Measurement (Error Analysis)

Error Analysis
Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Understand the basics of Measurement and Instrumentation.

 Define Static Characteristics of a Measurement System.
 Perform Error Analysis for the measurement of a quantity.

Introduction

The measurement means, to monitor a process or an operation and using an instrument,

express the parameter, quantity or variable in terms of meaningful numbers. Thus,
measurement provides us with a means of expressing a natural phenomenon or the various
processes, in quantitative terms.

The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison

between the quantities. (Whose magnitude is known) & a predefined standard. The
predefined standard must be commonly accepted and accurately defined. Suppose, if we say
length is 5cm, so here we are comparing the length of an object with a predefined standard
of 1cm and observing that length is 5 times that standard. Suppose if this length is measured
with a scale then scale will be termed as an Instrument. So, an instrument may be defined as
“a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable”.

The major problem with any measuring instrument is the error. Hence, it is necessary to
select the appropriate measuring system which minimizes the error. So, error analysis in any
measurement system is very critical.

Elements of Generalized Measurement system

 Primary Sensing Element(PSE)

This element is in direct contact with quantity under measurement and its function is to
sense the quantity and convert it to measurable form. E.g. Transducer

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

 Data Conversion Element(DCE)

Converts data from one form to another form preserving the information. E.g. ADC/DAC

 Data Manipulation Element(DME)

Changes the level of signal preserving its basic nature. E.g. Amplification, Modulation

 Data Transmission element(DTE)

Provides Transmission channel. This is especially helpful when we are collecting data from
a remote location to be processed at some other location as in Telemetry. E.g. Optical
Fibers

 Data Presentation Element(DPE)

Display the signal. E.g. CRO

Calibration

It is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings of an

instrument agree with the accepted and certified standard. It is the procedure of determining
the correct value of a measurand by comparison with the measured or standard ones. The
particular instrument is compared with either a primary standard, secondary standard with a
higher accuracy or an instrument with known accuracy.

Static Characteristics of Measuring System

The set of criteria defined for instruments which are used to measure quantities that are
slowly varying with time or are mostly constant i.e. do not vary with time are called as Static
Characteristics.
But when quantity changes rapidly with time we define the relations between input and
output in terms of differential equations which are called as Dynamic Characteristics.

 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is degree of closeness or conformity in which measured value approaches a
true value of quantity under measurement. So, if the measured value is closer to the true
value then the measurement will be termed as more accurate. The deviation of measured
vale from true value is termed as error.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

Precision is the degree of closeness with which reading is produced again and again for
same value of input quantity. This has no relation with the true as the reading must be
consistent even though it may be inaccurate.

 Sensitivity
Charge in output quantity per unit charge in input quantity. Sensitivity must be high
because even for a small change in the value of Input quantity the output produced by the
instrument must be high so that it is observable to the naked eye.
qo
S
qi

 Resolution
It is defined as smallest charge in input which can be measured by an instrument. It can
be improved by calibration but not sensitivity. As for example, the resolution of the cm scale
commonly used is 1mm, so resolution refers to the minimum marking on the instrument.

 Threshold
Minimum input required to get measurable output by an instrument. If the Input
quantity is less than Threshold value, then the instrument may give an output but the will be
very small or negligible so the instrument will be considered as unresponsive. Threshold
must be as small as possible so that we are able to measure even small values of Input
Quantity.

 Drift
Variation in output of an instrument from the desired value for a particular value of input.
Perfect Reproducibility means no Drift as no drift means measured values do not vary with
time. Drift can be classified in the following categories:
 Zero drift
If the whole calibration shifts gradually due to permanent set or due to warning up of
electronic tube circuits.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

 Span drift or Sensitivity drift

If this is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale it is called
Span drift or Sensitivity drift.

 Zonal drift
When drift occurs over a portion of span of an instrument, it is called Zonal drift. It
can be considered as a combination of Zero drift and Span drift.

 Drift is mainly due to environmental factors like electric and magnetic fields.

 Reproducibility
Degree of closeness in which a given value is measured with an instrument over a
specified period of time. Environmental conditions may not be same.

 Repeatability
Degree of closeness in which input quantity is measured again and again for a given set of
reading of an instrument. Environmental conditions are kept same.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

 Dead Zone and Dead Time

For an instrument if there is large change in input for which there is no output for some
portion of scale, this portion is called Dead Zone. It is due to threshold, resolution,
Hysteresis.
To respond the pointer from its zero position it takes minimum time, this is called
minimum time.

Note: Quantities like accuracy, sensitivity and reproducibility are desirable but drift, static
error and dead zone are undesirable.

Types of static error

a. Gross error: Completely due to human negligence i.e. during loose connections, reading
the values, taking the values, during calculations and memorizing the values.

b. Systematic error: These errors are common for all observers and constant with respect to
same conditions.
E.g: Due to shadow of pointer we may not be able to take the reading correctly and this is
common for all observers.
Systematic Error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

 Instrumental Error: These errors are introduced due to Instruments being faulty. The
error in an Instrument may be induced due to ageing effect and hysteresis.
 Environmental Error: These errors are introduced when certain system’s parameters
change due to variable environmental conditions like Temperature, Pressure and
Humidity.
 Observational Error: These errors are introduced when user is not able to observe
the position of the pointer accurately which may be due to Parallax Error.

c. Random errors: These are due to unidentified causes and they may be positive or
negative, charges with respect to time but effect is very less and can be neglected.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

Guaranteed Accuracy Error and Limiting Error

When accuracy is measured in terms of error, then it is called as guaranteed accuracy error
(GAE) or Limiting error (LE).

GAE is always specified by the manufacturer with respect to the Full Scale Deflection and it is
always constant in value whereas Limiting Error is calculated from GAE by the customer
based on True Value of the measurement and it varies as the true value of the measurement
varies.

%GAE x Full Scale Reading

%LE 
True Value

Solved Examples

Problem: A (0-250) V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2 per cent of full scale reading.
The voltage measured by this voltmeter is 150V. The limiting error in percentage is?

%GAE x Full Scale Reading 2% x 250

Solution: %LE    3.33%
True Value 150

Loading effect
When a voltmeter is connected across a resistance of, whose voltage is to be measured, then
voltmeter draws a current for its own winding, so it acts as a load on the system and due to
this there is an error in the reading of Voltmeter. This is termed as Loading Effect.

Resistance measured= R voltmeter / /Rload  Rload

So measured value of resistance is less than its actual value. To eliminate Loading Effect,
Voltmeter must be ideal that is its Resistance must be Infinite. So, higher the resistance and
hence sensitivity of Voltmeter, lesser is the Loading Effect.

Hysteresis error
For an instrument, for ascending value of quantity, the meter shows less than actual value
and for descending value it shows more than actual value, so for same input then it is called
Hysteresis error.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

Loading Curve is when we traverse the curve in positive x-direction and Unloading Curve is
when we traverse the curve in negative x-direction.
Electrical Hysteresis
During loading and unloading, B is not same.
Mechanical Hysteresis
During loading and unloading, stress is not same.

Quantification of Error

Static Errors in measurement of different quantities can be represented in various forms as

shown below:

 Absolute Error
Absolute error is the difference between measured value of a quantity and true value of
same quantity. This error has the same units as that of measured quantity.
A  Am  At o
A  absolute static error of quantity ' A '
Am  measured value of quantity ' A '
A t  True value of quantity ' A '

 Relative error
Relative error is the ratio of absolute error in the measurement of a quantity to the true value
of same quantity. This error is unit-less.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

AbsoluteError A o Am  A T
r    
Truevalue AT AT AT
Am
AT 
1  er
Am  A T (1 r ); A T  Am 1 r 
 Percentage Error
When absolute error is expressed as a percentage of true value of a quantity then it is
termed as Percentage Error. This error is also unit-less.
Am  A t 
% r   100  A  100 r 100
At At
Composite Errors
When a quantity is expressed as function of other independent quantities like Power can be
expressed as product of Voltage and Current, then error in measurement of dependent
quantity can be calculated from the errors in reading of independent quantities. This is
termed as Composite Error. The errors computed in this section are Limiting Errors.
Some of the basic algebraic operations are illustrated below:

Sum of quantities
n
X   Xi
i1
X  (X1  X 2  .....  Xn )

X  X X X X 
%error  x 100%    1 . 1  2 . 2  .....  x100%
X  X1 X X2 X 
Hence, absolute error is sum of absolute errors in all quantities.

Difference of Quantities
X  X1  X 2
X   X1    X2 
For maximum error or Limiting Error
X    X1  X2 

X  X X   X X X X 
   1  2     1 1  2 2 
X  X X   X1 X X2 X 
Hence, absolute error is sum of absolute errors in all quantities.

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

Product of Quantities
X  X1 .X2 .X3
log X  log X1  log X2  log X3
1 1 X1 1 X 2 1 X3
 .  .  .
X X1 X X 2 X X3 X

X  X X X 
   1  2  3 
X  X1 X2 X3 
Hence, relative error is sum of relative errors in all quantities.

Division of Quantities
X1
X
X2
logX  logX1  logX2

X  1 X1   1 X2 
     
X  X1 X   X2 X 
For maximum error or Limiting Error
X  X X 
   1  2 
X  X1 X2 
Hence, relative error is sum of relative errors in all quantities.

Note: To find Limiting Errors in addition and subtraction operation, we add absolute errors
whereas Relative Errors or Percentage Errors are added in multiplication and division
operation.

Composite factor
If a quantity X is expressed as shown below:
X1m Xn2
X
Xp3
Then, relative error in X is given by,

X  X X X 
   m 1  n 2  p 3 
X  X1 X2 X3 

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

Statistical Analysis
Certain statistical parameters can also be defined when we are taking multiple readings for
the same measurement. Some of the statistical parameters are listed below:

1) Mean Value

X
X1  X 2  ......  Xn

X i

n n
Where, Xi  ith measurement
n = number of readings

2) Deviation
Deviation for a particular reading is defined as departure of that reading from the mean
value.
di  (Xi  X)

3) Mean Deviation
n di
di  
i1 n
It indicates precision of instrument, as for more precise measurement the mean deviation
must be small in magnitude so that readings are clustered together.

4) Standard Deviation (  )

Standard Deviation for a set of data signifies the spread of data points around the mean
value. Less standard deviation signifies less spread and a sharper distribution.

2
n di
For n>20;   i 1 n

2
n di
For n<20;    (n  1)
i 1

Where, n = Number of readings

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

5) Variance

The square of Standard Deviation is defined as variance of a distribution.

V= 2

6) Precision Index
Higher the standard deviation, more is the data spread around the mean value and lesser is
the precision of the measurement. So precision index is proportional to the reciprocal of
standard deviation.
1
h

1
h
2

Curve-1 has greater precision

Curve-2 has lesser precision

7) Probable Error
It is the possible error in the measurement of a quantity.
r= 0.6745σ
0.4769
r=
h

8) Standard Deviation of Combination of Quantities

Sometimes the error in any quantity may be given as Standard Deviation and to determine
composite error in terms of Standard Deviation, we need to use the expression mentioned
below:
2 2 2
 x   x   x 
x    x 2    x 2  .....     2
 x  1  x  2  x  xn
 1  2  n

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

So, Probable error can also be expressed as,

2 2 2
 x  2  x  2  x  2
rx    rx    rx  ....    r
 x  xn
 x  1  x  2
 1   2   n 

Solved Examples

Problem: A variable ‘w’ is related to three other variables x, y, z as w  xy z . The variables

are measured with meters of accuracy  0.5% reading,  1% of full scale value and  1.5 %
reading the actual readings of the three meters are 80, 20 and 50 with 100 being the full
scale value for all three. The maximum uncertainty in the measurement of ‘w’ will be?

Solution: Variables are measured with accuracy

X   0.5% of reading 80 (limiting error)

Y   1% of full scale value 100 (Guaranteed Accuracy Error)

Z   1.5 % of reading 50 (limiting error)

The limiting error for Y is obtained as

GAE xFull Scale Reading 1x100

Limiting Error = =  5%
Reading 20

Given w  xy z ,

Therefore %w  %x  %y  %z  ± (0.5% + 5% + 1.5%) = ± 7%

Problem: The resistance of a circuit is found by measuring current flowing and the power
fed into the circuit. If the limiting errors in the measurement of power and current are  1.5%
and  1.0% respectively, the limiting error in the measurement of resistance will be?

Solution: Power dissipated in a resistor is given by, P  I2R

Therefore, %P = 2(%I) + %R = (2x1  1.5)%  3.5%

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

Problem: The total current I = I1 + I2 in a circuit is measured as I1 = 150  1A, I2 = 250  2A,
where the limits of error are given as standard deviations. I is measured as?

Solution: Since, I  I1  I2 , I= 150+250 = 400A

I I
Therefore,  1; 1
 I1  I2
Error in terms of Standard Deviation is given by,
2 2
 I   I 
1 12  1
2 2
I    I12   2
 I2  22  5  2.24A
  I1    I2 
So, I is measured as 400  2.24A

Problem: Four ammeters M1, M2, M3 and M4 with the following specifications are available

Instrument Type Full scale value(A) Accuracy % of FS

31/2 digit dual slope 0.10

M1 20

M2 PMMC 10 0.20

Electro-dynamic

M3 5 0.50

Moving-iron

M4 1 1.00

A current of 1 A is to be measured. To obtain minimum error in the reading, one should

select which meter?
Solution: Calculating errors in measurement of each meter
0.1
M1: Error  x20  0.02A
100

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 Measurement (Error Analysis)

0.2
M2: Error  x10  0.02A
100

0.5
M3: Error  x5  0.025A
100

1
M4: Error  x1  0.01A
100

Hence, M4 has least error and highest accuracy so M4 must be used.

Problem: Resistances R1 and R2 have, respectively, nominal values of 10 and 5, and
tolerances of  5% and  10%. The range of values for the parallel combination of R1 and R2
is?

Solution: R1 = 10 5% R2 = 5 10%

R1 Ranges  10   5  0.5  R 1 10.5  9.5
100

R2 Ranges  5   10 
100   0.5  R 2 5.5  4.5

R1 xR 2
For Parallel Combination, R eq 
R1  R 2

10.5x5.5
Maximum Value = Req(max)   3.60
10.5  5.5
9.5x 4.5
Minimum Value = Req(min)   3.05
9.5  4.5

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