, the inferior cerebellar
peduncle, the nucleus ambiguus, the vagus motor nucleus,
the spinal trigeminal nucleus, the solitary nucleus, and the vestibulocochlear nuclei.
Variations among vertebrates
There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. It is
generally largest in cartilaginous and bony fish, birds, and mammals, but somewhat smaller in reptiles. The
large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals, but the cerebellum is generally a
single median lobe in other groups, and is either smooth or only slightly grooved. In mammals, the
neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass, but in other vertebrates, it is typically the
spinocerebellum.[15]

In amphibians, lampreys, and hagfish the cerebellum is little developed; in the latter two groups it is barely
distinguishable from the brain-stem. Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups, the primary
structures are small paired nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum.[15]

Peduncles
The cerebellum follows the general groups-of-three pattern found in anatomy,[16] with three major input and
output cerebellar peduncles (fiber bundles). These are the superior (brachium conjunctivum), middle
(brachium pontis), and inferior (restiform and juxtarestiform bodies) cerebellar peduncles.

Peduncle Description
While there are some afferent fibers from the anterior spinocerebellar tract that are conveyed to the anterior
cerebellar lobe via this peduncle, most of the fibers are efferents. Thus, the superior cerebellar peduncle is
the major output pathway of the cerebellum. Most of the efferent fibers originate within the dentate nucleus
which in turn project to various midbrain structures including the red nucleus, the ventral lateral/ventral
Superior
anterior nucleus of the thalamus, and the medulla. The dentatorubrothalamocortical (dentate nucleus > red
nucleus > thalamus > premotor cortex) and cerebellothalamocortical (cerebellum > thalamus > premotor
cortex) pathways are two major pathways that pass through this peduncle and are important in motor
planning.
This is composed entirely of afferent fibers originating within the pontine nuclei as part of the massive
corticopontocerebellar tract (cerebral cortex > pons > cerebellum). These fibers descend from the sensory
Middle
and motor areas of the cerebral neocortex and make the middle cerebellar peduncle the largest of the three
cerebellar peduncles.
This carries many types of input and output fibers that are mainly concerned with integrating proprioceptive
sensory input with motor vestibular functions such as balance and posture maintenance. Proprioceptive
information from the body is carried to the cerebellum via the dorsal spinocerebellar tract. This tract passes
through the inferior cerebellar peduncle and synapses within the paleocerebellum. Vestibular information
Inferior
projects onto the archicerebellum.
The climbing fibers of the inferior olive run through the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
This peduncle also carries information directly from the Purkinje cells out to the vestibular nuclei in the
dorsal brainstem located at the junction between the pons and medulla.

There are three sources of input to the cerebellum, in two categories consisting of mossy and climbing fibers,
respectively. Mossy fibers can originate from the pontine nuclei, which are clusters of neurons located in the
pons that carry information from the contralateral cerebral cortex. They may also arise within the
spinocerebellar tract whose origin is located in the ipsilateral spinal cord. Most of the output from the
cerebellum initially synapses onto the deep cerebellar nuclei before exiting via the three peduncles. The most
notable exception is the direct inhibition of the vestibular nuclei by Purkinje cells.

Development
During the early stages of embryonic development, the brain starts to form in three distinct segments: the
prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon. The rhombencephalon is the most caudal (toward the
tail) segment of the embryonic brain; it is from this segment that the cerebellum develops. Along the
embryonic rhombencephalic segment develop eight swellings, called rhombomeres. The cerebellum arises
from two rhombomeres located in the alar plate of the neural tube, a structure that eventually forms the brain
and spinal cord. The specific rhombomeres from which the cerebellum forms are rhombomere 1 (Rh.1)
caudally (near the tail) and the "isthmus" rostrally (near the front).[17]

Two primary regions are thought to give rise to the neurons that make up the cerebellum. The first region is the
ventricular zone in the roof of the fourth ventricle. This area produces Purkinje cells and deep cerebellar
nuclear neurons. These cells are the primary output neurons of the cerebellar cortex and cerebellum. The
second germinal zone (cellular birthplace) is known as the Rhombic lip, neurons then move by human
embryonic week 27 to the external granular layer. This layer of cells—found on the exterior of the cerebellum
—produces the granule neurons. The granule neurons migrate from this exterior layer to form an inner layer
known as the internal granule layer.[18] The external granular layer ceases to exist in the mature cerebellum,
leaving only granule cells in the internal granule layer. The cerebellar white matter may be a third germinal
zone in the cerebellum; however, its function as a germinal zone is controversial.

Additional images

Dissection showing Scheme of roof of Human brain Anterior view of the

the projection fibers fourth ventricle. The midsagittal view human cerebellum,
of the cerebellum arrow is in the with numbers
foramen of indicating salient
Majendie. landmarks

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