Measurement (KWiki - Ch2 - Electromechanical Measuring Instruments) PDF

Measurement (Measuring Instruments)
Electromechanical Measuring Instruments

Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Describe the principle of operation of various Measuring Instruments.

 Find the expression for various torques for each instrument.
 Find the deflection of pointer under steady-state condition.
 Determine the sources of error for different types of instruments.
Introduction
Electromechanical Instruments as the name suggests will convert the electrical signal to be
measured to a mechanical output that can be rotation of a disc or position of the pointer.
Electromechanical Measuring Instruments are also termed as Analog Instruments. An analog
instrument is one in which the output or display is a continuous function of time and bears a
constant relation with the output. These instruments will be used to measure some of the
electrical parameters like Voltage, Current, Power, Energy, Power Factor etc.
Classification of Analog Meters
Analog Meters can basically be classified based on Quantity under measurement like for
current measurement the meters will be called Ammeter, for Voltage measurement it will be
called as Voltmeter and for Power measurement it will be termed as Wattmeter.
Similarly, they can also be classified based on principle of operation like Electromagnetic
Instruments, Electrostatic Instruments, Thermal Instruments and Induction Type Instruments.
The other classification can be on the basis of representation of Output like:

Indicating Type Instruments: The quantity being measured is indicated by means of a dial
or pointer. Ordinary Voltmeters, Ammeters and Wattmeters lie in this category.
Recording Type Instruments: They give a continuous record of quantity being measured
over a specified period of time. The variations are recorded using a pen (attached to moving
system of the instrument) on a piece of paper carried by a Rotating Drum.
Integrating Type Instruments: They totalize an event over a specified period of time. They
give the summation of product of an electrical quantity with time. Like Energy Meters give
the integration of power with respect to time.
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Order of an Instrument
The instrument must have characteristics similar to the quantity to be measured. The order
can be identified by determining the transfer function of the system or the Instrument. The
highest power of ‘s’ in the denominator of Transfer Function is called as Order of the
Instrument.
(i) Zeroth order Instrument
When the ratio of Output to Input for an instrument is constant then the instrument is
termed as Zeroth Order Instrument.
C s
 K  Constant
R s
As for an example, the potentiometer shown in the

Adjoining figure will have an output voltage equal to,
3Vi
V0 
5
These instruments respond instantaneously to any changes in Input so the delay in response
or the response time is zero.

(ii) First order Instruments
If the highest power of ‘s’ in the denominator of the Transfer Function is 1 then it is termed
as First Order Instrument. The general form of Transfer Function of a First Order Instrument is
given by,
C s 1

R s 1  sT
The characteristics of a First Order Instrument for a sudden change in Input or Step Input is
shown below:
An example of a First Order Instrument is RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) which is

used to measure the temperature and it works on the principle that resistance of a material
varies linearly with temperature.
R2  R1 1    T2  T1 
Most of Temperature measuring devices will be modeled as First Order Instruments.
(iii) Second Order Instruments
All the indicating meters i.e. Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter are of 2nd order type.
Second Order Systems can be classified into three categories based on damping ratio which
are Underdamped, Critically Damped and Overdamped. All Indicating Instruments fall under
the category of Underdamped Systems and hence they exhibit oscillations about the steady
state position of the pointer.
The Transfer Function of a Second Order Instrument is given by,
C s wn2

R s s2  2wns  wn2

  Damping Factor/ratio
The Transfer Function of a series RLC circuit with output taken across the terminals of
Capacitor is given as,
Vo 1/ Cs 1
 
Vi R  sL  1/ Cs LCs  RCs  1
2
vo s 1/ LC 1
 , wn 
vi s S  R / Ls  1/ LC
2
LC
2wn  R / L
R C

2 L
 All electrical equipments like motors, transformers, Transmission lines, ideally consist of R,
L and C. Hence they are of second order.
 To measure V, I, P and cos these indicatory equipment must be of 2nd order.
 Ideal: 2nd order indicating meter has   1 (critically damped).
Practical: 0.6    0.8
The nearer the value of  is to unity, the faster is response time and less settling time.
Torques in Indicating Meters
There are three different types of Operating Torques in Indicating Meters which are
responsible for motion of pointer and final position of the pointer.
 Damping Torque  TD 
 Deflecting Torque  Td 
 Controlling Torque  Tc 
Damping Torque
 Indicating Instruments belong to the category of Second Order Under-damped systems

and hence the pointer exhibits oscillations about the steady state position.
 For the pointer to settle down to the steady state position, we need to damp out the
oscillations which is achieved by means of Damping Torque.
 The Damping Torque can be created by various means in an Instrument based upon the
design of the Instrument, some of which are listed below:

Air friction damping

When the force exerted by air inside a chamber is used to damp out the oscillations of the
pointer then it is termed as Air Friction Damping. An implementation of Air Friction Damping
is illustrated in the figure shown below:
 The pointer in this system is connected to a piston and as pointer moves the piston
moves into and out of the glass chamber.
 When piston moves into chamber, the air inside is compressed and pressure of air
becomes greater than the pressure on the open side due to which net pressure in outwards
so this pressure opposes the motion of piston.
 When the piston moves out, pressure in closed space falls and pressure on open side is
greater due to which net pressure is inwards and hence motion of piston is opposed.
Another way to implement Air Friction Damping is shown below:
Here, whenever pointer moves air on one side is compressed which exerts pressure on the
vane to oppose the motion of pointer and hence damp out the oscillations of Pointer.
 It is used where magnetic energy of the system is small.

Fluid Friction Damping

Similar to air friction damping but oil is used so damping is due to viscosity of the fluid
instead of the frictional force exerted by air.
This is used where operatory or deflecting torque is low like in case of Electrostatic
Voltmeters. An implementation of Fluid Friction damping is shown in the figure below:
As the pointer moves, the shaft of the instrument also moves which causes motion of float
inside the liquid. As Float moves inside the liquid, the liquid exerts Viscous Force on the float
to oppose the motion and hence damping out the oscillations of the pointer.
Electromagnetic or Eddy current damping
 If a current carrying conductor, wound on a former placed in a magnetic field, it

experiences a torque due to which the coil rotates and cuts the magnetic flux so the emf is
induced in former which produces eddy currents.
 As per Lenz Law, Induced currents will oppose the cause of induction which is rotation of
coil and former in the magnetic field and thus opposes the motion of former or the pointer
and hence damping out the oscillations of the pointer.
 In the eddy current for a permanent magnetic filed the opposing damping torque is
proportional to the velocity of the former rotating in the magnetic field.
 In electromagnetic damping, opposing torque is directly proportional to magnitude of
current flowing through the coil.
 Eddy current damping is used in PMMC.
 A schematic of PMMC Instrument is shown in the figure below for reference.

Deflecting Torque
This torque is responsible for motion of the pointer from zero position to the steady state
position. This is proportional to the quantity being measured i.e. I, V, P and cos . The
expression for this Torque is different for different instruments and so we will cover this
section under each instrument.
Controlling Torque
This torque is responsible for opposing the Deflecting torque so that pointer settles down to
a steady state position else it will keep moving in the direction of deflecting torque.
Under Steady State condition, pointer is at rest so there are no oscillations and hence there is
no damping torque. Since pointer is at rest the net torque on the pointer must be zero.
Therefore, steady state condition becomes,
Td  Tc
i.e. Deflecting Torque becomes equal to controlling torque.
There are various sources of Controlling Torques in Indicating Instruments which are
 Spring Control
 Gravity Control

Spring Control
Due to deflecting Torque the pointer rotates which causes the extension of Spring connected
to the pointer which exerts a torque in opposite direction to oppose the extension of Spring
and thus providing the Controlling Torque.
The expression for Spring Control torque is given by,
Tc  k c
A schematic of an Instrument with Spring Control is shown below,
In the second figure, a simplified representation is shown in which it can be observed that as
pointer rotates spring is stretched which leads to development of Controlling Torque.
Functions of spring
 Has to produce controlling torque.

 Brings the pointer to zero position when supply to meter is disconnected.
 Carries the current into the coil and out from the coil in moving coil instrument.
 Stops the pointer from crossing zero position under ideal condition of meter.
 When two springs are connected in opposite direction then its purpose is to compensate
the temperature effect.
Properties of Spring material
 Should be a conducting material.

 Should not be a magnetic material.
 Should have almost 0 temperature coefficient.
 High stiffness i.e. more mechanical strength.

Disadvantages
 When temperature is varied length of spring changes due to which spring constant will
also change.
 As the spring ages, the spring becomes loose and spring constant decreases.
Due to variation in spring constant the position of pointer in steady state condition changes
and so there is an error in the reading of instrument.
Gravity Control
If the Gravitation Force acting on a mass attached to the pointer provides Controlling Torque
then it is termed as Gravity Control.
The force tangential to the controlling weight will provide controlling torque as it acts in
opposite direction to the motion of block. Therefore,
Tc  w2 sin 

Disadvantages
 Meter must be placed in vertical position only else there is no effect of gravity on
controlling weight and thus there is no Controlling Torque.
 Gives non-linear scale, so calibration of Instrument is difficult as markings are unevenly
spaced.
Errors in Indicating Instruments
There are various sources of error while measuring a quantity using Indicating Instruments.
Some of the most common sources of error are listed below:
Frictional error
 Friction produced between bearing and spindle cause the error in measuring system
because an additional torque owing to friction is introduced into the system.
 If the torque to weight ratio is higher than the errors are reduced because frictional force
and hence frictional torque depends on weight of the system.
 PMMC has higher torque to weight ratio so that frictional errors are minimum.
 Taut suspension method does not have frictional errors.
Temperature Error
If surrounding temperature of instrument is changed then coil resistance changes, so meter

reads wrong value. This error may also be due to Loading Effect as Loading Effect depends
on Meter Resistance.

Frequency error
While making an AC Measurement, inductance of coil in form of reactance also comes into
play due to which Impedance of the Instrument becomes frequency dependent and hence
reading of the Instrument also changes with frequency.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments
In these type of Instruments a current carrying coil is kept between two poles of a Permanent
Magnet and it thus experiences a uniform magnetic field. As per Lorentz Force law, it will
experience a torque which will rotate the coil and hence it is Moving Coil, so the instruments
are termed as Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments.
In the figure shown above S1 and S2 are two parts of the spring which provides controlling
torque and is connected in series with the coil so it carries same current as the coil itself.

Deflecting Torque
The Force on a current carrying conductor kept in a uniform magnetic
Field is given by

Fi l x B 
Where l = length of conductor and direction is same as that of current
B = magnetic flux density
i = current carried by conductor
In our case, Magnetic Flux Density is oriented in positive x-direction.

Calculating force on each section of coil,
FAB  0
 
FBC  ilB  j x i  ilBk
FCD  0
 
FDA  ilB j x i  ilB k  
Net Force on the coil F  FAB  FBC  FCD  FDA  0
Calculating Torque on the coil about the axis of rotation shown in the figure below,
T r x F
Where T is Torque and r is perpendicular distance of Force from the axis

of rotation and F is the Force.
TAB  0
TBC  b i x ilBk  ilbB  j  
2 2
TCD  0
TDA  b  i  x ilB  k
2    ilbB
2  
j
Net Torque on the coil T  TAB  TBC  TCD  TDA  ilbB   j  iAB   j
where A is the area of the coil
If there are ‘n’ turns in the coil, then

T = nIAB

nBA= G= constant
G is called as Galvanometer Constant
Td  GI, Td  I
Controlling Torque Tc 

T  k
c
At balance Tc  Td (Pointer is stationary)
k  GI
G
 I
K
I
There is linear relationship between  and I, and hence this Instrument has Linear Scale so it
has equally spaced divisions.
Solved Examples
Problem: A moving coil of a meter has 100 turns, and a length and depth of 10 mm and 20
mm respectively. It is positioned in a uniform radial flux density of 200 mT. The coil carries a
current of 50 mA. The torque on the coil is?
 
Solution: Td  nIAB  100x50x103 x 10x20 x106 x200x103  200 N  m

Important features of PMMC
 Scale is linear or uniform. So sensitivity is constant

Output
Sensitivity=
Input
 Spring control torque is used.
 Since, spring is connected in series with coil so if Spring breaks current in the coil goes to
zero and deflecting torque goes to zero so pointer returns to zero position.
 Eddy current damping is used.
 It is used to measure dc or average quantity.
 If pure AC signal is used then for half cycle Torque is positive and for other half Torque is
negative and hence pointer vibrates around Zero position.
 If the output of half wave and full wave rectifier is passing through PMMC then it reads
T
1 I 2I
average of waveform which is Iavg   i  t  dt which comes out to be m and m
T0  
 If I  I0  I1 sinwt  I 2 sin2wt  ......, then PMMC reads Iavg  I0

 Torque to weight ratio is higher, so frictional errors are minimum.
Disadvantages
 Not suitable for measurement of AC signal.

 Magnetic flux density and the spring tension changed due to change in surrounding
temperature so that meter reads wrong value.
 Temp  B  Td 

Temp  K  Tc 
% error = % change in Tc -% change in Td
If error < 0, then meter reads less than actual value
If error > 0, then meter reads more than actual value
 Measures directly up to 100mA or 50 mV only, so range is narrow.
 To enhance meter readability, compensator like shunt resistor in case of ammeter and
series resistance in case of voltmeter are used.
Solved Examples
Problem: The current i(t) passing through 10 resistor as shown in fig A. as a waveform as
shown in fig B. Then the reading of the d.c. voltmeter is connected across 10 resister is?
Solution: DC Voltmeter measures average or DC voltage
Vdc  IdcR
12 x T  5 xT
Idc   8.5 A
2T
Vdc  8.5 x10  85 V
Enhancement of PMMC
Since the range of PMMC Instruments is approximately 50mV and 100mA only, so we need
to increase the range to measure higher values of current and voltage.
Ammeter
To measure higher values of current we need to divide the current input to the meter so we
connect a resistance in parallel to the meter.
Due to parallel connection
V  IshR sh  ImRm  Vm

Applying current division

IR sh
Im 
R sh  Rm
R sh  Rm I
  m  Multiplication factor
R sh Im
 Rm 
1    m
 Rsh 
 R 
R sh   m  ; R sh  Rm
 m  1
 R sh is made of manganin/constantan ( sh  0.00015 / C )

 R m is made of copper ( cu  0.004 / C )
So, Temperature variation is very small for Shunt Resistance as compared to Coil Resistance.
Solved Examples
Problem: A PMMC meter has Rm  100 , measure Im  10mA . Find shunt multiplier
resistance required for measuring 100mA, 1A and 10A.
100
Solution: For 100mA, m   10
10
Rm 100 100
R sh     11.11
m  1 10  1 9
1000
For 1A, m   100
10
Rm 100 100
R sh     1.01
m  1 100  1 99
10000
For 10 A, m   1000
10
Rm 100 100
R sh     0.1001
m  1 1000  1 999

Problem: An ammeter has a current range of 0-5A, and its internal resistance is 0.2. In
order to change the range to 0-25 A we need to add a resistance of?
I 25
Solution: Multiplying Factor m = = 5
Im 5
Rm 0.2
R sh    0.05 
m 1 5 1
Effect of Temperature on Ammeter
 Due to surrounding temperature change, the meter resistance is increased causes the
current through the meter decreases so that meter reads less than actual value
 To compensate this temperature effect, swamp resistance is connected in series to the
meter and from this new value of shunt is calculated which is higher than previous value.
 Current through shunt resistance is reduced which is diverted through meter and
temperature effect is compensated.
 Swamp resistance is made of Manganin and constantan.
 Manganin is preferred for DC and constantan for AC.
Without Rswamp
Rm I
R sh  ;m 
(m  1) Im
With Rswamp
I.R sh2
Im 
R sh2
 R m  R sw 
I  R  R sw 
 1   m   m
Im  R sh2 
R sw
R sh2  R sh1   R sh1
(m  1)
Measured value  True value A  At

% error=  100  m  100
True value At

Voltmeter
To increase the value of Voltage for same current going into the meter we connect a series
multiplier resistance made of manganin or constantan.
Rm
Vm  V
R s  Rm
V R s  Rm
m   multiplication factor
Vm Rm
R s  R m (m  1)
R s  Rm
Full scale Current
V
Ifs 
R s  Rm
Sensitivity of voltmeter
1 (R s  Rm )
Sv   /V
Ifs V
Voltmeter must have higher sensitivity, so that resistance is high and loading effect is
minimum.
Solved Examples
Problem: A PMMC voltmeter has meter resistance of 100  measure voltage up to 10mv.
Find series multiplier resistance required to measure the voltage of
a) 100mV
b) 1v
c) 10v
In each case, Find Ifs and S v
Solution:
100
a) V = 100mV, m   10, R s  Rm (m  1)  100(10  1)  900
10

100mV 1
Ifs   0.1mA,S v   10k / V
1000 Ifs
1000
b) V = 1V, m   100, R s  Rm (m  1)  100(100  1)  9900
10
1V 1
Ifs   0.1mA,S v   10k / V
10000 Ifs
10000
c) V = 10V, m   1000, R s  Rm (m  1)  100(1000  1)  99900
10
10V 1
Ifs   0.1mA,S v   10k / V
100000 Ifs
So, we can design a multi-range voltmeter as shown below,
Problem: Two 100V full scale PMMC type D.C voltmeter having figure of merits (FOM) of
10k/V and 20 k/V are connected in series. The series Combination can be used to
measure a maximum dc voltage of?
Solution: Resistance of Voltmeter 1 = R1  10 x100  1000k  1 M

Resistance of Voltmeter 2 = R 2  20 x100  2000k  2 M
1
Full Scale Current of Voltmeter 1 = Ifs1   0.1mA
10
1
Full Scale Current of Voltmeter 2 = Ifs2   0.05mA
20
Since, both meters are connected in series maximum current = 0.05 mA
Equivalent Resistance = 1 + 2 = 3 M
Voltage rating = 0.05 x103 x 3 x106  150 V

Problem: A 1000 V DC supply has two 1-crore cables as its positive and negative leads: their
insulation resistances to earth are 4 M and 6 M, respectively, as shown in the figure. A
voltmeter with resistance 50 k is used to measure the insulation of the cable. When
connected between the positive core and earth, then voltmeter reads?
50 x 4000
Solution: Equivalent Resistance of Voltmeter and 4MΩ =  49.38k
50  4000
49.38k
Voltage across Voltmeter = 1000 x  8.1628 V
49.38  6000
Applications of PMMC
Since PMMC Instruments are unable to read AC Values so we can connect a rectifier to a
PMMC Instruments so as to enable them to read AC Values.
Half wave rectifier meter
Rs  Source Resis tance

Rm  Meter Resis tance
R f  Forward Resis tance of Diode
With AC input
Im Vm
I  Iavg  
 (R s  Rm  R f )
2Vrms

(Rs  Rm  Rf )
0.45Vrms
(Iavg )AC 
(R s  Rm  R f )

With DC input
VDC  VRMS
VDC Vrms
(Iavg )DC  
(R s  Rm  R f ) (R s  Rm  R f )
Hence, we can obtain following relations between AC and DC Measurements

(Iavg )AC  0.45(Iavg )DC
(S)AC  0.45(S)DC
Full wave rectifier meter
With AC input
Since at a time 2 out of 4 diodes will conduct so diode resistance will be taken as 2Rf
2Im 2Vm
I  Iavg  
 (R s  Rm  2R f )
2 2Vrms

(Rs  Rm  2R f )
0.90Vrms
(Iavg )AC 
(R s  Rm  2R f )
With DC input
VDC  VRMS
VDC Vrms
(Iavg )DC  
(R s  Rm  R f ) (R s  Rm  R f )
Hence, we can obtain following relations between AC and DC Measurements

(Iavg )AC  0.90(Iavg )DC
(S)AC  0.90(S)DC
Here, S represents Sensitivity of the Instrument.
While, using PMMC meter with full wave rectifier the calibration needs to be changed and we
need to divide all markings by 0.9 or multiply them by 1.11 which is form factor of sinusoidal
input.

Error due to calibration of Instruments

 Calibration is done for making marking on the new instruments and making correction in
old instruments.
 In case of energy meters and watt meters for reducing the cost of testing and calibration,
Phantom or fictitious loading is used.
 Usually, Instruments are calibrated by assuming sinusoidal input but if some other
waveform is applied then it will result in an erroneous reading because form factor of
different inputs is different.
(formfactor)test  (formfactor)original
% error due to calibration=  100
(formfactor)original
RMS Value
Where, FF 
Avg Value
Solved Examples
Problem: A full wave rectifier meter is calibrated to measure sinusoidal rms current. It is
applied with saw-tooth waveform with a peak value of Im and a time period of T. Find the
error in the measurement of current for saw tooth waveform.
Solution: The saw-tooth waveform is shown below,
Calculating average value of Input Current
Im
i(t)  t
T
1
T
I
Iavg   Imt dt  m
T0 2
Calculating RMS value of Input Current
1/2
 T 2 
 1 Im   Im
Irms    t  dt 
T  T   3
 0   
Irms Im / 3 2
FF     1.154
IAvg Im / 2 3

1.11  1.154
% r   100  3.89%
1.154
Moving Iron Meter
In these type of Instruments, quantity under measurement is passed through an

electromagnet and an iron piece which is movable is kept in the vicinity of this
electromagnet. This iron piece experiences a torque and pointer connected to iron piece also
moves with it. There are two constructions of Moving iron Instruments:
Attractive Moving Iron
In this type of construction when current is passed through the fixed coil, a magnetic field is
created. This magnetic field attracts the moving piece of Iron which is connected to the
pointer. So, as Moving Iron moves into the magnetic field pointer moves over the scale.
Spring Control Torque and Air Friction Damping is used.

Repulsive Moving Iron
 In this type of construction, there are two iron pieces out of which one is fixed and other
is movable.
 The quantity to be measured is passed through an electromagnet which creates a
magnetic field. Due to this magnetic field magnetic poles are induced in both the iron pieces
and same poles are induced in the ends of iron pieces kept under same pole.
 Due to this Fixed Iron repels the Moving Iron causing it to move and thus pointer also
moves over the scale.
 Spring Control Torque and Air Friction Damping are employed in this type of
Construction.
Deflecting Torque
As the iron piece moves inside the field created by electromagnet the relative permeability of
the core of the fixed coil changes. This leads to change in self Inductance of the Fixed Coil.
So, Inductance of Fixed Coil is dependent on the position of Moving iron and hence the
position of pointer connected to Moving Iron.
Energy stored in the field of Fixed Coil,

1
U  L i2
2
where L is the inductance of Fixed Coil

i is the current flowing through Fixed Coil
dU
Deflecting Torque, Td 
d
Where θ is deflection of pointer from zero position
Since, current flowing through fixed coil is independent of position of pointer
Td  1 i2 dL
2 d
Since, Spring Control Torque is used so, Controlling torque
Tc  K
Under Steady State Condition,
Tc  Td
1 dL
K  i2
2 d
Therefore,   I2
Hence, this Instrument has a non-linear scale.
Features of Moving Iron Instruments
 MI meter measures both AC and DC quantities. In case of AC, it measures RMS current or
voltage for any waveform passing through moving coil.
1/2
1 T 
 Irms   i2 (t)dt 

 T 0 
 If a current of i(t)  I0  I1 sinwt  I2 sinwt  .... is passed through Moving Iron Meter, then
reading of Moving iron meter represents RMS Value of waveform which is given by,
1
 IRMS  I02  (I12  I22  .....)
2

 Since,   I2 so Moving Iron Meters are called as square law meters.

 Control spring provides controlling torque.
 Air friction damping is used.
 Repulsive MI is mostly used.
Condition for Linearity
Linear Scale for any Instrument is always preferable as the calibration is easier for linear scale.
Td  Tc
1 2 dL
I  k
2 d
For linear scale,
I 
 I  k1
1 2 dL
k  k
2 1 d
dL
  K 2  Constant
d
Solved Examples
Problem: The inductance of a certain moving-iron ammeter is expressed as

θ2
L  10  3θ  μH, where  is the deflection in radians from the zero position. The control
4
spring torque in 25 × 10-6 Nm/radian. The deflection of the pointer in radian when the meter
carries a current of 5A, is?
1 dL
Solution: Deflecting Torque, Td  I2
2 d
dL  
  3   H / rad
d  2
1 2 
25 x106 x  
2
 5  3   x10 6
2
=>   1.2rad


Problem: A moving iron ammeter produces a full scale torque of 240 µNm with a deflection
of 1200 at a current of 10 A. The rate of change of self-inductance (µH/radian) of the
instrument at full scale is?
1 dL
Solution: Deflecting Torque, Td  I2
2 d
1 2 dL
240 x10 6 
2
10 
d
dL 240 x 2 x10 6
  4.8 H / radian
d 100
Errors in MI Instruments
Frequency error
Ammeter
Since, this instrument is used for AC measurements so inductance also comes into play in
form of reactance. Hence, we have to replace resistance by impedance.
IZ sh
Im 
Zm  Z sh
I(R sh  j2fLsh )
Im 
Rm  R sh  j2f(Lm  Lsh )
Im R sh [1  j2fLsh / R sh ]

Ish Rm [1  j2fLm / Rm ]
L sh Lm
If 
R sh R m
Im R sh

Ish R m
Which is independent of frequency
If time constant of shunt =Time constant of meter, then meter is independent of frequency.

Voltmeter
For voltmeter to be independent of frequency we connect a compensating capacitor across
series resistance as shown below,
Lm
Cc  Compensating capacitor; Cc  0.41
R 2s
Lm
R sCc  0.41
Rs
Hysteresis error
Moving Iron is made of Ni-Fe alloy which has low Hysteresis area so that error due to
hysteresis is minimized.
Eddy current error
MI instruments are used up to 125Hz.Beyond 125Hz the error due to eddy current is high as
eddy current losses are proportional to square of frequency. It is not preferred at higher
frequencies. For measuring high frequency currents thermal instruments like hot wire,
thermocouple is used.
Electrodynamometer
 These instruments have two coils out of which one is kept fixed and other is movable.
Now when current is passed through both coils, moving coil experiences a torque due to
magnetic field produced by Fixed Coil as per Lorentz Force Law.
 The pointer is connected to moving coil which also moves over the scale.
Deflecting Torque
 The self-inductance of both coils is fixed as none of the parameters of any coil changes
but as moving coil moves the orientation of coils with respect to each other changes and
hence the mutual inductance between them varies.
 So mutual inductance in this case is dependent upon position of moving coil and hence
position of pointer.

The electrical circuit representation of dynamometer is shown below,
The energy stored in this system is,
1 2 1 2
U  L11
I  L2I2  MI1I2
2 2
Therefore, deflecting torque,
dU
Td 
d
Since, Self-Inductances and currents are independent of pointer position,
 dM 
Td  I1I2  
 d 
If DC currents are passed through both coils then,

i1  i2  I
dM
Td  I2
d
If spring control is used Tc  k
Under steady state, Tc  Td
dM
I2  k
d
  I2
So, the scale of the instrument is non-linear.
If AC currents are applied to both coils with a fixed phase difference as mentioned below,

i1  Im1 sin wt
i2  Im2 sin(wt  )
Then deflecting torque is given by,

dM
Td  Im1Im2 sinwt sin(wt  ).
d
2
1
Td(avg) 
2 0 Tdd  wt 
Im1Im2 dM
= cos 
2 d
dM
Td(avg)  I1I2 cos 
d
I I
I1  IRMS1  m1 ,I2  IRMS2  m2
2 2
Applications of Electrodynamometer Instruments
Ammeter
For application as an Ammeter, both Fixed Coil and Moving Coil of Electrodynamometer
Instrument are connected in series with the load so that load current flows through both the
coils. Here fixed coil has been shown to be divided into two parts FC1 and FC2 but that does
not impact the performance of the Instrument.
dM
Td  I1I2c os 
d
  Angle between I1 & I2
Since, both currents are same
  0  cos   1
dM
Td  I2 cos(0)
d
2 dM
Td  I
d

If, we use Spring Control then,

Tc  k
At Steady State Tc  Td
  I2
This meter measures both AC and DC currents and for AC it measures RMS Value.
Voltmeter
In these instruments both Fixed Coil and Moving Coil are connected in series and in parallel
to the load so that the currents in both the coils is proportional to Load Voltage.
R s  Series multiplier resistance
This resistance is used for limiting the currents through the coils as the coils have low
resistance and a heavy current would flow through them if Rs is not used.
Neglecting the resistance of the coils,
V
I2  I1 
Rs
Since, both currents are the same
  0,c os   1
V 2 dM
Td  .
R s d
If Spring Control is used,
Tc  k
Under Steady State Condition
Tc  Td
   V2
This meter can measure both AC and DC Voltages and for AC it measures RMS Voltage.
Wattmeter
 Fixed coil are connected in series with the load so it carries the load current in the circuit
and thus it is called as Current Coil.

 Moving coil is connected across voltage and therefore current through Moving Coil is
proportion to Voltage and thus it is called as Potential Coil or Pressure Coil. A high non-
inductive load is connected in series with Moving Coil to limit the current.
 The Pressure Coil of Wattmeter should be non-inductive as we need the current in this
coil to be in phase with the Load Voltage. So Pressure Coil must be highly resistive.
Current through Current Coil = I1  I
V
Current through Potential Coil = I2 
Rs
Deflecting Torque,
dM
Td,avg  I1I2 cos 
d
V dM
Td,avg  I cos 
Rs d
Since, I2 and V lie in same phase so phase difference between I1 and I2 is same as phase
difference between V and I, hence Φ is power factor angle and cosΦ is power factor.
This is shown in the Phasor Diagram below,

Pavg dM
Td 
Rs d
If Spring Control is used,

Tc  k
Hence,   Pavg
Hence, Wattmeter measures average active power.
Fixed Coils can be connected in various configurations based on the value of Load Current as
shown below,

Low load currents High load currents
When both Fixed Coils are connected in parallel the current gets distributed and coil can
sustain increased current.
M represents Main Terminal in a wattmeter connection and L indicates Load Connection

for the Wattmeter.
 Current coil and potential coil of air core coils so the effect of saturation of coil is
minimum.
 The potential coil of wattmeter must be highly resistive so that error in the measurement
of power is minimized whereas Potential coil of energy meter must be highly inductive so
that error in measurement of energy is minimum.
Connections of a Wattmeter
 We generally consider three terminals in a Wattmeter, we need two terminals for

measurement of Voltage and two for measurement of current.
 One terminal is always kept common between Potential Coil and Current Coil, so we can
either keep main terminal common resulting in Main-Common (MC) Connection or we can
keep Load Terminal common resulting in Load-Common (LC) Connection.
 Both Representations are shown below,

MC Connection LC Connection
Current and Voltage Harmonics
If there are harmonics present in Voltage and Current applied to wattmeter as shown below,
v  V0  V1 sin(wt  1 )  V2 sin(2wt  2 )  ..
i  I0  I1 sin(wt  1 )  I2 sin(2wt  2 )  ...
Then, power measured by wattmeter is given by,

1
Pavg  V0I0  VI cos  1  1   V2I2 cos  2  2   ......
2 11
Where V1 , V2 , I1 , I2 .... are Peak or maximum values
Blondel’s Theorem
For measurement of total power in ‘n’ phase balanced system, the number of wattmeters
required are (n-1)
Hence, for a 3   balanced system, number of Wattmeters required are 2
Two Wattmeter Method
For measurement of three phase power, we need two wattmeters and this method of Power
Measurement is commonly called as Two Wattmeter Method.
Star Connected Load
W1 has its potential coil connected to VBY and current coil has current IB through it.
W2 has its potential coil connected to VRY and its current coil has current IR through it.

Considering Phase Voltages as reference phasors, the phasor diagrams for both sets of
currents and voltages are shown in the figure
below,
Reading of Wattmeter 1 is given by,
W1  VByIB cos( VBy &IB )

W1  VLIL cos(30  )


W2  VRyIR cos( VRy & IR )
W2  VLIL cos(30  )
Delta Connected Load
W1 has its potential coil connected to VBY

and current coil has current IB through it.
W2 has its potential coil connected to VRY

and its current coil has current IR through it.
Considering Phase Voltages as reference

phasors, the phasor diagrams for both sets of
currents and voltages are shown in the figure
below,
Reading of wattmeter 1 is given by,

W1  VByIB cos( VBy &IB )
W1  VLIL cos(30  )


W2  VRyIR cos( VRy &IR )
W2  VLIL cos(30  )
Total active power

P3  W1  W2
 VLIL cos(30  )  VLIL cos(30  )
P3  3VLIL cos 
Total relative power

Q3  W1  W2
 VLIL [cos(30  )  cos(30  )]
 VLIL sin 
Q3  3VLIL sin   3(W1  W2 )
Power factor
Q3 (W  W2 )
 3 1  tan 
P3 (W1  W2 )
For lagging load, Φ > 0 and for leading load Φ < 0
Effect of load on Watt meter reading
 Cos W1 W2 W Observation
VL IL cos(30  ) VLIL cos(30  ) (W1  W2 )
1 3 3 3VL IL W2  W1
0 VI VI
2 LL 2 LL
0.866 VL IL VL IL 3 W1  2W2
VI
30 2 2 LL
60 0.5 3 3 W2  0
VI 0 VI
2 LL 2 LL
90 0 VL IL  VL IL W2  W1
2 2 0
Note: If one of the Wattmeter indicates negative value, change either cc or pc terminal but
not both and record reading with negative sign. Power factor in that case is less than 0.5

Measurement of reactive power by Wattmeter
If the Wattmeter Current Coil (CC) is connected to one phase(R) and voltage coil between
other 2 phases (B&Y), the wattmeter reads reactive power. The connections and phasor
diagram are shown in the figure below,
Angle between VYB &IR  30  60    (90  )
Reading of Wattmeter is given by,
W  VYBIR cos(90  )
 VLIL sin 
Q  3VLIL sin   3W
W W
Qph  
3 3
Q3  3W
Hence, it is not necessary that Wattmeter always measure Active Power instead the reading
of Wattmeter always depends on the connection of Wattmeter.

Solved Examples
Problem: Find the reading of Wattmeter whose connection is shown below,
Solution: W= VBN IRY cos(VBN &IRY )
415 415
  cos(120  6.87)
3 100
 597W
Problem: For the given circuit the internal resistances of the ammeter as well as that of the
current coil of the wattmeter are zero, and the voltmeters have a very large figure of merit.
A1 is a 6A full scale moving Iron type meter. A2 is a commercial full wave rectifier type meter
of full scale 5A. V1 is a 500V meter is a peak response type. V2 is 300V PMMC type meter and
W is an electro dynamometer type 5A, 230V wattmeter. Determine the readings of A1, A2, V1,
V2 and W.
Solution: Due to diode being in series with AC Voltage source, the voltage gets half wave
rectified.

Vm 230 2
RMS Voltage = VRMS    162.63V
2 2
Vm 230 2
Average Voltage = VAVG    103.54 V
 
VRMS 162.63
Since, A1 is a moving iron type meter so it measures RMS value =   3.53A
R 46
Since, A2 is full wave rectifier meter i.e. it uses PMMC so measures average current =
VAVG 103.54
IAVG    2.25 A
R 46
Since, V1 is peak response type meter. So, reading = Vm  230 2  325.27 V
Since, V2 is PMMC type meter so it measures Average Voltage = VAVG  103.54 V
After rectification AC is converted to DC so average power measured by W is,
PAVG  VAVG x IAVG  103.54 x 2.25  232.96 W
Problem: A symmetrical 400V, 3 supply is connected to the network shown in fig. The
phase sequence is RYB. Find the reading on the wattmeter.
R1 = 30, X1 = 50 and X2 = 40
Solution: Voltage across Potential Coil of Wattmeter = VYB

Assuming VRY as reference,
VRY  VL 00
VYB  VL   1200
VBR  VL 1200
Where, VL  Line to Line Voltage
VRY VBR
Current through the current coil of Galvanometer = IR  IRY  IBR  
Z1 Z2
Z1  R1  jX2  30  j40   5053.130 
Z 2   jX1   j50   50  900 

VRY VBR 40000 4001200

Hence, IR      3.2168.430 A
Z2 Z1 50  900 5053.130
Wattmeter Reading = P  VYBIR cos  VYB & IR   400 x 3.2 x cos( 120  168.43)  404.67 W
Problem: The line to line input voltage to the 3 phase, 50Hz, ac circuit shown in figure is
100V r.m.s. Assuming that the phase sequence is RYB the wattmeter would read.
Solution: Reading of W1  VLIL cos 30  

Reading of W2  VLIL cos 30  
Vph 100 / 3
Line Current, IL    11.547 A
Z 5
pf angle,   600
W1  VLIL cos 30    100 x11.547 xcos 30  60  100 x11.547 xcos 90  0 W
W1  VLIL cos 30    100 x11.547 xcos 30  60  100 x11.547 xcos  30   1kW
Problem: A wattmeter reads 400 W when its current coil is connected in the R phase and its
pressure coil is connected between this phase and the neutral of a symmetrical 3-phase
system supplying a balanced star connected 0.8 p.f. inductive load. The phase sequence is
RYB. What will be the reading of this wattmeter if its pressure coil alone is reconnected
between the B and Y phases, all other connections remaining as before?
Solution: Assuming VRN as reference

VRN  Vph00
IR  Iph  
Where,  is power factor angle

Reading of Wattmeter = W  VRN IR cos  VRN & IR   Vph Iph cos  
400  Vph Iph  0.8 

Vph Iph  500
Q
When Voltage Coil is connected across other two phases, reading of wattmeter =
3
Where Q is the reactive power
Q 3Vph Iph sin 
Reading =   3Vph Iph sin   3 x 500 x 0.6  519.61W
3 3
Errors in Wattmeter
Error due to connection of potential coil
For a small load current, we generally use MC connection of Wattmeter as shown below,
Resistance of Current Coil = rc
PT  True power of load

 VIL cos 
Voltage across Potential Coil = VL  ILrC
Current through Potential Coil = IL

Pm  PL  IL2rc
Pm  PT I2r
% r   100 = L c  100
PT PT
For low values of Load Current, relative error is low. Hence, this connection is preferable for
low values of Load Current.
For a large load current, we generally use LC connection of Wattmeter as shown below,
I1  I2  IL
Series Resistance with Potential Coil = Rs

I2  V
Rs
PT  True power of load
 VIL cos 
Pm  PL  V
2
Rs
Pm  PT V2
% error =  100   100
PT R sPT
If both errors are equal
V2
I22rc 
Rs
Error due to potential coil current flowing in CC
 In LC connection current coil carries additional current of potential coil so additional flux
in current coil induces an emf in PC and circulates additional current which causes more
power loss in PC due to R s .
 To compensate power loss in PC, a compensating coil is connected in series opposition to
PC which cancels this additional flux linked to Potential Coil. The connections of the Potential
Coil are shown in the figure below,
The outer coil represents Compensating Coil and inner coil is Current Coil.
No. of turns in compensating coil= Number of turns in Current Coil
Compensating coil is required in LC only as in MC, Current Coil carries load current only

Error due to Self-Inductance of PC
If we have highly resistive Potential Coil that means the Inductance of Coil is negligible
dM
Td  I1I2 cos 
d
V dM Pavg dM
I Cos   .
Rs d Rs d
PT  Pavg  VIcos 
If we consider Potential Coil has Inductance

Zp  (Rp  Rs )  jwLp
Rp  Rs ,Zp  Rs  jwLp
Rs
cos    (1)
Zp
1 cos 

Zp Rs
PC impedance angle = 
As current in pressure coil is in phase with the voltage but due to the inductance of PC, I 2 Is
lagging V by  as shown in Phasor Diagram below,
dM
Td  I1 I2 cos(  )
d
V dM
I cos(  )
Zp d
VI cos  cos(  ) dM
Td  [From (1) ]
Rs d
Td  VIcos  Cos(  )
Pm  VIcos  Cos(  )
Pm  measured power

Correction Factor
PT cos 
Cf  
Pm cos  cos(  )
Pm  PT
% error   100
PT
PT cos 

Pm cos [cos  cos   sin  sin ]
1

cos [1  tan  tan ]
2
PT sec2  1  tan2 
 
Pm 1  tan  tan  1  tan  tan 
If  is small, tan  0
PT 1

Pm 1  tan  tan 
Pm
 1  tan  tan 
PT
Pm
 1  tan  tan 
PT
Pm  PT
% r   100  tan  tan   100
PT
Note: This formula is only valid if Impedance Angle of Potential Coil is small i.e. β is small.
Absolute error in watts
For Lagging Load,
Pm  PT  PT tan  tan 
sin 
 VI cos  tan   VI sin  tan 
cos 

Pm  PT  VIsin  tan 
Hence, Pm  PT
For Leading Load,
Pm  PT  VI sin  tan 
Hence, Pm  PT
Effect of load PF on error in watt meter reading
The error in Wattmeter due to PC Inductance is given by,
Pe  Pm  PT  VI sin  tan 
The curve for variation of error with Φ is shown in adjoining figure
Hence, with decrease in pf i.e. increase in Φ error increases
So, ordinary dynamometer is suited for high PF load and for low PF we need a separate
design.
Low power factor(LPF) Wattmeter

The deflecting Torque in a Wattmeter is given by,
VI cos  dM
Td  .
Rs d
For low pf, Td decreases, so to compensate this effect we decrease R s and thus Td increases.
But if we decrease series resistance, effect of potential coil Inductance will increase as coil will
no longer be highly resistive. So, we need to compensate PC Inductance. For compensating
PC inductance, compensating capacitor is used in small portion as shown in figure below,

Lp
This condition must be satisfied for compensating PC inductance, rC 
r
Effect of external stray magnetic field
The external stray magnetic field produces additional flux

in the potential and current coils so the mutual
inductance increases and hence error is produced in the
measurement. To compensate this effect, iron shielding
is done around the meter which diverts the path of stray
magnetic field in laboratory.
In case of high accuracy and precision Wattmeter
a static system is used in which two potential coils are
arranged in the opposite sides of the spindle which carry
the currents in opposite directions and compensate the
effect of stray magnetic field. This is shown in adjoining figure.
Solved Examples
Problem: The circuit in fig is used to measure the power consumed by the load. The current
coil and the voltage coil of the watt meter have 0.02  and 1000 resistance respectively.
The measured power compared to the load power will be?
Solution: Since Current Coil is connected near to the load, so error in reading =
P  I2R  202 x 0.02  8 W
True Power = PT  2000 x 20  40kW
Hence, Measured Power is 8 W higher than True Power
8
% r  x100  0.2%
4000
Hence, Measured Power is 0.2% higher than True Power.

Power factor meter
The adjoining figure shows the arrangement

of Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor
Meter. It has two fixed coils and two moving
coils which are kept at 900 to each other.
As the moving coil rotates, the mutual

inductance of Moving Coil varies sinusoidally
as shown below,
MC1: M  Mmax cos 
dM
 Mmax sin 
d
MC2: M  Mmax sin 
dM
 Mmax cos 
d
The phasor diagrams for both moving coils are

shown below. Since MC1 is connected in series with
a resistance current I3 through it is in phase with voltage.
MC2 is connected in series with Inductor so current
through it lags the applied voltage by 900.
The deflecting torques for both moving coils are given by,
dM
MC1: Td1  I1I3 cos 
d

Td1  I1I3Mmax sin  cos 
dM
MC2: Td2  I1I4 cos(90  )
d
Td2  I1I4Mmax sin  cos 
At balance, the pointer is at rest and hence both deflecting Torques must be equal,
Td1  Td2
tan   tan

Here, we have to calibrate the scale in terms of pf rather than in terms of defection. In this
Instrument Air Friction Damping is used.
Megger
Megger is an Instrument which works on

Electrodynamometer principle and is used to
measure Insulation resistance. The arrangement
is shown in the adjoining figure in which
two coils are kept at 900 to each other
in a uniform magnetic field. By Lorentz
Force Law, due to current carried by coils
in magnetic field they will experience
a torque. The pointer will be under steady
state when the torque on both coils
is equal.
R T  Test resistance
R1 ,R 2  Current limiting resistance
At balance,
BI2 cos   BI1 sin 

Where B is magnetic flux density produced by the magnets.

V V
cos   sin 
(R 2  R T ) R1
R1
tan  
R2  R T
For small , tan   
Since, R1 ,R 2  cons tant

1
 
RT
 Spring is used for providing controlling torque.
 Air friction damping is used.
Applications
 Widely used in substations and in the generating stations for measuring the resistance of
motor, Transformers and generator.
 Insulation resistance and to measure the load resistance like Earth conductor resistance.
Power Frequency Meter
The resonance frequency of both the coils is different and for any frequency lying between
the two resonance frequencies, power factor of one coil will be leading and that of other will
be lagging.
The resonance curves for both the coils is shown in the figure below,

The deflecting torque produced on the moving coil is given by,
dM
Td  I1I2 cos 
d
From the graph above, Coil1 will have lagging pf and Coil2 will have leading pf at frequency f
which lies between resonance frequencies f1 and f2. The phasor diagram for both coils is
shown below,
 When, (f  f1 )  (f2  f) which means f lies midway between

f1 and f2, the pf angles of both coils are equal i.e.
1  2
 When (f2  f)  (f  f1 ) which means f lies closer to f1,

then pf angle of coil 1 is lower as compared to
power factor angle of coil2 i.e.
2  1
 When (f2  f)  (f  f1 ) which means f lies closer to f2,

then pf angle of coil 2 is lower as compared to
power factor angle of coil1 i.e.
2  1
 If the Frequency is changing causes change in pf angles of currents i1 & i2 due to

resonance effect. This will cause change in deflection torque of pointer which is calibrated in
terms of Frequency.
 A small weight is placed on pointer and used for providing controlling torque, so this
instrument uses Gravity Control.
 Air friction damping is employed in this type of Instrument.
Energy Meter
Energy is power consumed or delivered over a period of time.
Energy = power  time
VIcos  t
WT   kWhr
1000 3600

t=time in seconds
Full load current=I
I
Half load current 
2
WT =True energy; 1 unit= 1 kWhr
 In Energy Meters, the moving system rotates continuously unlike Indicating Instruments
where it deflects through a fraction of revolution.
 The speed of revolution is proportion to power in Watt-hour meters and Ampere-Hours in
Ampere-hour meters. Thus total number of revolution in Watt-hour meter is proportional to
the energy supplied.
 The basic schematic of Energy Meter is shown in the figure below,
The terminologies used in the figure above represent,

PC=Potential coil CC=current coil
RD=rotating disc PM=Permanent magnet
SR= shading ring SL= shading loop

 AC induction energy meter working on principle of induction used to cumulatively record

energy consumed by the loads and hence it is Integrating type.
 PC of energy meter must be highly inductive to minimize error in measurement of energy.
 This correspond to the driving torque produced on the rotating disc by the interaction of
magnetic fluxes produced by PC flux and CC flux which will passing through RD causes
driving torque which is proportional to power consumed by the load.
The phasor diagram corresponding to energy meter is shown in the figure below,
Vpc = potential applied across potential coil
Icc = current flowing in current coil

 = Power factor angle of load
 = angle between potential coil voltage and flux
P = Flux due to Potential Coil
C = Flux due to Current Coil
VP = Potential induced in RD due to PC
VC = Potential induced in RD due to CC
IP = Eddy Current induced in RD due to PC
IC = Eddy Current induced in RD due to CC
 = Impedance angle of RD
 Torque is produced on the RD due to interaction of flux produced by one coil and eddy
current induced in RD due to other coil. The flux produced by PC lags PC voltage by  which
should ideally be 900 and that can only happen if PC is highly inductive.
 So, PC in energy meter must be highly inductive. The eddy current induced in RD lags emf
induced in RD by impedance angle of RD.

Driving Torque
Td  (Td1  Td2 )
Td  pIc cos(p &Ic )  cIp cos(1 &Ip )
Eddy Current Ic depends on the emf induced in RD due to CC which depends on Flux due to
CC and that itself depends on current flowing in CC.
Ic  Vc  c  Icc
Similarly, eddy Current IP depends on the emf induced in RD due to PC which depends on
Flux due to PC and that itself depends on voltage applied across PC.
IP  VP  P  Vpc
So, by proportionality we can say that driving torque is proportional to,

Td  VIcos (90  )  (  )  cos (90  )  (  )
Td  VI2sin(90  )sin(  )
Td  VI2cos  sin(  )
Since, 2cos = constant
Td  VIsin(  )
Hence, Measured Power, Pm  VIsin(  )
True Power, PT  VIcos 
If   900 , then Pm  PT , hence due to angle between PC voltage and flux being less than
900, there is an error introduced in the reading of Energy Meter. Hence, to eliminate this
error PC of Energy Meter must be highly inductive.
Error= Pm  PT  VI [sin(   )  cos ]

The error in the measurement of power is increased as the load power factor is decreasing.
So, to reduce the error we need to adjust the angle  and bring it as close to 900 as
possible.
Lag coil/Shading Ring
 For improving PF of PC, lag coil or shading ring

is used below PC.
The phasor diagram showing how we adjust the angle
between PC voltage and flux is shown below,
 In case of lag coil variable resistance is connected
across lag coil for adjustment of angle between
PC voltage and flux which is passing through RD.
 In case of shading ring, the position of shading ring
is adjusted for the adjustments of the angle and to
keep 90 phase difference between flux and voltage.
 Lag coil and shading ring are made of copper.
Braking Mechanism
The speed of moving system is controlled by a braking system. The braking system consists
of a Permanent Magnet so placed that it induces eddy currents in Rotating Disc. These eddy
currents produce a braking torque which is proportional to speed of the Rotating Disc.
TB  BrakingTorque
TB  mImd
Im  Vm  mN
TB  m .m .Nd
TB  m2Nd
TB  K 2m
2
Nd , K2 = constant
Here, d is distance of Permanent Magnet from center
of disc.
Td  Driving torque
Td  P  VIcos 

At constant speed,
Td  TB
P N
 Pdt   Ndt
Energy   Ndt
Hence, Energy is proportional to Number of Revolutions.
Speed adjustment
TB  Km
2
Nd
TB
N
km
2
d
1
N
d
N=speed of disc
d= Distance between center of disc to PM
 For maintaining a constant disc speed at a given load condition braking torque is used
which is produced by permanent magnet.
 For varying disc speed and to make correction in energy meter revolutions, the position of
magnet is adjusted with respect to center of Disc.
 1
 For increasing the speed, PM is kept closer to center of disc  N  
 d
Reduced Gear Train
It is used for recording number of revolutions made by the disc so that the energy consumed
by the load is recorded cumulatively. So, energy meter is working as integrating instrument.
Number of Revolutions N
Energy Constant= 
kWhr P.t
total number of revolutions
Measured Energy= Wm 
k
VIcos  t
True energy WT   kWhr
1000 3600
Wm  WT
Error % r   100
WT

Errors and Compensation in Energy Meter
Light load and Friction compensation
 In light load, torque is less and it can’t overcome friction and hence disc may not rotate.
 By using shading loop between PC and RD, friction and low load currents are
compensated, it provides additional torque.
 The shading loop experiences unusual magnetic flux lines due to potential coil flux
passing through shading loop.
 The position of shading loop can be adjusted along the Spindle.
Creeping Error
 If friction is over compensated by placing shading loop nearer to PC then disc starts
rotating slowly with only PC excited without connecting any load is creeping.
 To reduce creeping holes or slots are kept on opposite sides of spindle in the disc and
torque produced due to side limbs of shunt magnet oppose each other and stops the
creeping.
 Above figure shows the RD kept under the Shunt Magnet and it comes at rest when the
holes at diametrically opposite ends come under the limbs of Shunt Magnet.
 Magnetic Field lines linking the holes and Shunt Magnet are also shown. The disc will
come to rest but at least after half a revolution.
 A small iron piece is attached to edge of AL disc under creeping, this iron piece is
attracted by PM and hence disc stops creeping but it has chance to complete one revolution.
This arrangement is shown in the figure below,

Total number of rev / kWhr due to creeping

% creeping error   100
Total number of rev / kWhr due to loading
Over Voltage Compensation
A saturable shunt magnet is kept between central and the side limbs of shunt magnet which
will divert additional flux due to overvoltage.
Over Current Compensation
For protecting the energy meter from over current or overload, saturable series magnet is
kept between side limbs of the series magnet which diverts the additional flux due to over-
current.
PM is made of “Mu Temp” which has higher life and is less affected by surrounding
temperature.
Solved Examples
Problem: The voltage-flux adjustment of a certain 1-phase 220 V induction watt-hour meter
is altered so that the phase angle between the applied voltage and the flux due to it 850
(instead of this 900). The errors introduced in the reading of this meter when the current is 5
A at power factors of unity and 0.5 lagging are respectively?
Solution: Error in Reading of Energy Meter = Wm  WT  VIsin      VIcos 

where,  is the angle between Potential Coil Voltage and Flux
 is the Power Factor Angle
When pf = 1,   0
Error  220 x5xsin 85  0  220 x5x1  4.185W

When pf = 0.5 ,   600

Error  220 x5xsin 85  60  220 x5x0.5  85.11W
Problem: A dc A-h meter is rated for 15 A, 250 V. The meter constant is 14.4 A-sec/rev. The
meter constant at rated voltage may be expressed as?
Solution: Meter Constant = 14.4 A-sec/rev = 14.4 x 250 W-s/rev = 3.6 kW-s/rev
3.6
Meter Constant = kW  hr / rev  0.001 kW  hr / rev
3600
Meter Constant = 1000 rev / kW  hr
Problem: An energy meter connected to an immersion heater (resistive) operating on an AC

230 V, 50 Hz, AC single phase source reads 2.3 units (kWh) in 1 hour. The heater is removed
from the supply and now connected to a 400 V peak to peak square wave source of 150 Hz.
The power in kW dissipated by the heater will be?
Vrms2
Solution: Energy consumed by Heater = xt
R
2302
2300 W  hr  x1hr
R
R  23 
Vrms2
Now, when Heater is connected across Square Wave, Power Consumed =
R
Vpp 400
Vrms  Vm    200 V
2 2
2002
P  1.739kW
23
Testing and calibration of Energy and Wattmeter
 For reducing the cost or calibration of the energy and the wattmeter phantom or fictious
loading is used in which potential coil is applied/excited with rated potential and current coil
is applied with small voltage source with a variable resistor.
 By adding the resistor rated current is passing through the current coil which is
corresponding through the load current.
 The energy consumed during Phantom Loading is corresponding to losses in PC and CC
so it is much less than energy consumed under actual loaded conditions. So, cost of testing
is reduced.

Power consumed while testing,
V2 2
PT   I (R  rc )
Rs
Energy= PT  t kWhr
Where, t=time of testing.
As for an example, when we connect a physical Load in the system for 10hours and cost per
unit of energy is INR 5. Then cost of testing can be calculated as,
Power Consumed = 230 x 100 = 23kW
Energy Consumed= 23kw  10hr = 230 KWhr = 230 units
Cost of Testing  230  5  INR 1150
Under Phantom loading, we apply a voltage across Current Coil such that same current
passes through Current Coil. We neglect the resistance of Potential Coil and consider only
the resistance of Current Coil.
R T  0.1 
P  1002  0.1  1000W  1 kW
Energy= P x t = 10kWhr=10 units
Cost of Testing =10  5= INR 50
Hence, we can see that cost of testing is greatly reduced

under Phantom Loading.
Thermal Instruments
 The instruments which are working on the principle of heating are called thermal
instruments. The element used in these instruments has a property which varies with
temperature.
 These are used for measurement of current at high frequencies. At moderate frequencies,
they can be used for precision measurement of Voltage.

Hot wire Instruments
It consists of Platinum, Indium wire. Whenever current is

flowing is produces I2R losses to that heat is produced
which cause increase in the length of wire which causes
increase in sag of the wire which drives the pulley causes
the pointer deflection which is proportional to the
heating effect current to be measured. Hence, pointer
deflection is proportional to square of current to be
measured. It measures both AC and DC quantities.
In AC it measures RMS quantity.
Features
1. It has slow response

2. Spring provides controlling torque
3. Air friction damping is used.
Thermo-couple meter
Thermo-couple meter is based on the principle of Seeback Effect which states that when the
junction of two elements is subjected to different temperatures at both ends then a DC
potential is developed between the two metals. The first figure depicts the typical
arrangement of a Thermocouple. The DC Potential is given by,
Voc  K1(T1  T2 )  K 2 (T1  T2 )2  ....

The second figure shows the use of Thermo-couple to measure a current. The test current is
passing through heater which produces I2R losses which increases the temperature of the
junction. The thermocouple produces voltage proportional to the temperature difference.
This voltage is measured by PMMC meter of higher accuracy.
It is used to measure both AC and DC. In AC it measures RMS.
Electrostatic Meters
In Electrostatic Instruments, deflecting torque is produced by action of Electric Field on

charged conductors. The figure shown below shows two arrangements for electrostatic
voltmeters,
Here we have two plates out of which one is fixed and other is movable. The fixed plate
plates produces an Electric Field which attracts the oppositely charged Moving Plate. When
the Moving Plate moves it causes deflection of pointer.
Spring is connected to moving plate to provide Controlling Torque and Fluid Friction
Damping is used as the fluid also acts as dielectric medium between the two capacitor
plates.
Capacitive Voltage Transducer works on principle of electrostatics, used to measure voltage

of feeders in KV range in substations.

Deflecting Torque
Energy stored between the plates of capacitor is given by,

1
U  CV2
2
1 2 dC
Deflecting Torque is given by, Td  V
2 d
Under Steady State Condition,
Td  Tc
1 2 dC
V  k
2 d
Hence,   V2 the scale of instrument is non-linear.
Similar to Moving Iron Instruments the scale would be linear iff
dC
  Constant
d
Enhancement of Voltmeter
To increase the range of Voltmeter, we need to use Voltage division and hence we employ a
series capacitor for Electrostatic Voltmeter as shown in the figure below,
Cm  Meter capacitance
Cs  Series multiplier capacitance
By Potential Divider,
V.1/ jCm
Vm 
1/ jCm  1/ jC3
VCs
Vm 
Cs  Cm
V C  Cm
m s
Vm Cs
Cm
Cs 
(m  1)

Solved Examples
Problem: An electrostatic voltmeter has meter capacitance of 1F measures voltage up to

1kV. How much of series multiplier capacitance is required for measuring 100kV?
100
Solution: Multiplication Factor, m = =100
1
1 106
Cs   10nF
(100  1)
 
Problem: A current of 2  2 sin(sin( 314 t  30)  2 2 cos(952 t  45) is measured with a
thermocouple type. 5A full scale, class 1meter. The meter reading would lie in the range?
Solution: Since, the Thermocouple Instruments measure RMS currents
 2   2 2 
2 2
Reading of Meter = I RMS  22   4  1 4  3 A

2 2
Since, it is a Class-1 meter so GAE = 1%
GAE x Full Scale Reading 1 x5
Limiting Error, LE =   1.7 %
Reading 3
Hence, range of reading = 3A  1.7%

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Measurement (Measuring Instruments)

Electromechanical Measuring Instruments

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Describe the principle of operation of various Measuring Instruments.

Classification of Analog Meters

The other classification can be on the basis of representation of Output like:

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(i) Zeroth order Instrument

As for an example, the potentiometer shown in the

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(ii) First order Instruments

An example of a First Order Instrument is RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) which is

(iii) Second Order Instruments

The Transfer Function of a Second Order Instrument is given by,

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Torques in Indicating Meters

 Indicating Instruments belong to the category of Second Order Under-damped systems

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Air friction damping

Another way to implement Air Friction Damping is shown below:

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Fluid Friction Damping

Electromagnetic or Eddy current damping

 If a current carrying conductor, wound on a former placed in a magnetic field, it

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i.e. Deflecting Torque becomes equal to controlling torque.

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 Has to produce controlling torque.

Properties of Spring material

 Should be a conducting material.

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Errors in Indicating Instruments

If surrounding temperature of instrument is changed then coil resistance changes, so meter

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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments

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In our case, Magnetic Flux Density is oriented in positive x-direction.

Where T is Torque and r is perpendicular distance of Force from the axis

If there are ‘n’ turns in the coil, then

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Controlling Torque Tc 

At balance Tc  Td (Pointer is stationary)

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Important features of PMMC

 Scale is linear or uniform. So sensitivity is constant

 If I  I0  I1 sinwt  I 2 sin2wt  ......, then PMMC reads Iavg  I0

 Not suitable for measurement of AC signal.

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Solution: DC Voltmeter measures average or DC voltage

Vdc  8.5 x10  85 V

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Applying current division

 R sh is made of manganin/constantan ( sh  0.00015 / C )

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Effect of Temperature on Ammeter

Measured value  True value A  At

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Full scale Current

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Solution: Resistance of Voltmeter 1 = R1  10 x100  1000k  1 M

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Half wave rectifier meter