Measurement (KWiki - Ch4 - CRO and Digital Meters) PDF

Measurement (CRO and Digital Meters)
CRO and Digital Meters

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Understand the operation of different parts of CRO.

 Plot the Lissajous Pattern for different inputs.
 Determine Phase difference and Unknown frequency from a Lissajous Pattern.
 Understand different specifications of a Digital Meter.
Introduction
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a laboratory equipment designed for display,

measurement and analysis of waveforms. It can display an input signal versus another signal
or versus time. CROs operate on voltages but we can convert wide variety of quantities into
voltages by means of Transducers like Displacement, Strain, Acceleration, Pressure etc.
Digital Meters measure a DC Voltage and display the reading digitally on a 7-segement
display by converting the Analog Voltage into a digital output by use of a ADC. It can used
to measure a wide range of quantities by converting them to DC Voltages.
Advantages of CRO
CRO can be used to display, store and compare waveforms as well as it can measure certain
parameters like (Vpp, Vrms, T……,  ). CRO has the following advantages:
1. Adjustable scale
2. Fast response
3. Less power Consumption
4. No maintenance required
5. No external magnetic field effect
6. High resolution
7. High sensitivity
8. High accuracy
9. Linear Device
© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 1 www.kreatryx.com

Operation of CRO
The figure shown below shows different parts of a CRO,
Functionality of each component of a CRO is listed below,
Electron Gun
CRO or CRT is working on a principle of thermionic emission i.e. emitting of e form a

heated surface called e gun. When the surface is heated the electrons gain Thermal Energy
and when it is higher than the ionization energy required then electrons are emitted from
the heated surface.
Cathode Grid
The intensity of the electron beam depends on the number of electrons being emitted from
the heated surface. The cathode grid with is negative bias controls the number of electrons
being emitted from the electron gun. If the negative bias of Cathode Grid is increased then
brightness of the display is reduced.
Pre-accelerating and Accelerating Anode
The velocity of e is changed by changing the pre-accelerating and accelerating anode

potential. The change in Potential Energy of electron when it travels through the field
developed by Accelerating Anode is converted to Kinetic Energy and hence velocity of
electron.

KE = PE
1
mv 2  qVa
2
2qVa
v
m
v  Va
V= velocity of electron in m/s

M= mass of electron = 9.1 1031kg
Q= charge of electron  1.6  1019 C
Va = Anode potential
Focusing Anode
Electrostatic focus is used in laboratory. CRO is working on principle of double concave e

lens. By adjusting the focus of anode potential, focal point can be adjusted. In case of TV
picture tube, electromagnetic focus control is used in computer CRT both electrostatic and
electromagnetic focus control is used.
Astigmatism
For fine focus control, small DC potential is applied to the horizontal and vertical deflecting
plate which is called astigmatism.
Horizontal Deflection Plates
Horizontal deflecting plates are kept in vertical position is used to shift the e beam
horizontally for producing time scale.
A saw tooth or sweep signal is applied to the horizontal deflecting plate which is produced
by op-Amp or UJT relaxation oscillator. The time period of saw tooth signal can be adjusted
by operating the synchronizer input.

Vertical Deflection Plates
Vertical deflecting plates are kept in horizontal position and are responsible for deflecting
the electron beam vertically to generate y-axis of the waveform.
Test signal whose waveform is to be observed is applied to vertical deflecting plates. Figure
shown below shows the arrangement of Horizontal and Vertical Deflecting plates to
generate the sine wave.
For this waveform to be observed on CRO Screen, vertical deflecting plates are applied with
the sine signal and Horizontal Deflecting plates are applied with Sawtooth signal.
Blanking Circuit
The time axis of a waveform should always be drawn from left to right and hence when
sawtooth signal goes from Maximum to Zero the time axis is retraced from right to left and
during this time blanking circuit is initiated which will blank out or stop e entering into
CRO.
Phosphorous Coated Screen
Phosphorous coating is used on screen which converts heat energy into light energy. When
electrons are travelling through the CRT they possess Kinetic Energy and when they strike
the scree this Kinetic Energy is converted to Heat Energy which is absorbed by Phosphorous
molecules and they convert it to Light Energy. Depending on the application of different
types of phosphor coating are used,
P4 =black and white display

P6 = Color display
P11 = General purpose CRO
P15 = High frequency/sampling CRO
P31 = Storage CRO

Aquadag Graphite Coating
Some of the electrons after striking the screen are reflected back and may accumulate near
the screen and thus creating a negative potential near the screen. This negative potential will
repel the electrons and will slow them down before reaching the screen. Such electrons are
called as Secondary Electrons. For collection of secondary electrons and maintain electron
neutrality within CRT aquadag graphite coating is used.
Deflection Sensitivity
The height at which electron strikes the screen depends on the potential applied to Vertical
Deflection plates. The ratio of height to Potential applied is termed as Deflection Sensitivity.
Here, Vy = Potential applied to Vertical Deflection Plates

ld = Length of Vertical Deflection Plates
L = Distance of screen from center of Vertical Deflection Plates
d= Distance between Vertical Deflection Plates
Va = Accelerating Anode Potential
D = height above center of scree where electron strikes the screen
Lld Vy
D mm
2dVa
D Ll
S  d mm / V
Vy 2dVa
Deflection factor = G =1/S V/mm

Special Types of CRO
Dual Trace CRO
It contains one e gun and 2 vertical deflection plates with a selection switch, depending on
the position of selection switch either CH-1 or CH-2 are selected i.e. alternatively waveform
can be visible but both cannot be observed at the same time.
For observing two waveform one after the other, alternate mode is used which contains
multiplexer selection signal the time period of selection signal is maintained half of the time
period of the saw tooth signal for alternate visibility of waveform i.e. for half time period CH1
waveform is observed and for other half CH2 waveform is observed. For the system shown
above, the waveform displayed in ALT mode will be as shown above.
Dual Beam CRO
It is containing two e guns, two horizontal and vertical deflecting plates so waveforms can
simultaneously visible on screen. The electron beams of two channels are completely
independent of each other.
High frequency or sampling CRO
It contains an extra post accelerating anode used for brighter control e beam. It’s input
capacitance is very low. P15 Phosphorous coating is used for fast conversion of e beam into
light energy. These oscilloscopes can be used beyond 50MHz frequency in UHF range.

Lissajous Pattern
If both Horizontal and Vertical Deflection Plates are applied with Test signals, then the
pattern appearing on the screen is termed as Lissajous Pattern.
Suppose, both the plates are applied with sinusoidal signals with same frequency and
amplitude but with a phase shift as shown below,
Vx  Vm sinwt
Vy  Vm sint(wt  )
To plot a Lissajous pattern we plot different values of Vx & Vy on X-Y plane at different time
instants and by joining those points we obtain the Lissajous Pattern. The orientation of curve
whether clockwise or anticlockwise depends on direction of curve traversal as time
progresses.
Lissajous Patterns for different values of Phase Differences have been shown below,
Case 1:   0 or 360
In this case, Vx  Vy so Lissajous Pattern is a straight line passing through origin in 1st and 3rd
Quadrants.
Case 2: 0    90 or 270    360
In this case, Lissajous Pattern is an ellipse oriented in first and third quadrants. But when
0    90 then ellipse is oriented clockwise and when 270    360 the ellipse will be
oriented anti-clockwise but the shape remains the same.

Case 3:   90 or 270
In this case, Lissajous Pattern is a circle. But when   90 then circle is oriented clockwise
and when   270 the circle will be oriented anti-clockwise but the shape remains the same.
Case 4:   180
In this case, Vx  Vy so Lissajous Pattern is a straight line passing through origin in 2nd and
4th Quadrants.
Case 5: 90    180 or 180    270
In this case, Lissajous Pattern is an ellipse oriented in second and fourth quadrants. But when
90    180 then ellipse is oriented clockwise and when 180    270 the ellipse will be
oriented anti-clockwise but the shape remains the same.

Applications of Lissajous Pattern
1. Used to find Phase difference between two sinusoidal signals.
2. Used to find unknown frequency from known frequency.
Finding Phase Difference
Case 1: Lissajous Pattern in I and III quadrant
For Clockwise orientation
X  Y 
  sin1  1   sin1  1 
 X2   Y2 
For Anti-clockwise orientation, Phase Difference = (360  )
Case 2: Lissajous Pattern in II and IV quadrant
For Clockwise orientation
x  y  y
  180  sin1  1   180  sin1  1   180  sin1( 1 )
 x2   y2  y2
For Anti-clockwise orientation, Phase Difference = (360  )
Finding Unknown Frequency
x  y
Vx  Vm sin x t
Vy  Vm sin y t
y fy Number of Horizontal Tangencies

 
x fx Number of Vertical Tangencies
To determine horizontal and vertical tangencies we draw two lines one horizontal and other
vertical which intersects the Lissajous pattern at maximum number of points and number of
intersections is equal to number of tangencies.

For an example, for the Lissajous Pattern shown below, the dotted lines have been drawn to
determine the number of tangencies.
So, we have 4 vertical intersections and 2 horizontal intersections. If frequency of signal

applied to x-plates is 50Hz then,
fy 4
 2
fx 2
Fy  2  50  100Hz
Solved Examples
Problem: A lissajous pattern, as shown in figure below, is observed on the screen of a CRO
when voltages of frequencies fx and fy are applied to the x and y plates respectively. fx : fy is
then equal to?
fx Number of Vertical Tangencies

Solution: 
fy Number of Horizontal Tangencies
Horizontal and Vertical Tangencies have been shown in the figure below,
fx 2

fy 3

Problem: Two in phase 50Hz sinusoidal wave form of unit amplitude are fed into channel-1.
and channel-2 respectively of and oscilloscope, Assuming that the voltage scale, time
scale and other settings are exactly the same for both the channels. What would be observed
if the oscilloscope is operated in x-y mode?
Solution: Angular Frequency of both the signals,   2f  100 rad / s

Since, both signals have unit amplitude, A=1
Since, both are in phase so assuming phase = 
Therefore, x = A sin(t  )  sin(100t  ) and y = A sin(t  )  sin(100t  )
Since, y = x
Lissajous Pattern is a straight line passing through origin inclined at an angle of 450 with x-
axis.
Calibration of CRO
CRO is calibrated by a square or a pulse signal having 1kHZ frequency and 1V magnitude. By
using these values horizontal and vertical scale in terms of millisecond/div and volt/div are
calculated and from this other unknown signal magnitude and time period can be calculated.
Bandwidth of CRO
Maximum frequency that can be applied to CRO so that undistorted output is visible on
screen is called Bandwidth of CRO. Bandwidth and tr will satisfy
BW  tr  0.35
Input Impedance of CRO
The CRO must have high input resistance and low input capacitance so that loading effect
can be avoided. Normal range of input resistance of MΩ.
Normal range of capacitance is pF.

Probes in CRO
Probe is a cable connecting between function generator output to CRO input for transferring
wave form produced by function generator to CRO. The probe must have
1. High input impedance for reducing loading effect.

2. Independent of supply frequency.
The first figure shows the connection of

Function Generator and CRO by means of a
probe. In the second figure, equivalent
circuit is drawn for the connection.
Ri = input resistance of probe

Ci =input capacitance of probe
Rin = input resistance of CRO
Cin = input capacitance of CRO
The probe is independent of Frequency if RiCi  R inCin
Time delay line in CRO
Delay line in used to maintain some time difference between the horizontal plate saw tooth
signal and vertical plate test signal by using LC component, test signal is delayed by certain
time compared to saw tooth signal.
Solved Examples
Problem: A CRO probe has an impedance of 500k in parallel with a capacitance of 10pF.
The probe is used to measure the voltage between P and Q as shown in Fig. The measured
voltage will be?

Solution: The equivalent circuit when probe is connected to circuit is shown below,
1 1
Xc    159.154k
2fC 2 x100 x103 x10 x10 12
 
Zeq  100||500 ||   j159.15 k  73.82  27.630 
73.82  27.63
Vpq  10 x  4.37  15.94 V
100  73.82  27.63
Problem: The time/div and voltage/div axes of an oscilloscope have been erased. A student
connects a 1KHz, 5V p-p square wave calibration pulse to channel-1of the scope and
observes the screen to be as shown in the upper trace of the fig. An unknown signal is
connected to channel-2 (lower trace) of the scope. If the time/div and V/div on both
channels are the same, the amplitude (p-p) and period of the unknown signal are
respectively?
Solution: Reference Signal, 2 vertical division = 5V p-p

Volt/div = 5/2 = 2.5 V
1
Time Period = T   1ms
f
4 horizontal division = 1ms
1
Time/div = = 0.25 ms
4
For Test Signal, peak to peak amplitude = 4 vertical division = 3 x 2.5 = 7.5 V
Time Period = 8 Horizontal Division = 8 x 0.25 = 2 ms

Digital Meters
The basic measurable quantity of digital mater is DC voltage.

All the unknown parameters like AC voltage, current, resistance all are converted in terms of
DC voltage. By using ADC, analog signal is converted to digital signal which is applied to a
processor and output of processor is applied to seven segment display unit.
The maximum conversion time for various ADCs which have been covered in detail in Digital
Electronics are listed below where n = number of bits at output of ADC.
Type of ADC Maximum Conversion Time

Dual Slope ADC 2n1 TCLK
SAR ADC n TCLK
Counter ADC 2n TCLK
Flash ADC TCLK
The block diagram of a Digital Multimeter is shown below. This can be used to measure
different quantities under different positioning of the switch.

Specifications of Digital Voltmeter (DVM)
Resolution(R)
The smallest value of input that can be measured by digital meter is called resolution.
1
R
10n
n = No. of full digits….(0,1,2,3……9)
If number of digits are more than resolution is more i.e.it can measure smaller quantities.
Sensitivity (S)
The smallest value of input that can be measured by the digital meter in given range is called
sensitivity.
S= Resolution  Range
The range of an instrument can be derived as shown below,
0-10V 5-50v
Range (max value) 10V 50V
Span (Max-min) 10-0=10V 50-5=45V
Over ranging
The extra fractional digit included in the specification of Digital Multimeter is called as Over-
ranging. The fractional digit is always most significant digit.
1
digit can assumes the values 0 and 1.
2
3
digit can assume values between 0 and 3.
4
1
So, a 3 digit multimeter can measure values between 0 and 1999.
2
3
Similarly, a 3 digit multimeter can measure values between 0 and 3999.
4
Total error
Fullscale
Total Error = % error due to reading  Reading value + (No. of counts) 
Range of meter

Solved Examples
Problem: An average-reading digital multi-meter reads 10V when fed with a triangular wave,
symmetric about the time axis. For the same input an rms reading meter will read?
Solution: Reading = Vavg = 10
For triangular waveform Vavg = Vm

3
Vm
10 =  Vm  30 V
3
Vm 30
Vrms    10 3 V
3 3
Problem: The figure shows input attenuator of a multi-meter. The meter reads full-scale with
12 V at M with the range switch at position B obtain full-scale deflection with the range
switch position at D?
Solution: The meter reads full scale with 12V at M and range switch at B.
 1.2  0.6  0.12  0.06  0.02 

At position B: V0  Vs  
 2  6  1.2  0.6  0.12  0.06  0.02 
= 12  0.2 = 2.4
Now range switch is at D and meter reads full scale value.

 0.12  0.06  0.02 

At position D: V0  Vs  
 2  6  1.2  0.6  0.12  0.06  0.02 
2.4 = Vs  0.02
Vs = 120V
Problem: The simplified block diagram of a 10bit A/D Converter of dual slope integrator
type is shown in fig. The 10-bit counter at the output is clocked by a 1MHz clock. Assuming
negligible timing overhead for the control logic, the maximum frequency of the analog
signal that can be converted using this A/D converter is approximately.
Solution: The minimum time of conversion for Dual Slope ADC = Tmin  2n Tclk
1 1 fclk 106
Maximum Frequency of Conversion = fmax      1 kHz
Tmin 2n Tclk 2n 210
Problem: A digital-to-analog converter with a full-scale output voltage of 3.5V has

resolution close to 14mv. It’s bit size is__
VFS
Solution: Resolution 
2n  1
VFS
2n  1 
Re solution
3.5
2n  1 
0.014
2n  251
Hence, n = 8

Problem: A 4 1 digit DMM has the error specification as 0.2% of reading +10 counts. If a
2
dc voltage of 100 v is read on its 200v full scale. The maximum error that can be expressed in
the reading is?
Solution: Since the meter is 4 1 digit, it can read from 0 -19999. Hence, Range = 20000
2
The Total Error is given by,
Fullscale
Total Error = % error due to reading  Reading value + (No. of counts) 
Range of meter
200
Total Error = 0.2 %  100 + 10  = 0.3 V
20000
0.3
%error = x100  0.3%
100

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Measurement (CRO and Digital Meters)

CRO and Digital Meters

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Understand the operation of different parts of CRO.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a laboratory equipment designed for display,

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 1 www.kreatryx.com

The figure shown below shows different parts of a CRO,

Functionality of each component of a CRO is listed below,

CRO or CRT is working on a principle of thermionic emission i.e. emitting of e form a

Pre-accelerating and Accelerating Anode

The velocity of e is changed by changing the pre-accelerating and accelerating anode

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 2 www.kreatryx.com

V= velocity of electron in m/s

Electrostatic focus is used in laboratory. CRO is working on principle of double concave e

Horizontal Deflection Plates

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 3 www.kreatryx.com

Vertical Deflection Plates

Phosphorous Coated Screen

P4 =black and white display

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 4 www.kreatryx.com

Aquadag Graphite Coating

Here, Vy = Potential applied to Vertical Deflection Plates

Deflection factor = G =1/S V/mm

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 5 www.kreatryx.com

Special Types of CRO

Dual Trace CRO

Dual Beam CRO

High frequency or sampling CRO

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 6 www.kreatryx.com

Case 2: 0    90 or 270    360

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Case 3:   90 or 270

Case 5: 90    180 or 180    270

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 8 www.kreatryx.com

Applications of Lissajous Pattern

1. Used to find Phase difference between two sinusoidal signals.

2. Used to find unknown frequency from known frequency.

Finding Phase Difference

Case 1: Lissajous Pattern in I and III quadrant

For Clockwise orientation

For Anti-clockwise orientation, Phase Difference = (360  )

Case 2: Lissajous Pattern in II and IV quadrant

For Clockwise orientation

For Anti-clockwise orientation, Phase Difference = (360  )

Finding Unknown Frequency

y fy Number of Horizontal Tangencies

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So, we have 4 vertical intersections and 2 horizontal intersections. If frequency of signal

fx Number of Vertical Tangencies

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Solution: Angular Frequency of both the signals,   2f  100 rad / s

Therefore, x = A sin(t  )  sin(100t  ) and y = A sin(t  )  sin(100t  )

Input Impedance of CRO

Normal range of capacitance is pF.

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 11 www.kreatryx.com

1. High input impedance for reducing loading effect.

The first figure shows the connection of

Ri = input resistance of probe

The probe is independent of Frequency if RiCi  R inCin

Time delay line in CRO

© Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 12 www.kreatryx.com

Solution: Reference Signal, 2 vertical division = 5V p-p

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