Power Electronics (KWiki - Ch3 - Choppers) PDF

Power Electronics (Choppers)
Choppers
Introduction
A DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output
voltage directly. A chopper can be said as dc equivalent of an AC transformer as they
behave in an identical manner. This kind of choppers are more efficient as they involve one
stage conversion. Just like a transformer, a chopper can be used to step up or step down the
fixed dc output voltage.
Choppers are used in many applications all over the world inside various electronic
equipment’s. A chopper system has a high efficiency, fast response and a smooth control.
The Power semiconductor devices used for a chopper circuit can be Power MOSFET, Power
BJT, GTO or forced commutated thyristor. These devices can be represented by a switch SW
with an arrow on it. When the switch is on, current flows in the direction of arrow only and
voltage drops across these devices is neglected.
DC-DC converter will transfer the DC power from one circuit to another from fixed voltage to
variable voltage & vice-versa depending on application
Application
(1) DC to DC converters are used in speed control of DC Motor specially in position control in
robotics applications
(2) In regulated power supply (SMPS circuit)
(3) To provide input power to inverter
(4) Solar power converter
Note:
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 We cannot switch ON the switch. So C,L will damage because C is voltage stiff and L is
current stiff elements.
Element Source
Vstiff Istiff
Vstiff X 
Istiff  X
Principle of Chopper operation

A chopper is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. It connects source to load and
disconnects the load from source at a fast speed. In this manner a chopped load voltage is
obtained from a constant DC supply.
T  Ton  Toff =Chopping period

1
f = Chopping frequency
T
Ton
D =Duty cycle
T
Where Ton is the time when chopper is on and Toff is the time when chopper is off
Elementary Chopper Circuit
In Place of S2: It is preferable to use uncontrolled switch i.e. diode in order to provide free
wheeling path for inductor current.
In Place of S1: If we use SCR it is difficult to turn it off as the source is DC and hence
commutation of SCR is difficult. In order to turn it off, it requires additional commutation
circuit. Transistor family devices is most suitable for switches in place of S1, these are IGBT,
BJT, MOSFET. In case of IGBT and MOSFET body diodes are not necessary, in other words
switches are unipolar and unidirectional in nature.

Types of Choppers
Step Down Chopper or Buck Converter or V-I converter

A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC electronic converter in which the output voltage
will be transformed to level less than the input voltage. It is also called as step down
converter. The name step down converter comes from the fact that analogous to step down
transformer the input voltage is stepped down to a level less than the input voltage. By law
of conservation of energy the input power has to be equal to output power (assuming no
losses in the circuit).
 Assuming high value of capacitance which maintains almost constant output voltage.
The main working principle of buck converter is that the inductor in the input circuit resists
sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores energy in the form
of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The capacitor in the output
circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in the output stage is
high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures a constant output
voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant)
For R load
SW is on (0<t<DT) SW is on (0<t<DT)
VSW  0 ; VD  Vs VSW  Vs ; VD  0

diL diL
KVL: L  Vs  V0 KVL: L   V0
dt dt
dv 0 V0 dv 0 V0
KCL: C  i KCL: C  i
dt R L dt R L
Volt-sec balance equation across inductor
diL di
L  DT  L L  1  D  T   Vs  V0   DT    V0  1  D  T
dt dt
This should be zero because in one time period change in inductor current is zero
 V0  DVs as D<1, V0  Vs
Ampere-sec balance equation across capacitor

dv 0 dv V V
C  DT  C 0 1  D  T  0  D  0 1  D  T  iL  D  iL 1  D  T
dt dt R R
This should be zero because in one time period change in capacitor voltage is zero
V0 DVs
 IL    DI0
R R
 Under ideal condition input & output powers are equal Ploss  0  
Pin  P0
Vs Is  V0 I0 => Is  DI0
To draw iL
For 0<t<DT For 0<t<DT
 V  V0   V 
diL   s  dt diL   0  dt
 L   L 
V0
 V  V0
iL   s

 t  ILmin iL  ILmax 
L
 t  DT 
 L 
KCL: iC  iL  I0
iC is +ve => VC  Charging current ; iC is -ve => VC  Discharging current

 When iL  I0 the capacitor charging and voltage across the capacitor voltage rise
exponentially & iL  I0 then capacitor discharging and voltage across capacitor decreases
exponentially.


Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in inductor current
IL  ILmax  ILmin

For 0<t<DT
 V  V0 
iL  t    s  t  ILmin
 L 

For t=DT; iL t  ILmax
 V  V0 
 ILmax   s  DT  ILmin
 L 
V 
 IL   s  1  D  DT
 L 
 Maximum value of IL
dIL
For maximum value  0 => 1-2D=0 => D  1 or 50%
dD 2
Vs
ILmax 
4Lf
 The peak-peak ripple current can be minimized by selecting large inductance, once the
circuit is designed the ripple current can be controlled by increasing the switching
frequency i.e. if the switch is operated with high switch frequency then ripple can be
minimized, therefore MOSFET or IGBT are preferable for DC-DC converter.
IL I
 ILmax  IL  and ILmin  IL  L
2 2
I I 
 IL   Lmax Lmin 
 2 
Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in capacitor voltage

Q 1 T IL
V0    
C 2 2 2C
 1   Vs 
V0      D 1  D  T
2

 8C   L 
 Maximum value of V0

dV0 1
For maximum value  0 =>1-2D=0  D= or 50%
dD 2
Vs
V0max 
32LCf 2
For continuous conduction, waveform will remain same for RL & RLE load
V0  DVS 

 for R,RL & RLE
V0  DVS 
V0  Eb DVs  Eb
I0   (For RLE Load)
Ra Ra
DVS
I0  (For R& RL Load)
R
I 
0 avg
 DI0
I 
d avg
 I 0 1  D 
(i) 0  t  TON
S1  ON
di0
VS  Eb  R ai0  La
dt
i0 
V S
 Eb   t
Ta 
t
Ta
 1  e   Ke
Ra  
La
Ta 
Ra
i0 
V S
 Eb   t
Ta 
t
Ta
 1  e   Imine
Ra  
At t  tON ;i0  imax
(ii) Ton  t  T

S1  OFF,S2  ON
di0
0  i0R a  L 0  Eb
dt
di0
Eb  i0R a  L 0
dt
Eb
i0 
Ra
  t T

 t T
1  e a  Ke a
Eb
i0 
Ra
  t T

 t T
1  e a  Imax e a
at t  toff
Eb
Imax 
Ra
 t
1  e off
Ta
I max
e
 toff Ta
....................(ii)
By solving equations (i) & (ii), we can compute Imax & Imin
 T
 ON 
Vs  1  e Ta  Eb
Imax    R ....................(iii)
R a  T
Ta

 1  e 
a
 TON 
Vs  e Ta  1  Eb
Imin    R ....................(iv)
R a  T Ta 
 e 1 
a
Ripple current
 T
 ON
TON

VS 1  e Ta e Ta  1 
I0  Imax  Imin    T 
Ra  T
e  1 
Ta Ta
 1e
  TON T   TON T  TOFF T     ON 
T
Ta

 T
 ON e a
 1 e a
e a
  T
 ON 1  e  T 
VS 1  e Ta  
  VS 1  e Ta    OFF 
 e Ta
I0       
Ra   T
Ta  T Ta   T Ta  Ra
T
 1  e Ta   T
Ta  
1e  e  1 e  1  e 
       
   
 T
 T
  T  
1  T 
 ON  OFF  Ta

Ta
 1  e Ta
 1  e
Ta
  1e  1  e 
V    V    
I0  S      S


Ra   T 
T  Ra  T 
T
 1e a   1e a 
     
 

For getting conduction for maximum ripple current, differentiate above equation w.r.t. D and
equate it to zero
dI0
 0  D  0.5
dD
 I  

Vs 1  e
a
1e
 0.5T T
  0.5T Ta

0 max
Ra T T
1e a  
Vs  T 
 I 
0 max

Ra
tanh  
 4Ta 
tanh x  x
Vs T  V 
 I 
0 max
    s 
R a 4Ta  4fL a 
Vs
 I 
0 max
D  0.5

4fL a
I0  as f  &L a 
 As load inductive increases, ripple current decreases, smoothly reactors or filter are used.
 We can also reduce ripple current by increasing the chopping frequency without
increasing size of filter
 SMPS operate on same chopper principle
RLE load (discontinuous conduction)

T   T  tx   1  tx 
V0  Vs  on   Eb    DVs  Eb  
 T   T   T 
1/2
  T   T  tx  
Vor  Vs2  on   Eb2  
  T   T  
1/2
  1  t x  
Vor  DVs2  Eb2  
  T  
Duty cycle for continuous conduction D'  

D' is the duty cycle at the boundary between continuous & discontinuous conduction
TON

D' 
T

If D  D' (Discontinuous)
D  D' (Continuous)
Imin  0 At t=T
 TON


VS  e Ta  1  Eb
R a  T Ta R 0

 e 1 
a
TON

e
Ta
1 Eb  E 
  m m  b (say)
T
Ta Ra  Vs 
e 1
TON

Ta  TT 
e  1  m e a  1
 
TON

Ta  TT 
e  1  m e a  1
 
  T 
  Ta ln 1  m  e Ta  1  
TON
  
TON
 T   TT 
D'   a ln 1  m  e a  1  
T T   
Boundary Condition
Continuous operation
At the boundary between continuous and discontinuous mode, the inductor current iL goes
to zero at the end of the off period.
I C
At this boundary average inductor current is IL 
2

 Critical Inductance LC  
It is the value of inductance at which the inductor current waveform is just discontinuous
IC DVS DT 1  D  VS
IL  => 
2 R 2LC
LC 
1  D  R
2f
 Critical Resistance RC  
2Lf
RC 
1  D 
 Critical capacitance CC  
It is the value of capacitance at which capacitance voltage waveform is just discontinuous
VC
V0 
2
D 1  D  VS
DVS 
16f 2L CCC
CC 
1  D  or CC 
1
16f L C
2
8fR
Discontinuous operation
In this mode current through inductor goes to zero i.e. inductor is completely discharged
before the end of switching cycle.
For 0<t<DT
 V  V0 
iL  t    s t
 L 
 V  V0 
If t=DT => ILmax   s  DT
 L 
For DT<t<βT
V0
iL  t   ILmax   t  DT 
L
If t= βT => iL t  0 
V0
ILmax 
L
T  DT 
 Vs  V0  V0
  DT  T  DT 
 L  L
D 
 V0  Vs   ; T> βT or β<1

 In discontinuous mode V0  Vs
Solved Examples
Problem: A dc to dc transistor chopper supplied from a fixed voltage dc source feeds a fixed
resistive–inductive load and a free – wheeling diode. The chopper operates at 1kHz and 50%
duty cycle. Without changing the value of the average dc current through the load, if it is
desired to reduce the ripple constant of load current, the control action needed will be
(a) Increase the chopper frequency keeping its duty cycle constant
(b) Increase the chopper frequency and duty cycle in equal ratio
(c) Decrease only the chopper frequency
(d) Decrease only the duty cycle
V0
Solution: The average d.c. current through the load I0  and V0  DVS .
R
VS
Ripple =
4fL
If duty cycle ‘D’ changes average value of output current and voltage changes. So ‘D’ should
be maintained constant. Current ripple can be decreased by increasing chopping frequency.
Problem: A step down, chopper operates from a dc voltage source Vs feeds a dc motor
armature with a back e.m.f Eb. From oscilloscope traces, it is found that the current increases
for time tr falls to zero over time tF, and remains zero for time to in every chopping cycle, then
the average dc voltage across the freewheeling diode is
Solution: For step down chopper for RL load Vo = DVs

For RLE load, The output waveform is

From above diagram t = tr + tf+ to

The terminal voltage exits only for the periods tr and to, remaining time zero
VS tr  Ebto
 The average voltage =
tr  tf  to
Problem: A chopper is employed to charge a battery as shown in figure. The charging

current is 5A. The duty ratio is 0.2. The chopper output voltage is also shown in figure. The
peak to peak ripple current in the charging current is
Solution: Given D = 0.2, TON = 200 s, T = 1m sec

A constant dc voltage applied to an inductor then nature of current is linear.
For step down chopper
For 0<t<Ton
di
L   VS  E 
dt
 V E 
i=  S t
 L 
At t=Ton i=ipeak
 V E   60  12 
IP =  S  TON =  3 
 0.2  10 3 = 0.48A
 L   20  10 

Problem: Figure shows a chopper operating from a 100 V dc input. The duty ratio of the
main switch S is 0.8. The load is sufficiently inductive so that the load current in ripple free.
The average current through the diode D under steady state is
Solution:Given is step down chopper

The average output voltage in chopper circuit is Vo = DVS= 0.8  100 = 80V
Vo 80
The average current through the load is Io =  = 8A
R 10
During chopper operation, switch ‘s’ conducts during Turn ON time (TON) and diode (D)
conducts during turn OFF time (TOFF).
TOFF (1  D)T
Average Current through diode (IDA) =IO  = Io  Io  (1  D) = 8(1-0.8)= 1.6A
T T
Step up Chopper or Boost converter or I-V converter

A Boost converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output voltage is
greater than the input voltage. It is also called as step up converter. The name step up
converter comes from the fact that analogous to step up transformer the input voltage is
stepped up to a level greater than the input voltage. By law of conservation of energy the
input power has to be equal to output power (assuming no losses in the circuit).
The main working principle of boost converter is that the inductor in the input circuit resists
sudden variations in input current. When switch is OFF the inductor stores energy in the form
of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The capacitor in the output
circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in the output stage is

high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures a constant output
voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant)
For R Load
SW is ON ( 0<t<DT ) SW is off ( DT<t<T )
VSW  0 ; VD   V0 VSW  V0 ; VD  0
diL diL
KVL: L  Vs KVL: L  Vs  V0
dt dt
dv 0 V0 dv 0 V0
KCL: C  0 KCL: C  i
dt R dt R L
diL di
L  DT  L L 1  D  T  Vs DT    Vs  V0 1  D  T
dt dt
Vs
V0  V0  Vs

1  D as D<1 :
dv 0 dv V  V 
C  DT  C 0 1  D  T  0 DT   IL  0  1  D  T
dt dt R  R 
V0 Vs
 IL  
R 1  D  R 1  D 
2
 Under ideal condition input & output powers are 

equal Ploss  0 
Pin  P0
V0 I0 I0
Vs Is  V0 I0 => Is  
Vs 1  D 
Note:- If the boost converter operates with a duty cycle ratio of 1 then the average output
voltage will be zero because when D=1, the switch will be closed permanently inductor
current will keep on increase and finally it will reach the saturation. In output side capacitor
should deliver power to the load. As capacitor is passive element it can’t deliver power to the
load continuously & finally the output voltage will be zero.
To draw iL
For 0<t<DT For DT<t<T
diL Vs diL Vs  V0
 
dt L dt L
V  V 
iL 
Vs
L
t  ILmin iL  ILmax 
s
L
0
 t  DT 


0<t<DT

Vs
iL  t  ILmin
L
At t=DT, iL  ILmax
Vs
ILmax 
L
DT   ILmin
Vs
 IL 
L
DT 
 IL is maximum when D is maximum, that means ripple in inductance current is maximum
when D=1
IL I
 ILmax  IL  and ILmin  IL  L
2 2
I I 
 IL   Lmax Lmin 
 2 

Q I0  DT 
 V0  
C C
 V0 is maximum when D is maximum, that means ripple in inductance current is
maximum when D=1
Boundary conditions
Continuous operation
I C
2

IC VS VSDT
IL  => 
2 1  D  R 2LC
2
D 1  D  R
2
LC 
2f
2Lf
RC 
D 1  D 
2
VC I  DT
V0  => I0R  0
2 2CC
D
CC 
2fR
Discontinuous operation
For 0<t<DT
Vs
iL (t)  t
L
Vs
At t=DT; iL  ILmax 
L
DT 
For DT<t<βT
 V  V0 
iL  ILmax   s   t  DT 
 L 
At t  T, iL (t)  0

Vs  V  V0 
0
L
 DT    s   T  DT 
 L 
  
V0  Vs  
 D 
Effect of internal Resistance of Inductor

The output voltage of converter is strongly influenced by internal resistance of inductance
SW is ON (0<t<DT)
diL
KVL : riL  L  Vs
dt
dv 0 V0
KCL : C  0
dt R
SW is OFF (DT<t<T)
diL
KVL : riL  L  Vs  V0
dt
dv 0 V0
KCL : C  i
dt R L
 di di 
riL DT   riL 1  D  T   L L DT  L L 1  D  T   Vs DT    Vs  V0 1  D  T
 
 dt dt 
Average voltage across inductor =o

Vs  rIL  V0 1  D ............(a)
 dv 0 dv  V V 
C DT   C 0 1  D     0 DT   0 1  D  T   0.DT  IL 1  D  T
 dt dt  R R 
average current across capacitor = 0
V0
T  IL 1  D  T
R
V0
 IL 
R 1  D 
Substitute IL value into eq. (a)

rV0
0 Vs   V0 1  D 
R 1  D 
 
 1  D  
V0  Vs   ; if D=1, V0  0
 r  1  D  2 
 R 
Maximum value of V0
dV0
For maximum value 0
dD
r 2
 R  1  D    ( 1)  1  D  0  2 1  D    0
 
r
Dmax  1 
R
Vs R
V0 at Dmax => V0max 
2 r

Solved Examples
Problem: In the circuit shown in the figure, the switch is operated at a duty cycle of 0.5. A
large capacitor is connected across the load. The inductor current is assumed to be
continuous.
The average voltage across the load and the average current through the diode will
respectively be
Solution: The given circuit is step up chopper

When ‘S’ is open  ID = IL = 4 A
S is closed  ID = 0 and V0 = 0
Diode conducts during TOFF interval,
TOFF
Average value of diode current (IDA) = IL×  IL 1  D   4 1  0.5   2A
T
 1   1 
For step-up chopper average output voltage V0 = Vs   = 20   =40V
 1-D   1-0.5 
Problem: A step up chopper has input voltage of 220V and output voltage of 660V. If the
non-conducting time of thyristor-chopper is 100µs, compute the pulse width of output
voltage and in case pulse width is halved for constant frequency operation, find the new
output voltage.
Solution: For step-up chopper

Vs 220
V0 = =>660=
1-D  1-D 
2 T 2
D= = on => Ton= T
3 T 3
2 1
Toff =T-Ton=T- T= T=100μs => T=300μs and Ton=200s
3 3
200
When pulse width halved , T'on=  100s
2
For constant frequency T=300μs : Toff =300-100=200μs

T'on 100 1
D'= = 
T 300 3
220
New output voltage V0 =   330V
1
 1- 3 
 
Step up/down or Buck-Boost or V-I-V converter

A Buck converter is a switch mode DC to DC converter in which the output voltage can be
transformed to a level less than or greater than the input voltage. The magnitude of output
voltage depends on the duty cycle of the switch. It is also called as step up/step down
converter. The name step up/step down converter comes from the fact that analogous to
step up/step down transformer the input voltage can be stepped up/down to a level greater
than/less than the input voltage. By law of conservation of energy the input power has to be
equal to output power (assuming no losses in the circuit).
In step up mode Vin < Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output current
will be less than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step up mode
Vin < Vout and Iin >Iout
In step down mode Vin > Vout in a Buck Boost converter, it follows then that the output
current will be greater than the input current. Therefore for a Buck Boost converter in step
down mode
Vin >Vout and Iin <Iout

The main working principle of Buck Boost converter is that the inductor in the input circuit
resists sudden variations in input current. When switch is ON the inductor stores energy from
the input in the form of magnetic energy and discharges it when switch is closed. The
capacitor in the output circuit is assumed large enough that the time constant of RC circuit in
the output stage is high. The large time constant compared to switching period ensures that
in steady state a constant output voltage Vo(t) = Vo(constant) exists across load terminals.
For R load
SW is ON ( 0<t<DT ) SW is OFF ( DT<t<T )
Vsw  0 ; VD    Vs  V0  Vsw  Vs  V0 ; VD  0
diL diL
KVL: L  Vs KVL: L   V0
dt dt
dv 0 V0 dv 0 V0
KCL: C  0 KCL: C  i
dt R dt R L

 diL di 
L  DT   L L 1  D  T   Vs DT    V0 1  D  T
 dt dt 
0  DVs  1  D V0
DVs
 V0 
1  D 


dv 0 dv V  V 
C  DT  C 0 1  D  T  0 DT   IL  0  1  D  T
dt dt R  R 
V0
 IL 1  D 
R
V0 DVs
 IL  
R 1  D  R 1  D 
2
 Under ideal condition input & output powers are equal Ploss  0  
Pin  P0
V0 I0 DI0
Vs Is  V0 I0 => Is  
Vs 1  D 
To draw iL
0<t<DT DT<t<T
diL V diL  V0
 s 
dt L dt L
V0
iL (t) 
Vs
t  ILmin iL  t   ILmax   t  DT 
L L



O<t<DT
Vs
iL  ILmin  t
L
At t  DT, iL  ILmax
Vs
 IL 
L
DT 
 IL is maximum when D is maximum, that means ripple in inductance current is maximum
when D=1
IL I
 ILmax  I0  and ILmin  I0  L
2 2
I I 
 I0   Lmax Lmin 
 2 

Q I0  DT 
 V0  
C C
 V0 is maximum when D is maximum, that means ripple in inductance current is
maximum when D=1
Boundary condition
Continuous conduction
I C
2

IC DVs VSDT
IL  => 
2 R 1  D  2L C
2
1  D 
2
R
LC 
2f
2Lf
RC 
1  D 
2
VC I  DT
V0  => I0R  0
2 2CC
D
CC 
2fR
Discontinuous conduction
For 0<t<DT
Vs
iL (t)  t
L
Vs
At t=DT; iL  ILmax 
L
DT 
For DT<t<βT
 V 
iL  ILmax   0   t  DT 
 L 
At t  T, iL (t)  0
Vs  V 
0
L
 DT    0    T  DT 
 L 
 D 
V0  Vs  
 D 

Effect of internal Resistance of Inductor
In Buck-Boost converter, also the average output voltage is strongly influenced by internal
resistance of inductor
SW is ON ( 0<t<DT )
diL
KVL : riL  L  Vs
dt
Cdv 0 V
KCL :  0 0
dt R
SW is OFF ( DT<t<T )
diL
KVL : riL  L   V0
dt
Cdv 0 V0
KCL :   iL
dt R

 diL di 
L DT   L L 1  D  T   riL DT   riL 1  D  T   Vs DT    V0 1  D  T
 dt dt 
average voltage across inductor =0
riL  VD
s
  V0 1  D ............(1)

 Cdv 0 Cdv 0  V V 
  DT   1  D  T    0 DT  0 1  D  T   0.DT  iL 1  D  T
 dt dt  R R 
V0
 IL 1  D  ................(2)
R
From eq. (1) & (2)
 
 D 1  D  
V0    Vin ; If D=1, V0  0
 r  1  D  2 
 R 
1
 If 0  D   V0  Vdc  Buck converter
2
1
 If  D  Dmax  V0  Vdc  Boost converter
2
Maximum value of V0
dV0
For maximum value 0
dD
 r r r 
Dmax  1   1   
 R R R 

Vs  R 
V0 (max)   1   1
2  r 
 Source current is highly discontinuous in Boost & Buck-Boost converter due to presence
of switch at source side because of this source will have more switching harmonics. To
eliminate these harmonics, buck & buck-boost converters require source filter where as in
boost converter, the input itself inductor acts as source filter.
State model of chopper (optional)

X  Ax  Bu ; Y=Cx
i 
x=  L 
 v 0 
A=A1D + A2 (1-D)
B=B1D + B2 (1-D)
C=C1D + C2 (1-D)

A1, B1, C1 => SW is ON

A2, B2, C2 => SW is OFF
Buck converter
ON state OFF state

diL diL
L  vs  v0 L  v0
dt dt
dv 0 v 0 dv 0 v 0
C   iL C   iL
dt R dt R
diL  1  1 diL  1 
 0 iL     v 0    v s  0  iL     v 0   0  v s
dt  L  L  dt  L 
dv 0 iL  1  dv 0 iL  1 
    v  0 vs     v  0 vs
dt C  RC  0 dt C  RC  0
 1   1 
0   0  
A1   L  A2   L 
1 1  1 1 
     
C RC  C RC 
1 
0 
B1   L  & C1  01 B2    & C2  01 
  0 
0 
A  A1D  A 2 1  D  B  B1D  B2 1  D  C  C1D  C2 1  D 

 1 
0   D 
A L  B  L  C  01
1 1   
   0 
C RC 

Boost converter
ON state OFF state
diL
L  vs diL
dt L  vs  v0
dt
dv 0 v 0 dv 0 v 0
C  0 C   iL
dt R dt R
diL 1 diL  1  1
 0  iL    0  v 0    v s  0  iL     v 0    v s
dt L  dt  L  L 
dv 0  1  dv 0  1   1 
  0  iL    v 0   0  v s    iL    v 0   0  v s
dt  RC  dt  C   RC 
0 0   1 
  0 
A1  L 
 0  1  A2  
1 1 
 RC    
C RC 
1  1 
B1   L  & C1  01 B2   C  & C2  01
   
0  0 
 1 D 
 0  1 
A L  B  L  C   01
1 D 1   
   0 
 C RC 
Buck-boost converter
On state OFF state

diL diL
L  vs L  v0
dt dt

dv 0 v 0 dv 0 v 0
C  0 C   iL
dt R dt R
diL 1 diL  1 
 0 iL    0  v 0    v s  0  iL     v 0   0  v s
dt L  dt  L 
dv 0  1  dv 0  1 
  0  iL    v 0   0  v s   0  iL    v 0   0  v s
dt  RC  dt  RC 
0 0   1 
A1    0  
 0  1  A2   L 
 RC  1 1 
  
C RC 
1 
B1   L  & C1  01  0 
  B2    & C2  01
0  0 
 1 D 
 0   D 
A L  B  L  C  01
1 D 1   
   0 
 C RC 
Output voltage control method in chopper

Ton Ton
V0  f(D);D  
T Ton  Toff
 Average output voltage of any chopper can be controlled by controlling duty cycle ratio
 D can be controlled by following method
Constant Time period

In this method, D can be controlled by controlling Ton , with total switching time held
constant. This method is called as constant frequency or Time ratio control (TRC) or pulse
width modulation control

Variable time period or frequency control

In this method, D can be controlled by controlling total time period (or) switching frequency
By controlling Ton and variable Toff
By controlling Toff and variable Ton
Types of chopper based on quadrant of operation
Type A chopper
Generally used in DC power machines

First Quadrant chopper
S1  ON
Path Vs  S1  A  B  Vs
 
V0  0,i0  0
S1  OFF
Path A  B  D1  A
V0  0,i0  0

DT
1
 V0 
T V
0
dc
dt  DVdc
1
 1 DT 2  2
 Vor
   Vdc dt   Vdc D
 T 0 
Vor2 1 
 RF  FF2  1   1    1
V D
2
o 
 AC ripple voltage = Vor
2
 Vo2
2Vdc

 v 0 (t)  V0  
n2 n

sin nD  sin n  t    
 sin 2nD   
Where V0  DVdc and   tan 
1

 1  cos 2nD   
 The power flow in Type-A chopper is always from source to load. This chopper is also
called step-down chopper as average output voltage is always less than the input voltage.
Type-B chopper
In this chopper load must contain a DC source E, like a battery or DC motor.
S2 is ON
V0  0
i0 : B  A
S2 is OFF
V0  0
i0  0 : B  A  D2  Vdc  B

 The DC machine cannot start from rest conduction with type-B topology. In order to start
the circuit, the machine should have stored energy initially by running in Type-A Topology
 In type-B topology, the power will flow back from load to source, therefore, this topology
is preferable for braking application
 Type-B considered as Boost converter or step-up chopper
 Both Type-A and Type-B chopper configuration have a common negative terminal
between their input and output circuits.
Type-C Chopper
This chopper is obtained by connecting Type-A and Type-B chopper in parallel.

Type B S2 ,D2 
Type-A (S1, D1)
 It is used for motoring and regenerative braking of DC motors
Type-D Chopper
In this chopper both switches are operate together.
S3 ,S 4 are ON
V0  0
I0  0 : Vs  S3  A  B  S 4  Vs
S3 ,S 4 are OFF
Since, current through inductor doesn’t change
instantaneously. So it flows in other diode
V0  0
I0  0 : A  B  D3  Vdc  D 4  A

Type-E chopper
It conducts in all four quadrants
2 type D chopper
(1) Vdc ,S1S2 ,D3D 4 load
(2) Vdc ,S3S 4 ,D1D2 load
S1 ,S 4 are ON
V0  0
I0  0 : Vs  S1  A  B  S 4  Vs
S1 ,S 4 are OFF
V0  0
I0  0 : A  B  D3  Vdc  D2  A
S3 ,S2 are ON
V0  0
I0  0 : Vs  B  A  S2  Vs
S3 ,S2 are OFF

V0  0
I0  0 : B  A  D1  Vs  D 4  B
 In order to run the DC machine in 4 quadrant mode either 1   / 3   dual converter or

Type-E or 4 quadrant chopper are required.
 In order to run the DC machine in 1st & 4th quadrant 1st (forward motoring) & 4th (Reverse
Regenerating Braking) 1   / 3   full converter or Type-D chopper
 In order to run the DC machine in 1st quadrant wither single 1   / 3   semi-converter
or type-A or Buck converter are used

Solved Examples
Problem: For Type-A chopper DC source voltage=230V, load resistance =10Ω. Take a
voltage drop of 2V across chopper when it is ON. For a duty cycle of 0.4, calculate average
and rms value of output voltage and also calculate chopper efficiency
Solution: When chopper is ON, output voltage is (Vs-2) volts and during the chopper is off,
output voltage is zero.
 Average output voltage  D  Vs - 2  0.4  228  91.2V
 
RMS value of output voltage = D Vs - 2  0.4  228  144.19V
144.19 
2
V2
Power delivered to the load P0  0r   2079.07W
R 10
91.2
Power input to chopper Pi  Vs I0  230   2097.6W
10
P0 2079.07
Chopper frequency=   100  99.16%
Pi 2097.6
Problem: In a type -A chopper, given that source voltage=100 V d.c. On-period = 100 s,
Off-period = 150 s and load R = 2, L = 5 mH with back emf E = 10 V connected in series
for continuous conduction, average output voltage and average output current will be
respectively
Solution: Given Vs = 100 V, TON = 100  sec , Toff = 150  sec

R = 2  , L = 5 m H , E = 10 V
For Type – A Chopper (or) first – quadrant chopper.
Ton
V0 =DVs = ×100
Ton+Toff
100
V0 =  100  40V
250
V 0 -E 40-10
Average output current = = =15A
R 2

Switch mode power supply (SMPS) (optional)

 Low power application:
 Regulated output: Output within a specified tolerance limit.
 Isolation: Electrical isolation from main power circuit
 Multiple output: 33V-IC control system
15V-HD drive
 12V-Floppy disk
Linear power supply
   30  50%  less efficiency

 Transformer is high weight
 Applicable for less than 2.5W
SMPS Power supply
   70  90%
 Weight is less
 Applicable for 700W

Advantages of SMPS over linear power supply

1) Banc device will operate as a switch to SMPS circuit because of this the losses are very less
whereas in linear power supplies the device will operate in active region so power loss is
high
2) As switch in SMPS circuit operate at high frequency the size of the transformer can be
reduced therefore weight of overall power supply reduced
3) SMPS circuit can handle more power comparatively linear power supply
 The drawback with SMPS is that they will produce electromagnetic interference with
nearby commutate circuits
Uni-directional
1st Quadrant
Fly back converter or Isolated Buck Boost converter [ Buck + Boost + Transformer ]
Forward converters or Isolated Buck converter [ Buck + Transformer ]
These are DC DC converter with isolation transformer
Bi-directional
1st & 3rd Quadrant
push  pull converter 

full bridge converter  inverter circuits
Half bridge converter 

Phase controlled rectifiers Vs SMPS

 An AC to DC rectifier operates at line frequency 50-60Hz & to obtain negligible ripple in
dc output voltage, current, physical size of filters required is very large
 SMPS Works on chopper principle & so by switching ON/OFF rapidly, AC ripple frequency
rises which can easily be filtered by L & C circuit smaller in size & higher in weight

Recovery of Tapped energy (Optional)

di
If diode is not connected L  Vdc If diode is connected
dt
Fly back converter(Optional)
 In a normal transformer current enter the dot ii primary & leaves the dot in secondary to
generate secondary flux in opposition to primary flux.
When SW is ON
Vpr  Vs
N2
Vsec  Vs 
N1
 N 
VD    V0  Vs  2 
 N1 

 Current cannot leave the dot in secondary here as diode will not allow that.
When switch is OFF

N1
Vpr  V0 
N2
Vsec  V0
Vsec  Vs  Vpr
 In this schematic, both the winding cannot carry current simultaneously.

 When switch is ON, the current enters primary winding & it increases linearly therefore
some flux will be produced in core.
 But there is no provision for I 2 to leave as in a normal transformer
 When switch is OFF, I1  0 & to avoid sudden collapse of flux in the core, the secondary
current should flow in such a way that the flux has to be in same direction as of primary
winding so I 2 also enters the dot in secondary.
Express for V0
V  S / turn Pr imary : V  S / turn Secondary
Vdc DT  V0 1  D  T

N1 N2
 D   N2 
V0  Vdc    
 1  D   N1 

It is isolated buck-boost converter.
Solved Examples
Problem: A fly buck converter has to be designed to operate in just continuous mode, when
i/p dc is at its minimum expected voltage of 20V. When the load draws maximum power, the
N1
load voltage is regulated at 16V. What should be of transformer of switch duty ratio is
N2
limited to 80%?

Solution: Vdc  200V

V0  16V and D  0.8
V0 D N N
  1 => 1  50 : 1
Vdc 1  D N2 N2
Problem: The average output voltage of a fly back converter is 24V, at a resistive load of 0.8
 , D=0.5 & fswitch  1KHz , the ON. State voltage drop of transistor VT  1.2V & Vd  0.7V ,
the turns ratio of transformer is 0.25, then  ?
Solution: Vsec  24  0.7  24.7V

N1
Vpri  24.7  24.7  4  98.8V
N2
Vs  Vpri  VSW  98.8  1.2  100V
Input power, Pin  Vdc  I1  VsI1  VD I0  V0 I0

2.4 24
100  I1  1.2  I1  0.7   24 
0.3 0.3
38.8I1  24.7  30  I1  7.5A
24  30
  96%
100  7.5
Forward converter (optional)
 
 Ideal, r   or im  0
 R0
 No leakage

When switch is ON
Voltage in primary winding= Vs
N2
Voltage in secondary winding= Vs
N1
di2 N
L   VL   Vs 2  V0
dt N1
N2
VDF   Vs
N1
When switch is OFF

N1
Voltage in primary winding= V0
N2
Voltage in secondary winding= V0
VL  V0
Voltage-sec balance for L
 N2 
 Vs  V0  DT  V0 1  D  T  0
 N1 
 It is isolated buck converter

 In the ideal condition of the core as magnetizing current is zero, then flux collapse will not
take place when the switch is OFF, all stored energy will be transferred to inductor in the
output circuit but in case when r   & Im  0 , the source needs to supply magnetizing
current in addition to i2 & since switch is open, thus energy needs to be recovered from
primary winding through a tertiary winding in fly back topology

When switch is ON
N2
Voltage in secondary winding= Vs
N1
N3
Voltage in tertiary winding= Vs
N1
N2  N 
VD3  Vs  Vs   Vs  1  2 
N1  N1 
N2
VDF  Vs
N1
When switch is OFF
Voltage in tertiary winding= Vs
N1
N3
Voltage in secondary winding=
N1 N 
VSW  Vs  Vs  Vs  1  1 
N3  N3 
N2
VD2   Vs
N3
N2
V0  Vs  D 
N1
In forward converter, the duty cycle ratio will be divided based on the turn’s ratio in primary
& tertiary winding as follows
V  S / turn Pr imary  V  S / turn tertiary
Vdc DT  Vdc 1  D  T


N1 N3
D N
 1
1  D  N3
N1
Dmax 
N1  N3


Solved Examples
Problem: Find maximum voltage stress of switch in primary winding & diode in tertiary
winding of forward converter, it has 10 primary turns & 15 tertiary turns & Vin  300V
 N   10 
Solution: VSW  300  1  1   300  1   =500V
 
N3  15 
 
Commutation Techniques
Chopper consists of main power semiconductor device together with their turn-on and turn-
off mechanisms. In low power circuits; power transistors, GTOs etc. are being used widely. In
high power levels, however, thyristor are in common use.
The process of opening, or turning off, a conducting thyristor is called commutation. In DC

choppers, it is essential to provide a separate commutation circuitry to commutate main
power SCR.
Conducting thyristor can be turn off by reducing its anode current below holding current
value and then applying a reverse voltage across the device to enable it to regain its forward
blocking capabilities.
Types of commutation circuits
Forced commutation
In forced commutation, external elements L and C which do not carry the load current
continuously, are used to turn-off a conducting thyristor.

Ex. Inverter DC  AC 

Chopper DC  DC 
Cyclo converter (Step-down)
Forced commutation can be achieved in two ways:
1. Voltage commutation: Conducting thyristor is commutated by the application of pulse

of large reverse voltage. This reverse voltage is usually applied by switching a previously
charged capacitor. The sudden application of reverse voltage across the conducting
thyristor reduces the anode current to zero rapidly. Then the presence of reverse voltage
across the SCR aids in the completion of its turn-off process.

2. Current commutation: External pulse of current greater than the load current is passed
in the reversed direction through the conducting SCR. When the current pulse attains a
value equal to the load current, net pulse current through thyristor becomes zero and the
device is turned off. The current pulse is usually generated by an initially charged
capacitor.
 Commutation time is more in current commutation as compared to that in voltage

commutation.
 In both voltage and current commutation schemes, commutation is initiated by gating an
auxiliary SCR.
 Forced commutation is used in inverter, chopper & cyclocovnerter etc.
Load commutation
In Load commutation, a conducting thyristor is turned off when load current flowing a
thyristor either;
 Becomes zero due to nature of load circuit parameters.

 Is transferred to another device from the conducting thyristor.
Natural commutation or line commutation
This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a negative voltage
will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply voltage and the SCR turns
off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR. That is the reason that
this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation

Ex. Rectifiers AC  DC 
AC Voltage Controller
Cycloconverters (Step-down)
 Single phase half wave rectifier

For π to 2π
T  OFF, I0  0
VT  VE
tc  

 Circuit turn off time t c 

Classification of Forced Commutation Technique
Class-A : Load commutation
In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding
current value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the
supply voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through
the SCR reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a
capacitor in series with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped.

 The essential condition in both the circuit is that both should be under damped.
 This type of commutation is used in series inverters
For first circuit
4L V t
R2  for under damped oscillations and current I0  s e sin r t
C rL
R
Damping factor,  
2L
1 R2
Ringing frequency, r    20  2
LC 4L2
1
If R=0,   0  r  0   I0  Ip sin 0 t
LC
C
Ip  Vs
L
Thyristor conducts for a period of

0 t   => t 
0
Class B : Current commutation
It is also called resonant pulse commutation
Assumption
 
1. Vc t  0  Vs

2. Load=highly inductive I0  constant 
3. TM  ON (t<0)
Mode-1
At t<0, TM is ON and TA is provided gate pulse so it also turn ON
Capacitor starts oscillating by means of LC circuit

iC  IP sin 0 t
v C  VS cos 0 t
C
IP  VS
L

At 0 t   , current tries to reverse and thus TA is turned OFF.
At 0 t   , voltage across capacitor becomes VC   VS
Mode-2
Diode turns ON and again LC circuit is formed

iM  IO  iC
As I C increases, IM decreases and when iC  IO , iM  0
So TM turns OFF
IP sin 0 t2  I0
I 
t2  LC sin1  0 
 IP 

Important formulas
1. i 
M peak
 I0
C
2. iA peak
 IP  Vs
L
3. Conduction time of TA   LC
I 
4. Time required to turn OFF TM after TA  ON   LC  LC sin1  0 
I
 P 
5. Maximum time required to turn OFF TM after TA  ON   LC
3
6. Maximum time required to turn OFF TM after TA  ON  LC when I0  IP
2
Capacitor voltage at end of second mode

  I  
v C  VS cos  0 t2     VS cos  0 t2   VS cos sin1  0  

  IP  

If VR is reverse voltage magnitude across the capacitor at the end of 2nd mode

 I  
VR  VS cos sin1  0  

  IP 
Mode-3
Capacitor charges linearly to Vs by iC  I0 (Constant)

Circuit turn OFF time for main thyristor
1 It
VC 
C  I0dt  0
C
I0
VR  t
C CM
CVR
 Circuit turn off time TM  tMC 
I0
 If I 0  IP , then commutation is not possible. Therefore, I 0  IP to make commutation
possible
 The maximum reverse voltage across main thyristor TM when it is in OFF state

 I  
VR  VS cos sin1  0  

  IP 

Solved Examples
Problem: Check whether commutation is possible or not in following circuit?
Solution: 2 antiparallel devices cannot conducts simultaneously because the voltage drop of
the conducting devices applies a reverse voltage across the other device
So, D 2 will not turn ON until TM is ON so 1st 2modes are same & hence commutation is
possible
Problem: What is circuit turn OFF time of TM in previous problem?
Solution: In 3rd mode
D 2  ON
iC  I0  iD2
iD2  iC  I0
When iC  I0 ;iD2  0 , D 2 turns OFF
Mode-4
IC  I0
tCM  t3   LC  2t2
 I 
tCM     2 sin1  0   LC

  IP 
Application
This type of commutation technique is used in step down chopper. Therefore, it is known as
current commutated chopper.

Class-C : Complementary Commutation
In complementary commutation the current can be transferred between two loads. Two SCRs
are used and firing of one SCR turns off the other.
Assume
VC  t  0   Vs
T2  ON & T1  OFF  t  0 
Mode-1
At t=0, T1  ON
iT1  iR1  iC
Vs 2Vs  t/R2C
iT1   e
R1 R2
 
Steady Transient
State

VC  VS 2et/R2C  1 
At t  t c2

VC  0
VC  VS 2e  tc /R2c
2

1  0
tc2  R 2Cln(2)
Mode-2
At t=t2, T2  ON
VS 2VS  t /R1C
iT2  iR2  iC   e
R 2 R1

VC  VS 1  2e t /R1C 
At t  t c1
VC  0

VS 2e
 tc /R1c
1

1  0
t c1  R1Cln(2)

Important Formulas
V 2VS 
1. i 
T1 peak
  S  
R 2 
 R1
V 2VS 
2. i 
T2 peak
  S  
R1 
 R2
3. t C2  R 2C ln(2)
4. t C1  R1C ln(2)
5. C 
tc2
& C
tc1
& C
SF tq & C  SF tq
R 2 ln(2) R1 ln(2) R 2 ln(2) R1 ln(2)
Here, we get 2 different value of capacitance & we must consider highest value to make
commutation possible
Application:
This type of commutation technique is used in current source inverter & parallel inverter
Class-D : Voltage Commutation
This type of commutation technique is preferred in step down chopper. Therefore, it is

known as voltage commutated chopper.
Assumptions

1. VC t  0  Vs

2. Load  highly inductive I0  constant 
Mode-1
At t=0, TM  ON, TA  OFF

ic  ICP sin 0 t
VC  VS cos 0 t
iTM  i0  iC
At end of mode-1 VC  VS


End time  0 t1    t1 
0
C 1
ICP  Vs ; 0 
L LC
Mode-2
The conditions existing at t 1 continue in mode-2.

In other words, for t1  t  t2 ,ic  0
I TM  IC & VC  VS ,i0  0
So during this period only TM is conducting

Mode-3
When main thyristor is to be turned off TA is turned on at desire instant t 2 , Capacitor

voltage - VS appears across TM & therefore TM becomes reverse biased & turned OFF.
As the capacitor voltage does the required job of commutating the main thyristor TM is
called commutated chopper.
t 0 t
1 1 1
VC (t)  
C 
idt   idt   idt
C  C0
t
1
VC  t   VC  0  
C 0 0
I dt
I0 I
VC  t   VC  0   t   VS  0 t
C C
So, it is varying linearly at t 3 , VC  0 , t3  t CM

I0  t CM
0   VS 
C
CVS
 Circuit turn off time of main thyristor t CM 
I0
VT  VC ,  VS  VC  V0  0
VC  VS & V0  2VS
Mode-4
At t 3 , Vc  VT1  Vs V0  0 , ic  iTA becomes zero naturally & TA is turned OFF naturally
As capacitor is slightly overcharged at t 3 , freewheeling diode gets forward biased. The load
current freewheels through F.D.
VC  VS
I0
VC  t   VC  0   t
C
t c
VS   VS  I0
C
2VS C
tc 
I0

Important Formulae
C
1. i 
TM peak
 I0  VS
L
2. i 
TA peak
 I0
3. Without completion of 1st mode, we cannot turn OFF the main thyristor. Therefore,
minimum turn off time of TM is  LC sec.
Ton (min) of TM   LC sec
 LC
Dmin    LCf
T
f=chopper frequency
CVS
4. t CM 
I0

5. tCA  LC
2
2CVS
6. Conduction time of TA =2 t CM 
I0
7. Commutation Interval :- It is the time taken to disconnect the load from the source after
main thyristor is turned off.
Commutation interval= 2t CM
8. PIV of FD= 2VS
9. PIV of TM  VS
1
VS .Ton 
1
2VS 2tCM   T  2tCM  Vs
10.  V0    Vs  on    Ton eff
avg T  T  T
T 
on eff
 Ton  2tCM
V 
0 min
Ton  LC

Vs
T
  
 LC  2tCM  VS f  LC  2tCM 
Solved Examples
Problem: Find circuit
turn OFF time in the following circuit.

Solution: In mode-3
2VS  t /RC
I0  e
R
2VS  t /RC
iC  e
R
When VC  VS , V0  2VS
2VS
I0  ; t CM  RC ln(2)
R
Problem: Consider the chopper circuit of figure. The chopper operates at 400 Hz and 50%
duty cycle. The load current remains almost ripple free at 10A. Assuming the input voltage to
be 200V and the devices to be ideal, the turn off time available to the thysistor TM is ____s.
Solution: Given C = 2 f, f = 400 Hz , D = 50%
The given circuit is voltage commutated chopper. The negitive voltage across capacitor acts
as reverse voltage to the Th M, when Auxiliary thyristor is ON.
Exactly at this time load current passes through C, Auxiliary thyristor to load. Now capacitor

polarity is changed to forward voltage (VS).

So the time taken for voltage fall from VS to 0 is called commutated time tC (and tC > tq )
Load current I0 is constant.
C VS
tc 
I0
2  106  200
tC   40  sec
10
Problem: Figure shows a chopper. The device S1is the main switching device, S2 is the
auxiliary commutation device. S1 is rated for 400 V, 60 A. S2 is rated for 400 V, 30A. The load
current is 20A. The main device operates with a duty ratio of 0.5. The peak current through S1
is
Solution: When S1 is triggered, a tank circuit is formed by C(2f), S1 and L (200H).

VS
The current through the circuit is ic = sinot
oL
VS C
Peak capacitor current Icp = = VS
oL L
Therefore peak current through S1 is
C 2 10 6
I = Icp + Io= VS  20 = 200  + 20= 40A

L 200 106

Problem: A voltage commutated chopper operating at 1 kHz is used to control the speed of
dc motor as shown in figure. The load current is assumed to be constant at 10 A. The
minimum time in  sec for which the SCR M should be ON and average output voltage of
the chopper will be
Solution: The minimum time is required for change the polarity of capacitor form Vs to – Vs

i.e. t1    LC   2103 1106  140.49msec
o
This time is turn ON time of thyristor i.e. TON = 140.5  sec

In a voltage commutated chopper,
Average value of output voltage is given by
V V CV 250  1  106  250 
T
 
V0= S TON+2tCM = S (TON+2. S ) =
T I0 
1  103 
140  10 6
 2.
10
 =47.5 V


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Power Electronics (Choppers)

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Principle of Chopper operation

T  Ton  Toff =Chopping period

Elementary Chopper Circuit

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Step Down Chopper or Buck Converter or V-I converter

VSW  0 ; VD  Vs VSW  Vs ; VD  0

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Ampere-sec balance equation across capacitor

iC is +ve => VC  Charging current ; iC is -ve => VC  Discharging current

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Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in inductor current

IL  ILmax  ILmin

Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in capacitor voltage

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RLE load (discontinuous conduction)

Duty cycle for continuous conduction D'  

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Solution: For step down chopper for RL load Vo = DVs

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From above diagram t = tr + tf+ to

Problem: A chopper is employed to charge a battery as shown in figure. The charging

Solution: Given D = 0.2, TON = 200 s, T = 1m sec

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Solution:Given is step down chopper

Step up Chopper or Boost converter or I-V converter

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 Under ideal condition input & output powers are 

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Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in inductor current

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Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in capacitor voltage

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Effect of internal Resistance of Inductor

Volt-sec balance equation across inductor

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Ampere-sec balance equation across capacitor

Substitute IL value into eq. (a)

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Solution: The given circuit is step up chopper

Solution: For step-up chopper

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Step up/down or Buck-Boost or V-I-V converter

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SW is ON ( 0<t<DT ) SW is OFF ( DT<t<T )

Volt-sec balance equation across inductor

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Ampere-sec balance equation across capacitor

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Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in inductor current

Expression for Peak –Peak ripple in capacitor voltage

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Effect of internal Resistance of Inductor

Volt-sec balance equation across inductor

Ampere-sec balance equation across capacitor