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Measurement of R, L and C
Objectives
Introduction
The most prominent methods for measuring Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance are
Bridge circuits. AC Bridges are used for measurement of Inductance and Capacitance and DC
Bridges are used for measurement for Resistance. AC Bridges are just an extension of
Wheatstone Bridge in which every arm contains an impedance. Bridge Circuits are Null
Detector type of Instruments in which we take reading when the detector shows zero
deflection and in such a condition bridge is said to be balanced.
AC Bridges
Balance condition: ID 0
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
Z1 Z4 1 4 Z2 Z3 (2 3 )
Z 2 Z3
Z1 (2 3 4 )
Z4
This connection is used to eliminate stray capacitance existing between the arms of
bridge and ground.
All bridge circuit are initially connected to the Wagner device and by varying 'R w ' stray
capacitance effect is reduced so that accuracy of bridge circuit for calculation of unknown
component is increased.
If Stray Capacitance is charged then the voltage across the detector is not equal to
voltage between two arms of bridge and hence the null deflection condition is inaccurate
and so we need to discharge this capacitance before balancing the bridge.
Procedure
2. Now switch is moved to S 2 and by varying R w , the voltage across stray capacitance is
discharged to the ground.
3. Now switch is moved back to S1 and again R 4 ,C 4 are varied for bridge balance and again
move the switch to S2 varying R w for discharging for voltage. This process is continuous
until detector shows null deflection in either position.
Quality Factor and Dissipation for different connections of Resistance, Inductance and
Capacitance are given below.
R L
L R
1 RC
RC
RC 1
RC
1
From the table, Q
D
D = tan where is called as Loss Angle and D is also called Loss Tangent.
Measurement of Inductance
Z1 R1 jL1
Z 2 R 2 jL 2
Z3 R3
Z4 R4
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
R 1
jL1 R 4 R2 jL2 R3
R3
R1
jL1 R 2 jL 2
R4
R 2R 3 LR
R1 and L1 2 3
R4 R4
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
R1 jL1
R 2R 3
1
j C 4
R4
1
R1 jL1 R2R3 jC4
R4
R 2R 3
R1 ; L1 R 2R 3C 4
R4
L1
Q R 4 C 4
R1
Ic
V3 V4 IRR 4
wC 4
I2 IR Ic
Uses
Limitations
L1
Q High => C4R 4 (Not practical)
R1
L
tan1 1 low 0
R1
R 4 C4 0 (Not possible)
Hay’s Bridge
Hay’s Bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s Bridge, it uses Inductor and Capacitor in series
unlike Maxwell’s Bridge where Inductor and Capacitor are connected in parallel.
Z1 R1 jL1
Z2 R2
Z3 R3
1
Z4 R4
j C 4
Bridge balance
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1
R1
jL1 R 4 R2R3
jC4
R 2R 3R 4 2C24 R 2R 3C 4
R1 ; L1
1 R C
2 2
4
2
4
1 2R 24 C24
For balancing of bridge, initially vary R 4 and C4 and then R 2 & R 3 because R1 &L1 contain all
parameters.
Limitation:
Anderson’s Bridge
rR 4
x
1
r R4
jC
R 4 / jC
y
1
R 4 r
j C
r / jC
z
1
R4 r
j C
Z1 R1 r1 jL1
Z2 R2 X
Z3 R3
Z4 Y
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
On simplification we get,
R 2R 3
R1 r1
R4
CR 3
L1 [(R 2 R 4 )r R 2R 3 ]
R4
Limitations
Bridge is more complex.
Shielding of bridge is difficult to reduce the external magnetic field effect.
Phasor Diagram
At balance
VBE 0, ID 0
VAB VAE V2 I3r V1
I2 I3 I4
1. Take I1 as reference
2. V1 I1(R1 r1 ) jI1wL1
3. V3 I1R 3
4. I3 Ic leads V3 by 90
5. I3r isin phase withI3
6. V4 V3 I3r
7. V4 I4R 4 (I4 in phase to V4 )
8. I2 I4 I3
9. V2 I2R 2
10. V V1 V3 V2 V4
Owen’s Bridge
Z1 R1 jL1
1
Z2 R2
j C 2
Z3 R3
1
Z4
j C 4
Bridge balance
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1 1
R 1
jL1 R2 R
jC2 3
jC4
C4
R1 R 3 ; L1 R 2R 3C 4
C2
This bridge is used for the measurement of Relative Permeability of the core material of a
coil.
N2A
L1 .r
l
L1 R 2R 3C 4
R 2R 3C 4
Hence, r .l
N2o A
Note:
In case of air core coil, linear relationship exists between and I but in case of other coils
like Fe, Si, Steel etc. hysteresis causes non-linear relationship between and I. This will cause
small residual current even though flux is zero. This DC current is constant for a particular
material.
Including DC components of current if bridge is balanced produces error in measurement
of unknown r value.
To compensate this effect an extra DC source is added in modified Owen’s bridge. By
changing resistance ‘r’ the current is injected into the bridge circuit for compensation of DC
current effect.
Solved Examples
Problem: The ac bridge shown in the figure is used to measure the impedance Z. If the
bridge is balanced for oscillator frequency f = 2 kHz, then the impedance Z will be?
Z1 R1 500
Z 2 R 2 jL 2 300 j 2 x 2000 x15.91x10 3 300 j199.93
1 1
Z3 R3 300 300 j199.94
jC3
j 2 x 2000 x 0.398 x106
Z4 Z
Problem: The ac bridge shown in the given figure will remain balanced if impedance Z
consists of
Solution: Z must be Resistance and Capacitance in parallel. Then. This bridge circuit
becomes Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge.
Problem: The Ac Bridge shown in the figure is used to measure the quality factor of a coil
which is represented by parallel combination of a resistance RP and an inductance LP .
The bridge is balanced at 100 Hz supply frequency. The quality factor of coil is?
Rp 8.4k
Q
Lp 2 100Hz 63mH
212
Z2 Z3
Solution: Z 4
Z1
15000 250 400
100300
375 700
Z 2 300 j600
Z 3 200 j100
Z 2 300 j600
450 10 2 j 3 6 j
4
Z 4
450 103
10 6 15 j 6 Z 4
Z 4 0 j150
Measurement of Capacitance
1. De Sauty’s bridge
2. Schering bridge
De Sauty’s Bridge
1
Z1 R1 r1
jC1
1
Z 2 R 2 r2
jC2
Z3 R3
Z4 R4
Under Balanced Condition,
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1 1
R1 r1 R 4 R2 r2 R
jC1 jC2 3
Separating real and imaginary parts
R R
C1 4 C2 ; r1 (R 2 r2 ) 3 R1
R3 R4
D= Dissipation factor
D C1r1
r1 Internal resistance of C1
Schering Bridge
1
Z1 R1
jC1
1
Z2
jC2
Z3 R3
1
Z4
1
jC 4
R4
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1 R4 R3
r1
jC1 1 jC4R 4 jC2
R 4 C2
C1
R3
R 3C 4
r1
C2
If a dielectric of thickness ‘t’ is inserted between plates of Capacitor, then upto distance ‘d’
capacitor is filled with air and for thickness ‘t’ dielectric exists.
o A or A
CaCb
CAB d t
Ca Cb o A or A
d t
o r A
C AB
t d r
The bridge is balanced under this condition and then values of all components is kept fixed
while dielectric is removed from between the plates of capacitor.
Now, plate of capacitor is moved by a distance x and hence distance between plates of
capacitor becomes (d+t-x) and bridge becomes balanced again under this condition.
o A
C AB
dtx
Since, values of all components remain same. Hence, Capacitance is same in both cases.
o r A o A
t d r (d t x)
t
r
tx
t=thickness of dielectric
Metal screen is used around Schering Bridge to reduce the effect of stray capacitance
Measurement of Frequency
If the bridges involve frequency in the balancing condition, then such bridges can be used
for determination of frequency in terms of circuit elements. Such a circuit which is used for
determination of frequency is called as Wien Bridge Oscillator.
1
Z1 R1
jC1
1
Z2
1
jC2
R2
Z3 R3
Z4 R4
Z1Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1 R2
R1 R 4 R3
jC1 1 jC2R2
R1 C2 R 3
Condition for Balancing:
R 2 C1 R 4
If R1 R 2 R ; C1 C2 C
1 R
Then, f and 3 2
2RC R4
Wien Bridge is used for measurement of wide range of Frequency in MHz range.
If input signal contains harmonics, bridge balancing is difficult.
Solved Examples
Problem: A wien- bridge is used to measure the frequency of the input signal. However the
input signal has 10% third harmonic distortion. Specifically the signal is
2sin400t + 0.2sin1200t (with t in sec.) With this input the balance will
(a) Lead to a null indication and setting will correspond to a frequency of 200Hz
Solution: Since, the input signal contains harmonics, the Wien Bridge cannot be balanced
and it will not lead to null indication.
Problem: The wein’s bridge shown in figure is balanced at a frequency of ______ kHz.
1
f
2 C1R1R 3C3
1
2 5 10 9 4.7 103 10 10 9 10 103
1
3.283KHz
2 5 10 10 4.7
Measurement of Resistance
Properties of Resistance
Classification of Resistance
Wheatstone Bridge
P
R S
Q
Thevenin Equivalent
P R
Vth VB Vc V
P Q R S
PS RQ
Vth V
(P S)(R Q)
Rth RBC v 0
PQ RS
R th
PQ R S
Vth
Ig
R th Rg
V(PS RQ)
Ig
(P Q)(R S)(R th R g )
Bridge is balanced
Ig 0
PS RQ 0
PS RQ
P
R Q
S
Sensitivities
Sensitivity is defined as ratio of small change in output to a small change in Input. Based on
different inputs in Wheatstone Bridge, the following sensitivities are defined,
Current Sensitivity
Si mm / mA
Ig
= Deflection of galvanometer in mm
Voltage Sensitivity
Sv mm / V
Vth
Bridge sensitivity
V S
SB mm ; SB th v
(R / R) R / R
P R
Q S
P R
…………….. (1)
PQ R S
If R is change to ( R R )
P (R R)
Vth V
P Q (R S R)
From (1)
R (R R)
Vth V
R S (R S R)
Assuming R (R S)
V.SR
Vth ……………. (2)
(R S)
VthS v V.S v
SB 2
( R / R) R S2 2RS
RS
V.S v
SB
R S
2
S R
Practical Uses
Murray-Voltage loop test works on the principle of Wheat stone bridge used to measure
fault distance in UG cables.
x=fault distance
R S rL R S rL
S (L l1 )r R (L l2 )r
S (L l1 )r R (L l2 )r
R S (l2 l1 )r
Solved Examples
Problem: The reading of high impedance voltmeter V in the bridge circuit shown in the
given figure is __________
Solution: We have
10
VA 10
20 10
VA 3.33V
20
VB 10
20 10
VB 6.66V
So VB VA 6.66 3.33 3.33V
Problem: The arms of a Wheatstone bridge are shown in the given figure. For the balance
condition, the least tolerance value of R 4 will be?
In addition and subtraction, absolute values are added up. In multiplication are division,
percentage values are added up.
R4
100 3% 5 5%
10 2%
500 8%
10 2%
50 10%
Problem: In the circuit shown, when the current through the branch AD is zero, the battery
current IB is ______________ mA
R 120
100
1 1
IB 10mA
R equ 100
Voltmeter-Ammeter Method
We can measure resistance by measuring Voltage across the resistance by a Voltmeter and
current through the resistance by an Ammeter and then the measured value of resistance is
given by,
V Voltmeter Reading
Rm
I Ammeter reading
R a = Ammeter resistance
R v = Voltmeter resistance
The following two connections are possible when it comes to Voltmeter Ammeter method,
Ammeter near R T
Voltmeter near R T
Ammeter Reading = I IR Iv
V V
RT Rv
Voltmeter Reading = V
1 I 1 1
Rm V R T R v
1 1 1
R v Rm R T
R T Rm 1
RmR T Rv
Rm V R T Rm
R v IR v RT
Rm R T V
% r 100 100%
RT IR v
Assume R m R T
RT
% r 100
Rv
Solved Examples
Problem: The set-up in the figure is used to measure resistance R. The ammeter and
voltmeter resistance are 0.01 and 2000 , respectively. Their readings are 2A and 180 V,
respectively, giving a measured resistance of 90 . The percentage error in the measurement
is?
V 180
Solution: Current through Voltmeter = 0.09 A
R V 2000
V 180
True Value of Resistance = R T 94.24
IL 1.91
Rm R T 90 94.24
% r 100 100 4.5%
RT 94.24
Substitution Method
By KVL
(1) = (2)
(2)
I1(R n R g R T ) I2 (R h R g S)
I2
RT (R R g S) (R h R g )
I2 h
If I1 I2
RT S
Ohmmeter
It measures the resistance placed between its leads and this resistance is indicated by a
mechanical meter movement which operates on electric current. The meter has an internal
voltage source to create necessary current to operate the movement.
Series Ohmmeter
Here, test resistance is connected in series with Voltage source and hence it is called as
Series Ohmmeter.
R1 = current limiting resistor
R 2 = Zero adjustment meters
The maximum current flows through the ammeter when test resistance is zero and minimum
current when test resistance is infinity and hence Full Scale Deflection appears when test
resistance is zero.
Shunt Ohmmeter
In this meter, maximum current flows through the Ammeter when Test Resistance is infinity
and minimum current flows when test resistance is zero. Hence, Full Scale Deflection is
observed when Test Resistance is infinity.
Solved Examples
Problem: A shunt type ohmmeter is shown in the figure. With R x disconnected, the meter
reads full scale. ‘S’ represents the meter current as a fraction of full scale current with R x
Rx
connected such that, S
R x Rp
The value of Rp is given by?
ER z
R1 Rm R x RmR x
ER x
From (1)
R1 Rm R x RmR x
Rx E
R x R p R1 R m
R1Rm
Rp
R 1
Rm
When measuring low resistances by general methods that we have seen till now then
resistance of connecting leads may alter the value of measured resistance. This is due to the
fact that resistance of connecting leads is comparable to the resistance under measurement.
So, we need to devise special techniques for measurement of low resistances:
pr
x
(p q r)
qr
y
(p q r)
pq
z
(p q r)
After the conversion the bridge structure looks like as shown below,
Under Balanced Condition of the bridge,
P Rx
Q Sy
Substitute x and y
P qr P p
R S
Q p qr Q q
P p
If
Q q
S = standard resistance
R = test resistance
Kelvin double bridge is most practical used for low resistance up to micro-ohm range. It is
used to measure winding resistance of transformers, generators, motors and each conductor
resistance.
Reversible switch is used to reduce the effect of thermoelectric emf produced at the
junctions.
Note: Potentiometer is also used for measurement of Low Resistances and that section is
covered in Chapter-5.
Voltmeter Reading
R
Ammeter Reading