Analog Electronics - K-Wiki - Chapter 2 - BJT

Analog Electronics (BJT)
Chapter 2 – Bipolar Junction Transistor
Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Determine the region of operation of BJT.
 Understand different configurations of BJT.
 Determine the operating point using DC Analysis.
 Understand Small Signal Analysis of BJT.
 Understand different configurations of Feedback Amplifier.
 Determine the frequency response of a BJT Amplifier.
Introduction
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (a.k.a. a BJT or Bipolar Transistor) is an active semiconductor
device formed by two P-N junctions whose function is amplification of an electric current.
Bipolar transistors are made from 3 sections of semiconductor material (alternating P-
type and N-type), with 2 resulting P-N junctions. Schematically, a bipolar transistor can be
thought of in this fashion:
One P-N junction is between the emitter and the base; the other P-N junction is between
the collector and the base. Note that the emitter and collector are usually doped somewhat
differently, so they are rarely electrically interchangeable. While the terms "collector" and
"emitter" go back to vacuum tube days, the base derives its name from the first point-
contact transistors -- here the center connection also formed the mechanical base for the
structure. In modern practice, the base region is made as thin as possible to achieve
reasonable levels of current gain; it is often only about one millionth of a meter thick.
Types of BJT Configurations

NPN PNP
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NPN Transistor has collector and emitter regions made of n-type semiconductor whereas the
base region is p-type semiconductor.
In PNP Transistor, the collector and emitter regions are made of p-type semiconductor
whereas the base region is n-type semi-conductor.
The direction of arrow in transistor is between emitter and base and is directed from p-
region to n-region and thus indicates the direction of the current flow.
By KCL IE  IC  IB
In BJT, the PN junctions can be represented as diodes.
V  V  V  0 V V V
BE CB CE EC EB BC
Thus, by KVL V  V  V
CE CB BE
Region of Operation
Depending upon the voltages at Base-Emitter and Base-Collector Junction, BJT has different
regions of operation.

Different regions of operation based on junction voltages are tabulated below,
Emitter Base junction Collector Base junction

1 cut  off V  0.6V R.B.  V  0.6V R.B 
BE BC
2 Inverse active V  0.6V R.B  V  0.6V F.B 
BE BC
3 Active V  0.6V F.B  V  0.6V R.B 
BE BC
4 Saturation V  0.6V F.B  V  0.6V F.B 
BE BC
In cut-off region both the junctions are reverse biased and thus high resistance is offered to
the flow of current so Collector current is zero and BJT acts as a Controlled Switch in OFF
state.
In Active region, emitter base region is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased and transistor acts as an Amplifier.
IC  IB
In Saturation region, both junctions are Forward Biased and the Transistor acts as a
Controlled Switch in ON State.
In Reverse Active Region, the Emitter Base Junction is Reverse Biased but Collector Base
Junction is Forward Biased and the Gain of the Transistor is less than 1 so it acts as an
Attenuator.

Steps to determine the Region of Operation

Active
Assume I  IB
C
V  0.7V
BE
Based on this assumption, we prove
V  0.2V
CE
For pnp Transistor,

Assume I  I
C B
V  0.7V
EB
V  0.2V
EC
Saturation
Assume V  0.2V and V  0.7V
CE BE
V  0.7  0.2  V  0.5V
B B
forced  active
For pnp Transistor,

Assume V  0.2V and V  0.7V
EC EB
The emitter and collector voltage
Are as indicated in the figure
forced  active
By KCL,
I I I
E C B
I  I
C B
I 
I  I  I   1 I . Thus, c 
E B B B I  1
E

Solved Examples
Problem: Calculate all the node voltage & branch current if VBE  0.7 &   10
Solution: We follow the following steps to determine the region of operation,

Step-1: Find V
E
V  4  0.7  3.3V
E
Step-2: Find I
E
V  0 3.3
I  E   1mA
E 3.3k 3.3k
Step-3: Find I
C
   100
I   I   1m  0.99 mA
C    1  E 101
Step-4: Find V
c
V  10  I 4.7  10  0.99 4.7  5.3V
c c
V V
c E
BJT is in active region.
Problem: Calculate all branch current & node voltage

Solution: Emitter voltage is,

V  6  0.7  5.3V
E
V  0 5.3
Emitter current is, I  E   1.6mA
E 3.3 3.3k
 100
Collector Current is, I  I   1.6  m  103  1.5841A
C 1   E 101
C c
Collector Voltage is, V  10  4.7k I  10  4.7k 1.58   2.57V
Since, V  V
c E
Thus, BJT is not in active region. It is in Saturation region.
Now, assume saturation,
10  5.5
I   0.95mA
c 4.7k
5.3
I   1.6mA
E 3.3k
I  I  I  1.6  0.95 = 0.65 mA
B E C
I 0.95
  c   1.4
forced I 0.65
B
active 
  BJT is in saturation
forced
Problem: Calculation all node voltages & branch current.

Solution: Since, V  0
B
V  0.7 V
E
Since base emitter junction is Reverse Biased, I  0
E
  
Then, I   I 0
C  1    E
Thus, V  10  4.7  I  10V
c c
 BJT is in cut – off.

Problem: Calculate all the node voltage & branch current if   100 for the circuit shown
below.
Solution: Since, V  0 and V  V  V  V  0.7V

B EB E B E
5  0.7
I   0.86mA
E 5k
   100
Collector Current, I   I   0.86m  0.85mA
C  1    E 101
V   5 V 5
I  c  0.85m  c
C 1k 1k
V  I 1k   5  4.14V
c c
EC E C
 
Thus, V  V  V  0.7  4.14  4.84V
Since, V  0.2V
EC
 BJT is in active mode.
Problem: Calculate all the node voltages and branch current.
Solution: The base emitter junction of both transistors can be treated as diodes and then
the circuit looks like as shown below,

1.3   10 
I 
o 3k
I  3.76mA
o
I I I
o C C
1 2
I 0
C
2
I  I
o C
1
If 2V source is also replaced by ground, then
0.7   10 
I0   3.1mA
3k
BJT Biasing
The purpose of biasing is to switch on the BJT to work in active region such that the dc
collector current (zero signal current or quiescent current) remains constant, independent of
 , temperature & load variations.
Note:  varies from 50 to 250

 can be calculated with the help of R
c
 is the worst factor
 depends on temperature, frequency, manufacture, process variation
In BJT, the base emitter voltage is dependent on temperature with a coefficient of
V  2.5mV 0 C
be
V /V
Since, I  I e be t and thus collector current also changes with temperature which is called
C S
as Drift Problem in Transistors.

If Load changes, then VCE and VBE changes and this is called as Early Effect. This is explained
by example below,
1
R    ideal
0 slope
VA
R0  (practical)
ICDC
V  0.0001V
CE BE
Fixed Base Bias

If emitter resistance is given then we first calculate base current and then calculate collector
current.
If emitter resistance is not given, then we first calculate collector current and from that we
calculate base current.
V V
I  CC BE const
 
B R
b
V  V 
I  I    CC BE 
c B  R 
 b 
  is not a good transistor parameter.  varies from 50 to 200 for different specimen of
the given transistor type.
  depends on temperature, frequency, manufacturer etc.
 Any circuit that depends on a particulars value of  is a bad circuit.
 Biasing a BJT with emitter resistor R
e

KVL at input loop:

V  I R  V  I R  0          (1)
CC B b BE E E
I
I  E        (2)
B  1
Substitute (2) in (1)
V V
I  CC BE
E R
R  b
E  1
V V
I  CC BE
C R
DC E
R
This is possible only if we choose R  b
E  1
Note: If the base potential increases then BJT will go to saturation. In order to maintain in
active region & decreases the base potential we go for voltage divider bias, self-bias or
universal bias.
Self-Bias or voltage divider bias or universal bias

In this configuration the collector voltage source itself supplies
The base current and hence it is called as Self-Bias.
This circuit can be simplified as shown below,
On the base side we can determine the Thevenin Equivalent as shown below,
By KVL at input loop
VccR 2
Vth 
R1  R 2
V  R I  V  R I  0
th thB BE EE
I
I  E
B  1

I
V R E  V R I
th th   1 BE EE
R 
V  I  th  R   V
th E    1 E  BE
 
V R
Where, V  cc 2 ; R  R R
th R  R th 1 2
1 2
R R
Choose R  1 2
E
 
   1  R1  R2
V R
CC 2  V
R R BE
I  1 2 which is constant
C R
DC E
To eliminate the drift problem we can use the circuit given below,
V R
CC 2  0.7  0.7
R R
I  1 2
C R
DC E
V  V  0.7  0.7  V
E B B
V R V R
cc 2 CC 2
V V R R R R
I  E  B  1 2 and I  1 2
E R R R C R
E E E DC E
It is necessary that both the transistors should have same temperature coefficient.
Note: Biasing a BJT with op – amp in negative feedback will totally eliminate the problem of
drift.
V V
E
V V
I  E  I
E R R C DC 
V  V  0.7
op
V  0.7  V
op

The drift problem is eliminated as illustrated in the cycle below,
Note: Current sources with NPN transistor have floating load whereas current sources with
PNP transistors have grounded load.
V
R2
V R R
I I  x  1 2 (NPN = floating load)
C E R R
VR
V 2
VV R R VR
I  x  1 2  1
E R R R R R
1  2 
VR
1
I PNP  Grounded load 
C DC 

R R R
1 2 

Solved Examples
Problem: Find all the node voltages and branch current if   50
Solution: Thevenin Equivalent is given by,

9
V   3  3V
th 3  6
63
R   2V
th 36
Emitter current is given by,
V V
I  th BE  3  0.7  1.127mA
E R 2k
R  th 2k 
E  1 51
    50 
DC Collector current, I
C
  IE    1.127m  1.104mA
DC    1   51 
KVL at output loop:
9  I 1k   V  I 2k 
C CE E
V  5.642V
CE
V  V  V  7.85  2.3  5.55V
CE C E
Problem: Considering    , calculate all node voltages & branch current.

Solution: By Potential divider, neglecting base current as   

3k
V   9  3V
B2 3k  6k
V  3  0.7  2.3V
E2
2.3
I   2.3mA  I
E2 1k C1
Similarly,
6k
V   9  6V
B1 3k  6k
V  V  V  V  V  5.3  2.3  3V active
CE2 C2 E2 E1 E2
V  6  0.7  5.3V
E1
VC1  9  IC1 0.5K   7.85V
VCE1  VC1  VE1  7.85  5.3  2.55 V
Problem: Find the load current I if  is very high.

L
b) Find the minimum value of R if transistor Q is in saturation if V  0.2V
L 2 C
This is the circuit of Voltage Programmable Current Source with grounded load.
Solution: Different currents and voltages are given by,
V   2 3  2
I  E1   2mA
E1 2.5k 2.5k
I  I  2mA
E1 C1
V  12  I  4k   4V  V
C1 C1 E2
12  4 8
I    I  26.67m
E2 300 300 L

Given V  0.2V
CE  sat 
V V I R
E2 CE2 L L
4  0.2
R   142
L
min 26.67m
Problem: Find the region of operation of BJT if   99 & V  0.7V

B
Find V & I if V  2V
o o in
Solution: V range is 0 to 5V
in
Even for small positive input V , the output is positive. As the emitter terminal is connected
in
to -15V, the transistor is certainly not in cut – off & the emitter – base junction is definitely
forward bias.
V range  0 to 5V
in
V  V  V  15  V
CE C E in
V range = 10 to 15V (positive)
CE
 BJT is in active region.
V   15 2  15 17
I  in    1.7A
o 10 10 10
V  0.7  V  0.7  2  2.7V
B E
V V I V  2.7
I  o B  o  o
B 150 1 150
I V  2.7 1.7 V  2.7
o  o   o
100 150 100 150
V  5.25V
o

Advantage of R
E
1) Stability of I independent of  .
C
DC
2) Thermal stability.
3) Increase input resistance.
VBE  VB  VE
 Vbb  IERE
Cascade Current Source

Cascade current source for improved current stability on load variation.
This structure eliminates early effect.

For different values of Load Resistance the Collector Emitter voltages of two transistors are
given as,
load V V
CE2 CE1
1k 0.8V 7.2V
2k 0.8V 6.2
3k 0.8V 5.2
4k 0.8V 4.2
5k 0.8V 3.2
The output characteristics of the transistor based on this data can be plotted as shown
below,
VA
R0  where VA Early voltage
IC
DC
1
R0  
slope
The following circuits can also be used to eliminate the early effect

Current Source
The following circuit is used to create a current source which is independent of supply.
It has the following advantages:
1) I is independent of supply.
C
2) No early effect.
But the disadvantages are:
V
I  BE V dependent on term [Drift problem]
C
DC 700 BE
The same functionality can be achieved by the following

Circuit:
Configurations of BJT
Common Base Configuration
Z  30
in
Z  1M CS
o
A 1
I
A  600
V
This circuit can be used as Current Controlled Current Source and Current Buffer.

Common Collector Configuration
Z  9m V
in c
Z  8 V
o s
A 1
v
A  100
I
This configuration is used as Voltage Controlled Voltage Source and Voltage Buffer.
Common Emitter Configuration
Z  1k
in
Z  50k
o
A  200
v
A  100
I
In Common emitter configuration, A p i.e. power gain is very high. It is most commonly used
configuration as an Amplifier.
Small signal analysis of BJT

This is the most general form of
BJT as a Common Emitter Amplifier.

The purpose of R , R and the coupling capacitor at the input is to clamp small signal V
1 2 in
V R
at the dc of CC 2 such that the transistor operates in active region. R & R are also
R R 1 2
1 2
called biasing resistors. The purpose of R is to stabilized I independent of  . R also
E C DC  E
gives thermal stability. The purpose of o/p capacitor is to block dc & allow AC signal.
R & R are load resistors.
C L
The effect of including emitter resistance is,
For DC analysis it stabilizes I i.e. makes it independent of 
C DC 
In AC analysis it reduces the gain.
For AC Analysis, the without CE equivalent circuit looks like,

0  V0
ic 
Rc
V0  icR c
Vin  Vbe  ieRE
V0 icR c
AV  
Vin Vbe  ieRE
Purpose of bypass capacitor C

E
 C behaves as open circuit for DC signals and it allows R to play its role in establishing
E E
 independent DC collector current.
 C behaves as short circuit for AC signals eliminating the gain reducing emitter resistor
E
R so the gain is increased.
E
DC Analysis
Replace capacitor by open circuit.
V  V I R
C CC C C
DC DC
V R 
 CC 2  V 
R  R BE 
VC  V   1 2 R
CC  R R  C
R  1 2 
 E  1 
 

AC Analysis
Capacitors are replaced by short circuit.
Combining identical nodes into one node, the equivalent circuit becomes,
From the above circuit,

AC output voltage, V  i R R 
o c  c L 
AC input voltage, V  Vbe
in  AC 
i  Ac  R
Voltage gain A V  V c R 
be  c 
C L
A 
A  gm R R 
v  c L 
To determine the Transconductance, we make use of the DC Analysis

The non-linear characteristic in the first curve can be approximated by the linear
characteristics in the second curve as shown,
y i
slope   c(AC)  gm (trans-conductance)
x V
be(AC)
Vbe /Vt
I I e
c s
dI VBE (DC)
C  1  I e Vt
dV V s
BE t
Thus, Trans-conductance can be expressed as,

I I
C DC  C DC 
gm  
V 25mV
t
Since, I  I eVD / Vt
D s
dI
D  I eVDDC /Vt . 1
dV s V
D t
I
D DC 
m
V
t
1 V
Thus, rd   t
m I
D DC 
Foe AC analysis, replace BJT by its equivalent circuit
Base to emitter resistance r 

V V
be  be  
ib ic /  gm

Small signal model
gmVbe  ib
Small signal AC model
Small signal DC model
Solved Examples
Problem: Find the DC collector current if V  0.7 &  is very large. Find the voltage gain
B
V V if V  25mV
o in T
Solution: For DC Analysis, Capacitors are replaced by Open Circuit

3k 3k
V  9  9
1 3k  6k 9k
V  3V
1
I  1mA (from the figure)
C DC 
I
C DC 
1mA
gm  
25mV 25mV
A  gm R R 
V  C L 

1
gm   3k 3k 
25 
A  60
v
Problem: Find the voltage gain V / V if   99, V  0.7 & V  25mA .

o in B T
Solution: For DC analysis, capacitors are replaced by open circuit.

 
By KVL, 4  I 100k  0.7  I 2k  0
B E
 
I I
I  E  E
B   1 100
Substitute (2) in (1)
4  0.7
I   1.1mA
E 100k
2k 
100
    99  3
I   IE     1.1 10  1.089mA
C DC     1   100 
I
C DC  1.089  103
gm    0.043mA / V
25mV 25  103
 99
r    2.2k
gm  1.089 
 
 25 
AC equivalent:

Small Signal Model of the Transistor thus looks like,
V   99ib 1k        1 V  ib 100k  2.2k         2

o in
V 99 1k 
A  o   0.96
v V 100k  2.2k
in
Since, Gain is close to unity. This circuit is acting as buffer.
Problem: Given   100 . Find the voltage gain V / V , if V  25mV .

o in T
Solution: For DC Analysis, open circuit the capacitors

For Q1,
V  0.7V
E1
0.7   10 
I   1mA  I
E1 9.3k C1
V  10  1m9.3k  = 0.7V
C1
1
g   0.04
m1 25
 100
r    2500 
g 0.04
m1

For Q2,
V  V  0.7  0.7  0.7 =0 V
E2 C1
V   10 
I  C2 = 2mA  I
E2 5k C2
V  10  2m2k  = 6V
o
2
g   0.08
m2 25
 100
r    1250 
g 0.08
m2
For AC Analysis the circuit looks like,
Replacing each transistor by Small Signal Model
 2 
V  V 2k
o  25 be2 
1
V  V 9.3k 2.5k 
be 2 25 be 1 
V V
in be 1

V V V V
o  be 2  be 1 = 2  2k   1  9.3k 1.25k  1   6.4  10 3
Voltage gain A   v
 o 
V V V V 25  25 
in be 2 be 1 in
= 7052
V  7052 V  7052 V
o in be  
Problem: For the emitter follower circuit given, calculate the voltage gain, input resistance
R & output resistance R . Given   100
in o
Solution: For DC Analysis, the circuit looks like as shown below,

V V
I  cc BE  12  0.7  1.26mA
E R 100k
R  B 8k 
E  1 101
   100
I   IE   1.26  103  1.25mA
C DC     1  101
I
C DC  1.25
gm  
25mV 25
 100
r    2k
gm  1.25 
 
 25 
AC Analysis

Input Resistance
Vin
R in 
Iin
V  101i
o b 
V  i  2k   101i  8k 
in b b
V 101 8k
A  o   0.997
v V 2k  101 8k
in
Again, since Gain is approximately 1 it acts as Voltage Buffer.
V V V
I  in  i  in  in
in 100k b 100k 2k  101  8k
2kV  101 8k  V  100k V

Iin  in in in
100k 2k  108k 
V 1
in   100k 2k  101  8k 
I 1 1
in 
100k 2k  101 8k
V
R  in  89k
in I
in
Output Resistance
Input has been shorted and we apply a source of 1V at the output to determine the output
resistance,
1V
R0 
Ix
0 1 1
i    mA        1 
b 2k 2

By KCL,
i  100i  I  I
b b x E
1 1
101      I x 
 2k  8k
1 101
I  
x 8k 2k
1
R   19.7
o I
x
Differential Amplifier
In this configuration, the output voltage is difference of
Collector voltage of two transistor and hence it is called
as Differential Amplifier.
Here, both transistors are assumed to be identical.
The input voltage is divided among the base emitter
junction of two transistors as shown below,
For Transistor 1,
  V gmR
V  gmR  V  gmR in  cV
C1 
c  be 1  c 2 2 in
For Transistor 2,
   V  gmR
V  gmR  V  g R   in   cV
C2 c  be 2  m
c 2  2 in
 
V  V  V  gmR V
o C1 C2 C in
V
A  o  gmR
V V C
in

The equivalent circuit of Differential Amplifier is,
AC Equivalent DC Equivalent
For DC Analysis,
I
V V V  oR
C1 C2 CC 2 C
V  V  V = 0V
o C1 C2
 The need for R ,R and coupling capacitor in CE amplifier is eliminated in differential
1 2
amplifier by biasing with negative supply.
 The need for bypass capacitor is eliminated with two symmetrical circuit. The need for
output capacitor to block DC is eliminated by differential measurement. Hence
differential amplifier is a direct coupled amplifier without capacitor. It is a basic building
block of analog IC design.
Solved Examples
Problem: Find the differential gain of differential amplifier shown below.

Solution: Collector current of each transistor is,

I 3mA
I  o   1.5m
C(DC) 2 2
I
C DC  1.5
gm  
25mV 25
Differential gain
V 1.5
A  o  gmR   2k = - 120
d V c 25
in
Problem: Find the differential gain of differential amplifier.
Solution: Assuming that current gain of transistor is very high so we can neglect base
current of Transistor.
By KVL,
0   12
I  1mA
3k  9k
0V V
I B  1mA  B
3k 3k
V  3V
B
V  V  0.7  3.7V  V  3.7V
E B E
V   12  3.7  12
I  E   2.76mA
o 3k 3k

I
I  o  1.38mA
C DC  2
I
gm  C  1.38  0.0052
25mV 25
1.38
V gmR  3k
A  o  c  25  82.8
d V 2 2
in
Problem: Find the differential gain for differential Amplifier.
Solution: Voltage across two diodes,

V  1.4V  0.7  I 350 
xy o
0.7
I   2mA
o 350
I
I  o  1mA
C DC  2
I 1
gm  C 
25m 25
1
V
o
gmR
c 25
 4k 
A     80
d V 2 2
in

Problem: Find the input resistance R for the amplifier given with   100 & V  25mV
in T
I 2mA
Solution: I  o   1mA
C 2 2
I 1mA
gm  C 
25m 25mV
 100
r    2.5k
gm 1
25
For AC analysis we have to short DC sources,
R  200  200  400 

in
Vin
R in 
Iin
101 i  101 i
b1 b2
i  i
b1 b2
By KVL, V  i 2.5k   101 i  400  i 2.5  0
in b1 b1 b2

V  i 2.5k  2.5k  101  400

in b1
V V
R  in  in  2.5  2.5  101 400  45.4k
in I i
in b1
Emitter resistor R increases the input resistance.
E
R  r  1    R
in E
R  2 r  1    R   2  2.5  101  200  = 43.4kΩ

id  E
Cascaded Configurations
Advantages
1) Wider bandwidth due to impedance mismatch between two stages. This structure
eliminates miller effect.
2) Large output resistance as the structure eliminates early effect.
3) The overall trans-conductance of the cascade amplifier is equal to the larger trans
conductance of common emitter amplifier.

The AC equivalent of the above configuration is shown below,

i  AC 
gm  c
V  AC 
be
V  I R  i R
o L C c c
V i R
A  o  c c  gmR c
v V V
in be
Due to Miller’s Effect the equivalent capacitance is,

Ceq  C1  C2 1  A
Thus, equivalent capacitance increases.
1 1
BW  
 RCeq
So, Bandwidth reduces due to Miller’s Effect.
Due to Cascaded Configuration, equivalent resistance reduces and thus Bandwidth increases.
Common Emitter with Common Collector
The AC equivalent of above configuration is,

i  AC  i  AC 
gm  c  c
V  AC  V
be in
V  i R
o c c
V i R
A  o  c c
v V V
in in
Thus, the voltage gain is A  gmR
V C
Common Base with Common Collector
Thus, AC equivalent circuit of above configuration is,

i  AC  i  AC 
gm  c  c
V  AC  V / 2
be in
gm ic  AC 

2 V
in
V i R
o c c
V iR g
A  o  c c  mR
v V V 2 c
in in
Darlington Pair
In Darlington Pair, two transistor are cascaded in Common Emitter configuration so that the
gain is increased as well as Input Resistance is increased. This configuration is used as
Amplifier.

I     1 I
E x
I    1  1 I
E B
2
I     1 I
E B
I
I  E ( I is less, I is more)
B B E
  12
Problem: Calculate all the node voltages and branch currents if   10 & V  0.7V
BE
Solution: To determine the input voltage the circuit is,

100
V   10
1 100  100
100
V   10
1 200
V  5V
1
Thevenin Resistance,
R  50 
Th
Now the circuit looks like as shown below,
Apply KVL at input loop.
5  50I  0.7  0.7  I 10  0       1
B E
I I
I  E  E         2
B
1  2 121
Subtract (2) in (1)
5  1.4
I   0.345A
E 50
10 
121

Collector-Emitter Voltage for both Transistors is,

V  V  V  10  I 10   10  3.45  6.55V
CE2 C2 E2 E
V  0.7  V
CE1 CE2
V V  0.7  6.55  0.7  5.85V
CE1 CE2
Problem: Given the trans conductance of transistor Q is gm1 & for Q . It is gm2 . Find the
1 2
overall trans-conductance I / V .
o in
Solution: The trans-conductance of first transistor is,

I
gm1  C1
v
B1
The trans-conductance of second transistor is,
I
gm2  C2
v
B2
I i i i
o c1 c2 c2
i I
gm2  c2  o = Overall Trans-conductance
V V
be2 in
Comparison between different transistor models

V h I h V
1 11 1 12 2
I h I h V
2 21 1 22 2
V
h  1 [Short Circuit Input Resistance]
11 I
1 V 0
2
V
h  1 [Open Circuit reverse voltage ratio]
12 V
2 I 0
1
I
h  2 [Short Circuit forward current gain]
21 I
1 V 0
2
I
h  2 [Open Circuit output admittance]
22 V
1 I 0
1
h h h h
11 ie 21 fe
h h h h
12 re 22 oe
V  h I h I  V  h i h V (KVL, Thevenin)
1 11 1 12 2 be ie b re ce
I h I h V i h i h V (KCL, Norton)
2 21 1 22 2 c fe b oe ce
Since, BJT does not have reverse transmission hre is neglected.
Neglect
Practically, hre  10 4

h-model of the Transistor is,
pi-model of the Transistor is,
The characteristics of the Transistor with Early Effect is,
The relation between parameters of the two models are,

h  r  
ie gm
h 
fe
V
1  ro  A
h I
oe C(DC)
I
C(DC)
Where, gm 
25mV
The “T – Model” of the Transistor is shown,

V V
re  be  be  1
i i gm
e c

Feedback Amplifier
The general configuration of negative feedback is shown below,
Gain with feedback

x 0 A
A 
x s f 1  A
In most of the amplifiers A is far greater than one.

If A  1
A 1
Then, A  
f A 
 is designed with passive components (resistors) which are predictable, stable and accurate.
Hence the advantage of negative feedback is to establish very accurate and stable gain.
Amplifier R R Types of Feedback
in o
Voltage High Low Series – shunt
Current Low High Shunt – series
Trans conductance High High Series – series
Trans resistance Low Low Shunt – shunt
Voltage Amplifier [VCVS, series – shunt feedback]
By KVL, V  V  V  0
s in f
V V V
in s f
Hence, this is a negative feedback configuration.

V V
1) A  o  o
V V V
in s f
V
2)   f
V
o
A
3) A 
f 1  A
Trans-conductance amplifier [VCCS, series – series feedback]
By KVL, V  V  V  0
s in f
V V V
in S f
I I
1) A  o  o
V V V
in s f
V
2)   f
I
o
A
3) A 
f 1  A

Current Amplifier [CCCS, shunt series feedback]
By KCL, I  I  I
S in f
I  I I
in s f
I I
1) A  o  o
I I I
in s f
I
2)   f
I
o
A
3) A 
f 1  A
Trans-resistance amplifier [CCVS, shunt – shunt feedback]
By KCL, I  I  I
S in f
I  I I
in s f
V V
1) A  o  o
I I I
in s f
2)

I
3)   f
V
o
A
4) A 
f 1  A
Solved Examples
Problem: Given I  10A, I  A, I  100mA for the feedback network shown, Find A,B
S f o
closed loop gain A .
f
I I 100  103
Solution: A  o  o   33.3k
I I I 6 6
in s f 10  10  7  10
I 7  106
 f   0.07m  70
I 3
o 100  10
A
A   33299.9
f 1  A
Voltage amplifier (series – shunt feedback)
The following configuration is used to implement Voltage Amplifier in Series-Shunt Feedback

Configuration.
 R 
V  1  f V
o  R  s
 1 
V V
s f

V R
V  o 1
s R R
f 1
The same amplifier can be realized using an Op-Amp
 R 
V0   1  f  Vs
 R1 
V R
V  0 1
s R R
f 1
Thus, a negative feedback Op-Amp acts
as Voltage Amplifier.
Similarly, it can be realized using FET.
 R 
V0   1  f  Vs
 R1 
To determine the output of amplifier, the following quantities should be equated to zero.
BJT: Vbe=0 and Ib=0
Op-Amp: Vd=0 and Id=0
FET: Vgs=0 and Ig=0
The basic rule of the feedback for different BJT terminals is,
Base Terminal acts as Shunt Terminal
Collector Terminal acts as Shunt Terminal
Emitter Terminal acts as Series Terminal
Since in above configuration feedback is from collector terminal of one transistor to emitter
terminal of the other transistor and thus, the feedback is Series-Shunt Feedback.
V R 1
Voltage gain: A  o  1  f 
f V R 
s 1
R
 1
R R
f 1

Trans-conductance Amplifier
This configuration acts as Voltage Controlled Current Source. It can be realized using BJT as
well as Op-Amp as shown below,
The output can be redrawn as shown below,

V I R
S x 3
 I R 
V  o 1 R
s R  R  R  3
 1 2 3
I R R R
gm  o  1 2 3
I RR
S 1 3
1 RR
  1 3
gm R  R  R
1 2 3
The AC equivalent of above BJT configuration is shown below,
Since feedback here is from emitter terminal of one Transistor to emitter terminal of other
transistor. Hence, it acts as Series-Series Feedback.

From the above figure,

V
I  s
o R
E
I 1
gm  trans conduc tance   o 
V R
s E
The voltage gain can be calculated as,
V   i R
o b c 
V  i r  1    i R
in b b E
V R R R
o  c  C  C
V r  1    R 1   RE RE
in  E
For CE Amplifier (with bypass capacitor), the voltage gain was derived to be A  gmR .
v C
I
C DC 
Where, gm 
25mV
For CE Amplifier (without bypass capacitor),
Vin
the circuit looks like as shown below V0  I0R C  R
RE C
R
A  c
v R
E
Due to absence of bypass capacitor the gain is reduced.
Current amplifier (shunt - series)

Current Amplifier can be realized using the two configurations shown above.
Since, the feedback is from emitter terminal of one transistor to base terminal of the other,
this configuration acts as Shunt Series Feedback.
The feedback loop for BJT configuration can be drawn as shown below,
I  R 
1) Current gain o   1  f 
I  R1 
S
1 R
2)    1
gain R  R
f 1
I R
I  0 1
S R R
f 1
 R 
I   1  f  I
o  R S
 1
Similarly, with Op-Amp the feedback loop can be drawn
as shown,
Solved Examples
Problem: Determine the voltage gain of the circuit shown below,
Solution: For AC analysis we short-circuit the collector supply voltage,

Thus, V  I R
o o c
V
I  s
S R
s
I  R 
Therefore, o   1  f 
I  R1 
s

The voltage gain can be expressed as,

V V I I  R  1
A  o  o  o  s  R   1  f 
v V I I V c  R R
s o S s  1 s
R  R 
A  c 1  f 
v R  R 
s  1
Hence, the relation between voltage gain and current gain is
A R
A  I L
v R
in
Input and output resistance of a feedback amplifier
The circuit of a Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier is shown below,
Input Resistance of a Non-Feedback Amplifier is,

V
R Basic amp   in
in I
in
V V 1  A
R  feedback   s  in
in I I
s in
V  V  V  V  V  V  AV
s in f in o in in
V  V 1  A
s in
R
Similarly, R  o
of 1  A
Configuration Input Output Feedback

Resistance Resistance
Series-Shunt R 1  A R Voltage-Series or h-
in o
1  A feedback
Shunt-Series R R 1  A Current-Shunt or g-
in o
1  A feedback
Series-Series R 1  A R 1  A Current-Series or z-
in  o
feedback
Shunt-Shunt R R Voltage-Shunt or Y-
in o
1  A 1  A feedback

In feedback amplifier using Op-Amp,

A
Gain with feedback, A 
f 1  A
dA
Hence, f  1  A  A
dA 1  A 2
dA
dA 
f
1  A 2
dA
f  dA / Af
A
f 1  A 2
Thus, in terms of percentage change we can write,
% change in A
%change in A 
f 1  A
Thus, the effect of feedback on parameters of Op-Amp is
D
1) Differential Gain, D 
f 1  A
N
2) Noise Gain, N 
f 1  A
3) Bandwidth, BW  BW 1  A

f
4) Input Resistance, R  R 1  A for series feedback
f in
R
R  in for shunt feedback
f 1  A
Here, "1  A " is called de sensitivity factor.
Solved Examples
Problem: An op – amp has open – loop gain = 106 If there is 50% reduction in its gain what
is the % change observed in overall gain with feedback for the circuit shown.

R
Solution: A  106 ;  1  1k  1
R R 3k  1k 4
f 1
50%
%A   1.99  104
f 1
1  106  
4
CMRR for a Differential Amplifier
V  g R V
o m c in
Differential gain (Ad)
V V V
A  o  o  o  g R
d V V V V m c
d 1 2 in
For common mode gain, it is found that the
potential at both the emitter terminals are same.
Hence, the circuit splits into two half circuits for
common signal.
AC equivalent of one half of amplifier is,

V R
o A  c
V cm 2R
cm E
V g R
o A  m c
V d 2
d
CMRR is calculated only for half circuit.

R
Ad gm c
CMRR[Half ckt]   2 g R
A cm Rc m E
2RE
CMRR can be improved by increasing R hence replace R with a constant current source
E E
or current mirror. Current mirror offers large output resistance improving CMRR.
Solved Examples
Problem: For the common base amplifier given, calculate voltage gain, current gain, input
resistance & output resistance.
Solution: For AC analysis, the equivalent circuit is as shown below,
o 
V  g V R
m be c 
By KVL : V  V  0
be in
V  V
in be
Voltage Gain is given by,
V
A  o 

g R V 
m c be  g R
v V V m c
in be

Since, I  I and I  I
o c in e
I I
A  o  C  0.999 (Since, Common base is current buffer)
I I I
in e
V V
be    be  1
i g i g
b m c m
V  V
in be
I  i  i
in e c
V V 1
R  in  be 
in I i g
in c m
(For R connect IV across 5k, short V & calculate R which will be high).
o in o
The differences in Common Base and Common Collector Configuration are,
CB CC
1
LowR  High R
in g in
m
HIgh R Low R
o o
High A  g R A high
v m c I
A 1 A 1
I v
Current Mirror
The collector current depends on base current and ideally the collector current should be
independent of collector emitter voltage i.e. transistors should work in active region.
2I
I I  c
ref c 
 2
I  I 1  
ref C   
 2
I  I 1    I  I
ref o    ref o
 is large
Disadvantage:
For   100 , current error of 2%

V V
CEQ BE
1
V can be anything [early effect]
CEQ
2
(In order to remove early effect, keep V as constant)
CEQ
2
Note: If a diode and a transistor are cascaded then also current mirror can be realized. This
diode can also be realized using a transistor.
I I
C se
I  I 
Transistor Q : V  V ln  C1   V ln  ref 
1 BE1 t  I  t  I 
 s   s 
Transistor Q : But V V
2 BE1 BE2
VBE2 /Vt
I I I e  I VBE2 / Vt  I  I
C2 o s se C1 ref
Thus, I I
o ref

Wilson’s current source
From the diagram,

 2   2  2  2 
I I I   I  
ref C C    1  C  2  
    
 2  2 
I I  
o C 2 
   
I 2
o    2
I 2
ref   2  2
If there is no early effect,
V  2V  const 
CE BE
Q
1
V  V  cons tant 
CE BE
Q
2
Note: Transistor Q in Wilson’s Current Source acts

3
as a cascade structure to shield the matching between
Q & Q but there is a systematic error in
1 2
Wilson’s current source.
V  
Q  2V
CE 1 BE
To eliminate this error let us include transistor Q
4
in the current mirror.

V V V V V V
xy BE BE BE CB BE
Q Q Q Q Q
3 2 4 1 1
1.4  V  1.4V
CB
Thus, V  0V
CB
Q
1
1 1
R     ideal current source
o slope 0
V V
CE BE
Q
1
V V
CE BE
Q
2
Solved Examples
Problem: Find the value of resistance R if the transistor Q & Q operate at some collector
x y
current.
Solution: In DC analysis, short all the AC sources.

Then all the currents are as indicated in the figure.

Emitter Voltage of Qx is,

VEX  VBX  0.7  4  0.7  3.3V
Emitter and Collector Current of Qx is,
VEX 3.3
IEX    1mA
REX 3.3
Voltage across R is, VR  10  0.7  9.3 V
10  0.7
R
1mA
R  9.3k
Solved Examples
V
Problem: Calculate the differential gain o for the amplifier given.
V
in
10   4.3 
Solution: I I   1.43mA
ref o 10k
I 1.43m
Collector Current, I  o 
C(DC) 2 2
I
C(DC)  1.43 / 2 
g   
m V  25 
E
Ad  gmR
C
 1.43 / 2 
Ad    2k  57.2
 25 

Problem: Calculate I ,I ,I ,I ?
A B C D
Solution: I I
A
I  3I
B
I  2I
C
I  4I
D
11.3   11.3
Where, I   2.26mA
10k
Disadvantage
The output resistance decrease when current sources are connected in parallel. Moreover,
the load on I is increased to supply base currents to all the parallel transistors. To
ref
decrease the load on I let us include transistor Q in the current mirror.
ref 3
 2 
I  I 1  
ref C
 2   
I I
o c
I 2
o   
I 2
ref     2

Current Mirror with thermal stability
The above cycle shows that effect of temperature on collector current is nullified by modified
Current Mirror Circuit.
By KVL : I R  V V I R  0
ref 1 BE BE o 2
1 2
I R
o  1
I R
ref 2
1) Ratio of current is the ratio of EB Junction areas.

2) Ratio of current is emitter degeneration resistors.
Solved Examples
Problem: Calculate the differential gain of the amplifier given?

Solution: The current mirror circuit is,

R   3k 
I  1 I   2m =3mA
o R  ref  2k 
 2 
I  3mA
o
I
I  o  1.5mA
C 2
DC
I
C(DC) 1.5
g  
m 25mV 25
1.5
A f  gmR 
c 25
2k  = -120
The purpose of output capacitor in a common emitter amplifier is to block dc and allow AC
signal. In the absence of capacitor we can block DC using a level shifter circuit.
Frequency Response
Frequency response of an amplifier (CE) is that of band pass. In a transfer function, the terms
that affect low frequency gain are constant over high frequency gain constant in the low
frequency range hence low and high frequency analysis are two independent problem. It
found that coupling and bypass capacitors affect the frequency response, the parasitic &
load capacitance affect the high frequency response.
Frequency
Different capacitances to be considered in different frequency ranges are,

Coupling and bypass Parasitic and load
capacitance capacitance
1) Low frequency Consider Open
2) Mid frequency Short Open
3) High frequency Short Consider

Note: Low Frequency analysis of BJT gives the characteristics similar to that of High Pass
Filter.
High Frequency Analysis of BJT yields the same characteristics as that of Low Pass Filter.
Mid Frequency Analysis of BJT yields the same characteristics of Band Pass Filter.
Procedure for low frequency analysis

1 1
Replace V with short circuit and capacitor by its impedance model or . Transistor is
cc SC jc
V
replaced with its two port equivalent. Find the transistor function o & draw bode’s plot.
V
in
Effect of coupling on low frequency response:-
Step-1: Short-circuit the DC supply

Step-2: Draw the small signal model of the transistor without load capacitance.
Step-3: V  i R         1

o b c
 1 
V  i R  r         2
in b  b  SC 
V  R C  s
o   c  ks

V   1  sT
in 1  sC Rb  r 
The magnitude of Transfer Function has the following values for different values of ‘s’
V
S o
V
in
0 0
RC

R  r
b
1
 
3db 
1
f 
3db 2
1
f3dB 
2 R  r  C
 b  
When, f  fL
1
f
2 R  r  C
 b  
1
Thus, C 
2f R  r 
 b  

Time Constant
  R C  R  r  C
th  b  
1
fL 
2 R  r  C
 b  
Effect of bypass capacitor on low frequency response
At Low Frequency, by pass capacitor is open circuited.

At High Frequency, by pass capacitor is short circuited.
R
Z E
R C s 1
E E
V  i R
o b c

 R 

V  i r   1  i 
in b    
E 
b  R C s  1
 E E 
 
V   K 1  sT 
o  R C 1  sCERE  R C  1  sCERE    1

V r  1    RE  sCEREr r  1    RE  sCEREr  1  sT
in 1   2
 r  1    RE 
1 1
  
1 T R C
1 E E
1 r  1    RE
  
2 T R C r
2 E E
The values of magnitude of Transfer Function for different values of ‘s’ is,
V
S o
V
in
R R R
0 c c c
r  1    R R R
 E E E
R R R
 C  C  C R g
r /g 1 c m
 m g
m
  is cut – off frequency.
2
k k
For Low Pass Filter at high frequencies, Gain  
s 2
1  
 
3dB 1  
 
 3dB 
Suppose at w = wt gain  1
k k
1  1
2 t
 
t 
1  
3db
 
 3db 
  k.  Gain . BW
t 3db
Thus, Unity gain frequency = gain . BW

Unity Gain Frequency

The frequency at which the gain of amplifier becomes unity is termed as unity gain
frequency.
In terms of h-parameters
i  h i h V
c fe b oe ce
i
h  c
fe i
bV
ce  0
There,  is Short Circuit forward current gain.
Small Signal Model, under short circuit is
By KCL,
I  i  gm V
 c
V sC   i  gm V
c
Hence, i  gm  sC  V
c
V 1 
i  V sC     V sC   V   s C  C  
b r  r 
 
i gm  sC  r
c 
i 1  sr C  C 
b
Usually, we neglect Cμ as it is a very small value.

 
i gm  sC  r gmr k
Thus, c     LPF
i 1  sr C   C  1  sr C   C  1  ST
b
Here, Gain K gm r  
3db Bandwidth f db 
3
1
2T
 
1
f3dB 
2r C  C 
gm
Gain  BW 
2 C  C 
i gmr
c 
i 2
b 1  r C  C  
 
i
At   t c 1
i
b
gm r
1
2
1  t r C  C  
gm r
1
t r C  C 
gm
 
t 
C   C 
gm
f 
t 2 C  C
   
Hence,
ft  K . f
3dB
unity gain frequency  DC gain . 3db Bandwidth
Note: If two transistors have the same unity gain frequency then the one with low value of 
will have the wider bandwidth.
[Less the gain  more will the bandwidth]

Note: For a N-stage amplifier,

1 1

H
 H 2 n Low Pass Filter 
total

L

L
 High Pass Filter 
total 1 1
2 n
Solved Examples
Problem: An op – amp has a unity gain frequency of 200MHz with a gain of 80dB. Find the
3db bandwidth.
Solution: Since Gain-Bandwidth product is same as unity gain frequency,
200MHz  80dB  3dB Bandwidth
80 = 20 log Gain
Gain  10 4
 200  106  104  3dB bandwidth
f  20KHz
3db
Hence, the gain-frequency plot looks like,
If gain increases bandwidth will fall down.
Multi vibrator using 555 Timer

Figure shows a block-diagram representation of the 555 timer Circuit. The Circuit consists of
two comparators, an SR flip-flop and a transistor that operates as a switch. One power
Supply Vcc is required for operation. A resistive voltage divider, consists of three equal
resistors establishes the reference (threshold) voltages for the two comparators as shown.

Two voltage levels UTP (Upper threshold point) and LTP (Lower threshold Point) is shown
below.
Logic value that will appear at the R input
of SR flip-flop is controlled by voltage
at threshold pin of 555 timer as per the
condition specified below
2
Threshold  V  R  logic'1'
3 cc
2
Threshold  V  R  logic'0'
3 cc
Similarly Logic value that will appear at the S input of SR flip-flop is controlled by voltage at
threshold pin of 555 timer as per the condition specified below
1
trigger  V  s  logic'1'
3 cc
1
trigger  V  s  logic' 0'
3 cc
Characteristics Table for SR flip flop

R S Q o/p Q
0 0 Pr evious state
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 Dont try

Function of BJT
In 555 timer BJT acts like a transistor Switch.
It provides a very low resistance path for discharging
of capacitor connected to build various type multi vibrators.
Q  Logic'0'  transistor is OFF
Q  Logic'1'  transistor is ON
Example:
In the given figure capacitor will be in charging mode when
Q  Logic'0'  transistor is OFF
And for
Q  Logic'1'  transistor is ON
Transistor will provide a very low resistance path for
Discharging of Capacitor.
Schmitt Trigger
It converts a sinusoidal signal into square wave form. Signal is applied at the pin leveled
threshold and trigger of 555 timer. Time period of output Square wave form depends on
time period of input sinusoid.
Voltage at Threshold & Trigger Pin

In the shown figure Vx is the voltage that will appear at threshold and trigger Pin of 555
timer.

V R V
V  CC 2  V  cc  V
x R R in 2 in
1 2
2
For Vx below V , R=0 and S=0 thus output (Q) will be maintained in Previous Condition.
3 CC
2
The moment Vx goes above VCC , R=1 and S=0 which will make output to make a transition
3
1
to “1” when Vx will go below V
3 CC
Astable Multivibrator
Figure shows the circuit for astable multivibrator. Circuit consists of two external resistors
and a capacitor. The circuit as shown produces free running square waveform.

Operation:
Assume that initially C is discharged and flip-flop is set i.e Q=1. Thus transistor is off.
Capacitor C will charge up through the series resistance R A and RB .Voltage across capacitor
will rise exponentially towards Vcc. As voltage across capacitor crosses LTP, logic “0” will
appear at S. This, however has no effect on circuit operation and Q will remain at logic “1”.
Now the moment capacitor voltage exceeds the UTP, logic “1” will appear at R and hence
flip-flop will reset i.e output Q=0.
Since Transistor’s base is fed with Q , it will Turn ON and hence capacitor will start
discharging through RB. Discharging will continue till Vc reaches LTP.
Tabular form for the above mentioned statement is given below.
R S Q o/p Q
V  0V 0 1 0 1 transistor OFF, capacitor charging
C
1
V  V
c 3 cc
0 0 0 1 previous 
2
Thresh  V
3 cc
2
V  V 1 0 1 0 transistor ON, capacitor discharging
C 3 CC
1
V  V 0 1 0 1 transistor OFF, capacitor charging
C 3 CC
1
trigger  V
3 CC
Output and Voltage across capacitor

T1 is the time taken by capacitor to charge during charging operation from LTP to UTP and is
given by the formula:
T  0.69 R  R  C
1  A B
T2 is the time in which capacitor voltage falls from UTP to LTP during discharging process
and is given by the formula:
T  0.69R C
2 B
Waveform time period:
TT T
1 2
T  0.69(R A  2RB )
Solved Examples
Problem: Find the range of capacitor voltage V if the supply voltage is 9V in the astable
C
multi vibrator given.
2
Solution: A 555 timer change the state when threshold is just greater than V & trigger
3 CC
1
is just below V
3 CC
2
Threshold  V  6V
3 CC
Calculating Capacitor voltage corresponding to UTP. From the shown figur
96
I
3k
I = 1 mA
Thus
VC  9  (3  2  1)I= 9-6 = 3V

1
Trigger  V  3V
3 CC
Calculating Capacitor voltage corresponding to LTP. From the fig
93
I  1.2mA
5k
Thus,
VC  9  (3  2  1)I= 9-6 1.2 = 1.8V
Mono stable Multi-Vibrator

Figure shows the circuit for Monostable multivibrator. Circuit consists of an external resistors
and a capacitor also a trigger mechanism (R in parallel with C to provide a short duration
negative going pulse). The circuit as shown produces a pulse. In the stable state flip-flop is
in reset state.
Operation
In the stable state flip-flip is in reset state i.e Q=0. Thus transistor is ON and capacitor C is
completely discharged. Assume that switch as shown is in open state, thus trigger pin is at
high voltage i.e Vcc. With above assumptions inputs of flip-flop is R=0 and S=0. Now when
switch will go in close condition voltage level at trigger pin will fall to 0 for a short duration
and because of this transition, inputs of flip-flop is R=0 and S=1 and hence output Q will go
high and thus transistor will go in off state. Since transitor become off capacitor in series with
R starts charging up towards Vcc. When voltage at capacitor reaches above UTP output Q
makes a transition to 0 (Stable state).

Tabular form for the above mentioned statement is given below.
R S Q o/p Q
2
V  V 1 0 1 0 trans. ON, cap discharging
C 3 CC
V  0V 0 0 1 0 previous
C
V  0V 0 1 0 1 trans. OFF, cap. charging
C
1
V  V
C 3 CC
0 0 0 1 Pr ev 
2
V  V 1 0 1 0 trans. ON, cap discharge.
C 3 CC
V  0V 0 0 1 0
C
Waveforms
Calculation of Pulse width

After trigger is activated output will remain in new state until capacitor voltage rise up to
UTP i.e Vc=2/3Vcc
Capacitor voltage is given as
VC (t)  VCC 1  e RC 

t
 
2
At t=T VC  t   V
3 CC
2
 V  V 1  eT / RC 
3 CC CC  
T  1.1RC

Analog Electronics - K-Wiki - Chapter 2 - BJT

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Analog Electronics - K-Wiki - Chapter 2 - BJT

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Analog Electronics (BJT)

Chapter 2 – Bipolar Junction Transistor

Types of BJT Configurations

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Different regions of operation based on junction voltages are tabulated below,

Emitter Base junction Collector Base junction

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Steps to determine the Region of Operation

For pnp Transistor,

For pnp Transistor,

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Solution: We follow the following steps to determine the region of operation,

Problem: Calculate all branch current & node voltage

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Solution: Emitter voltage is,

Problem: Calculation all node voltages & branch current.

 BJT is in cut – off.

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Solution: Since, V  0 and V  V  V  V  0.7V

Problem: Calculate all the node voltages and branch current.

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Note:  varies from 50 to 250

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Fixed Base Bias

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KVL at input loop:

Self-Bias or voltage divider bias or universal bias

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The drift problem is eliminated as illustrated in the cycle below,

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Solution: Thevenin Equivalent is given by,

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Solution: By Potential divider, neglecting base current as   

Problem: Find the load current I if  is very high.

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Problem: Find the region of operation of BJT if   99 & V  0.7V

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Cascade Current Source

This structure eliminates early effect.

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The same functionality can be achieved by the following

Common Base Configuration

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Common Collector Configuration

Common Emitter Configuration

Small signal analysis of BJT

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For AC Analysis, the without CE equivalent circuit looks like,

Vin  Vbe  ieRE

Purpose of bypass capacitor C

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From the above circuit,

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Thus, Trans-conductance can be expressed as,

Base to emitter resistance r 

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Small signal model

Small signal DC model

Solution: For DC Analysis, Capacitors are replaced by Open Circuit

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