1

Chapter 1
Curriculum
Essentials
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Chapter 1
Curriculum Essentials
Module 1
Curriculum and the Teacher
Module Overview
Module 1 is all about school curricula and the teacher. This intrductory module
identifies the different types of curricula that exist in the teacher's classroom and school.
Further, Module 1 describes the important roles of the teacher as a curricularist who
engages in the different facets of curriculum development in any educational level.

Lesson 1
Curriculum in Schools
Desired Learning Outcomes
 Discuss the different curricula that exist in the school.
 Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist.
 Analyze the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the
teacher's classroom.
Take Off
Have you read "The Sabre-Tooth Curriculum by Harold Benjamin (1939)?" Take
some time to read it and find out what curriculum is all about during those times.

Start here and enjoy reading.

A man by the name of New-Fist-Hammer-Maker knew how to do things his
community needed to have done, and he had the energy and the will go to ahead and do
them. By virtue of the characteristics, he was an educated man. New-Fist was also a
thinker. Then as now, there were few lengths to which men would not to avoid the labour
and pain of thought.
…New-Fist got to the point where he became strongly dissatisfied with the
accustomed ways of his tribe. He began to catch glimpses of ways in which life might be
made better for himself, his family and his group. By virtue of his development, he
became a dangerous man…
New-Fist thought about how he could harness the children's play to better the life
of the community. He considered what adults do for survival and introduced there
activities to children in a deliberate and formal way. These included catching fish with
bare hands, clubbing little woolly horses, and chasing away-sabre-toothed-tigers-with-
fire. These then became the curriculum and the community began to prosper-with plenty
of food, hides for attire and protection from threat. “But conditions changed”.
The glacier began to melt and the community could no longer see the fish to catch
with their bare hands, and only the most agile and clever fish remained which hid from
the people. The woolly horses were ambitious and decided to leave the region. The tigers
got pneumonia and most died. The few remaining tigers left. In their place, fierce bears
arrived who would not be chased by fire. The community was trouble.
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One day, in desperation, someone made a net from willow twigs and found a new
way to catch fish and the supply was even more plentiful than before. The community
also devised a system of traps on the path to snare the bears. Attempts to change
education system to include these new techniques however encountered "stem
opposition."
These are also activities we need to know. Why can't the schools teach them? But
most of the tribe particularly the wise old men who controlled the school, smiled
indulgently at this suggestion. "That wouldn't be education… it would be mere training".
We don't teach fish grabbing to catch fish, we teach it to develop a generalized agility
which can never be duplicated by mere training . . . and so on.
"If you had any education yourself, you would know that the essence of true
education is timelessness. It is something that endures through changing conditions like a
solid rock standing squarely and firmly in the middle of a raging torrent".

The story was written in 1939. Curriculum then was seen as a tradition of
organized knowledge taught in the schools of the 19th century. Two centuries later, the
concept of a curriculum has broadened to include several modes of thoughts or
experiences.
No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a curriculum.
Classrooms will be empty with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if there
is no curriculum. Curriculum is at the heart of the teaching profession. Every teacher is
guided by some sort of curriculum in the classroom and in school.
In our current Philippine education system, different schools are established in
different educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula. The
educational levels are:
1. Basic Education. This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for
elementary, and for secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and
Grade 11 and 12 and for the Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific
recommend curriculum. The new basic education levels are provided in the K to 12
Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.
2. Technical Vocational Education. This is post-secondary technical vocational
education and training taken care of by Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA). For the Tech Voc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work
in close coordination.
3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the
Graduate Degrees (Master’s and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED).

Content Focus
In whatever levels of schooling and in various types of learning environment,
several curricula exist. Let us find out how Allan Glatthorn (2000) as mentioned in
Bilbao, et al (2008) classified these:
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Types of Curricula in Schools

Have you realized that in every classroom these are several types plot curricula
operating? Let us look into each one.
1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all curricula found in our schools are
recommended. For Basic Education, these are recommended by the Department of
Education (DepEd), for Higher Education, by the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) and for vocational education by TESDA. These three government agencies
oversee and regulate Philippine education. The recommendations come in the form of
memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines. Other professional organizations or
international bodies like UNESCO also recommend curriculum schools.
2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended
curriculum. They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or
instructional guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher's
lesson plan. The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic
Education.
3. Taught Curriculum. From what has been written or planned, the curriculum
has to be implemented of taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the
curriculum. The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written curriculum
with the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be necessary. The taught
curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the learning style
of the learners.
4. Supported Curriculum. This is describing as support materials that the
teacher needs to make learning and teaching meaningful. This include print materials like
books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point presentation,
movies, slides, models, realias, mockups and other electronic illustration. Supported
curriculum also includes facilities were learning occurs outside or inside the four-walled
building. These include the playground, science laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo,
museum, market or the plaza. These are the places where authentic learning through
direct experience occurs.
5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to
find out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of
teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment as learning or
assessment of learning. If the process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed
curriculum is for learning, but if it is to finf out how much has been learned or mastered,
then it is assessment of learning. Either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum.
6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always
believe that if a student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a non-
reader to a reader or from not knowing to knowing or from being disobedient to being
obedient. The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These are
measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor outcomes. Leaned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and
critical thinking and lifelong skills.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but
has a great impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment,
media, parental pressures, societal changes, cultural pratices, natural calamities, are some
factors that create the curriculum. Teacher's should be sensitive and aware ofbthis hidden
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curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to include these in the written curriculum,
in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.
In every teacher's classroom, not all these curricula may be present at one time.
Many of them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported,
assessed, and learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and a teacher
may or may not be able to predict its influence in learning. All of these have significant
role on the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning and have direct implication to the
life of the learners.
Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating in
every teacher's classroom, it is then very necessary to learn deeper and broader about the
role of the teacher in relation to the school curriculum.

Take Action
Activity 1 - Think-Pair-Share
1. Get a partner (A and B).
2. Discuss the Sabre-tooth curriculum and answer the following:
a. Does the Sabre-tooth curriculum still exist at present? Give examples of
your evidence.
b. Describe the kind of curriculum that exist as described in the article.
c. What does the author mean, when he said “A curriculum should be
timeless?" Explain.
d. What is the difference between education and training?

Activity 2 - Observing a Curriculum in a Classroom

Visit a classroom other than your own that permission from the teacher.(Elem,
High School, College).
Do the two activities:
1. Observe the classroom situation.
2. Interview the teacher.
Focus your observation and interview on the presence or absence of the
seven types of curricula and their descriptions.
3. Record your observation and interview on the matrix provided.
Guide questions for observation and interview
1. What curricula are present in the classroom from my observation?
2. What curricula are present in the classroom from my interview?
3. How I describe what I observed? interviewed?
4. Is there a type of curricula not present in the classroom? Identity.
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What observation/information did I get?

Type of Curriculum Or What answers did i get from my
interview?
1. Recommended

2. Written

3. Taught

4. Supported

5. Assessed

6. Learned

7.Hidden

Self-Check
I. Spin a win: Agree or Disagree
Read each statement and decide whether you Agree or Disagree.
Write your answer before each number.
________1. In the Saber Tooth Curriculum, learning is experiential and authentic.
________2. It is a reality that there exist more than one curricula in the teacher's
classroom.
________3. A teacher can say with confidence that learning has occured, if the
curriculum has been assessed.
________4. Some curricula in the schools/classroom are unwritten.
________5. To establish national standards, teachers should be guided by recommended
curriculum in basic and higher education.
________6. Teachers should expect that school curricula are dynamic and changing.
________7. Evaluated curriculum makes judgment about learning.
________8. Textbooks and modules are written curricula that represent the recommended
curricula.
________9. Only the Department of Education can recommend a curriculum.
________10. In the heart of all types of curricula, the teacher has a major role.
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Self-Reflect
1. It is necessary for teachers to learn about school curriculum? Why? Write your
answer on the space provided below.
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Lesson 2
The Teacher as a Curricularist
Desired Learning Outcomes
 Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist in the
classroom and school.

Take Off
What specific roles do teachers play as a curricularist? Should they do these
roles?
This lesson will bring you all of you to an enhance understanding and realizatio of
the multifaceted role of the teacher which relate to the curriculum. Let us find out!
Look at the words inside the box. Read each one of them. Which one describes
the teacher as a curricularist? Circle the word.

Are you aware that the teacher’s role in school is very complex? Teachers do a
series of interrelated actions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation,
teaching and learning. A classroom teacher is involved with curriculum continuously all
day. But very seldom has a teacher been described as curricularist.
Curricularist in the past, are reffered only to those who developed curriculum
theories. According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential
curricularist in America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin
Bobbit. You will learn more of them in the later part of the module.

Content Focus
In this lesson, we will strart using the word curricularist to describe a professional
who is a curriculum specialist (Hayes, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). A
person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing, planning, implementing,
evaluating, innovating, and initiating may be designated as curricularist. A TEACHER'S
role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so a teacher is a curricularist.
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So what does a TEACHER do to deserve tje label curricularist? Let us look at the
different roles of the teacher in the classroom and in the school. The classroom is the first
place of curricular engagement. The first school experience sets the tone to understand
the meaning of schooling through tje interactions of leaners and teachers that will lead to
learning. Hence, curriculum is the heart of schooling.

Let us describe the teacher as a curricularist.

The teacher as a curricularist . . . . .
1. Knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as
a learner starts with knowing about tje curriculum, the subject matter or the
content. As a teacher one has to matter or the content. As a teacher one has to
master what are included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic knowledge
both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from experiences, vicarious,
and unintended). It is the mastery of the subject matter. (Knower)
2. Writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of
knowledge concepts, subject matter or content. These need to be written or
preserved. The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional
guides, and reference materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer
or reviewer. (Writer)
3. Plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the
role of the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This
will serve as a guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes
into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include
the learner, the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired
outcomes, the context of the learners among others. By doing this, the teacher
becomes a curriculum planner. (Planner)
4. Initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is
recommended to the schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF
or other educational agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is
obliged to implement. Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open
mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance
learning. There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing things first or
leading, however, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try something
novel and relevant. (Initiator)
5. Innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation as hallmarks of
an excellent teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on
changing. From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of
evaluating kinds of students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal
curriculum that would perpetually fit. A good teacher, therefore, innovates the
curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum innovator. (Innovator)
6. Implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains
recommended or written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement
it. As mentioned previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is this
role where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor
gives life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement
with the learners, with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcome.
It is where teaching, guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the
highest level. It is here where teaching as a science and as an art will be observed.
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It is here, where all the elements of the curriculum will come into play. The
success of a recommended, well written and planned curriculum depends on the
implementation. (Implementor)
7. Evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired
learning outcomes have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring
the desired results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are
there some practices that should be modified? Should the curriculum be modified,
terminated or continued? These are some few questions that need the help of a
curriculum evaluator. That person is the teacher. (Evaluator)
The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the
classroom every day! Doing these multi-faceted ‘work qualities 3. Teacher to be a
curricularist.

To be a teacher is to be a curricularist even if a teacher may not equal the likes of

John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, at Franklin Bobbit. As a curricularist a teacher
will be knowing, writing. ‘implementing, innovating, initiating and evaluating the
curriculum in ' the school and classrooms just like the role models and advocates in V
curriculum and curriculum development who have shown the way.

Take Action
Activity 1: Let’s Do a Simple Survey
Have you done a survey before? In this activity you will gather information direct
from teachers to find out what curriculum activities they are involved in.

Here are the steps. Follow these.

Step 1- Form two groups in the class. Group A will survey elementary teachers, and
Group B will survey secondary or high 5911001 teachers.
Step 2- Each group will look for at least 30 teachers coming from one 01' different school
and are currently teaching either in the private or public schools.
Step 3- With the use of the Teacher Survey Tool below, conduct the survey during your
vacant periods. ‘
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The Teacher as a Curricularist Surve Tool

Nameof Teacher: _________________________________________________________
School: __________________________GradeLevelAssignment: ___________________
No of Years Teaching: _________________DegreeGraduated: _____________________

Circle YES or NO that will correspond to your self-assessment. Then rank the
items which you answered YES. Which activity do you do most of the time? What
activity do you do least of the time?

As a school teacher Rank

1. I master the subject matter that I have to Yes No
teach
2. I implement what I have planned for my Yes No
teaching
3. I monitor and assess if my students are Yes No
learning
4. I modify my activity to suit my learners Yes No
in my classroom
5. I lead in the implementation of a new Yes No
curriculum in my school
6. I write instructional materials based on Yes No
the recommended school curriculum
7. I look for other ways of doing to Yes No
improve teaching and learning in my
classroom.

Step 4 -Consolidate the data of 30 teachers in at Appendix 1.

Step 5 - Report the result of your Survey to the whole class

Self-Check
I am a Teacher! Who Am I as a Curricularist?
Instructions; Identify on the blanks provided who am I as a Curriculum based on the
cases presented.
Case 1: I have a good idea on how to make my learners pay attention a} the lesson. I will
use the new idea and find out if it will work
____________________
Case 2: DepEd sent the standards, competencies and guidelines in teaching the Mother
Tongue in Grade 1 in our school. I will study and use it in the coming school year,
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____________________
Case 3: There is so much to do in one school day. I seem not able to do all, but I have to
accomplish something for my learners. I have made a daily activity plan to guide me.
____________________
Case 4: I need a poem to celebrate the World Teachers’ Day. I composed one to be used
in my class in Literature,
____________________
Case 5: My class is composed of learners from different home background and culture. I
cannot use a “one-size-fits all strategy” in teaching so I can respond to the diverse
background. In my readings, I discovered that there are ways of teaching. I tried one
myself and it worked.
____________________
Case 6: Knowledge is limitless. What I learned in college is not enough. I need to know
more, so I enrolled in the graduate school to advance my learning.
____________________

-Case 7: At the end of the year, my performance as a teacher is redacted in the school
performance of my students. So I need to provide a monitoring tool to measure how they
are progressing. The result will inform me how I will address my learners’ weakness and
enhance their strengths.
____________________
Case 8: I am teaching in a very far away barangay with no electricity yet. Many of the
instructional aids for teaching sent to our school are films and video tapes which need
power I cannot use them, but the lessons are very important, So I thought of making an
alternative activity. I took my class to the river and waterfall instead of doing the lesson,
____________________
Case 9: My principal asked me to attend a write shop to make the lesson exemplars in the
teaching of science in Grade '7. In the workshop, I used my experiences as a science
teacher for ten years, and my knowledge of the subject matter. At the end of three days, I
was able to produce lesson exemplars which I am proud of.
____________________
Case 10: In grade 7 to grade 10 of the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum, silence as a subject
is presented, taught and learned in a spiral manner. This is part of the DepEd
implementing guidelines of the curriculum. I am Biology major, and I have insouciant
knowledge about the other areas of science such as Physics and Earth Science. Because
of this dilemma, 'I have to request the principal that we have team teaching. "Which role
of the curricularist, am I trying to do?
____________________

Did you learn more from the case?

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Self-Reflect
Choose one from Case 1 to 10 above. Reflect on the case you have chosen and
write your reflections on the box below. Ask your classmate to read and comment on
your reflections. Both of you discuss your answers

Name: _______________________________________ Case No. ______________

A. My Reflections on Case No_______ (refer to cases 1 to 10 above)

B. What my partner said about my reflections:

Name of Partner: ________________________________________________

Module 2
The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum
Module Overview:
Module 2 describes the school curriculum in terms of its definition3 its nature and
scope, which are needed by the teacher as a knower‘ This module provides a wider
perspective for the teachers about the curriculum, in terms of curriculum approach,
curriculum development process, some curriculum models and the foundations upon
which curriculum is anchored.
Lesson 1
The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and Scope
Desired learning Outcomes
 Define curriculum from different perspectives
 Describe the nature and scope of curriculum

Take Off
Read today’s headlines
l. “Philippines Shifts to K to 12 Curriculum”
2. “Nature Deficit Syndrome on the Rise among School Children” '
3. “Teachers are Reluctant to Teach beyond the Written Curriculum”
4. “Co-curricular Activities: Learning Opportunities or Distraction?” ~
5. “Parents Get Involved in School Learning”
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What can you say of these headlines? Do these ’reflect what are ' going on in our
schools? Should the public know and be involved in the schooling of their citizens? What
are the implications of each headline a to the classroom curriculum?
Each member of society seems to view school curriculum differently, hence there
are varied demands on what schools should do and what curriculum should he taught.
Some would demand reducing content and shifting emphasis to development of lifelong
skills. Others feel that development of character has been placed at the back seat of some
schools. More debates are emerging on the use of languages in the classroom. Should it
be mother tongue, the national language or the global language?
There seems to be confusion about what curriculum should really be. To have a
common understanding of what curriculum really is, this lesson will present some
definitions as given by authors. Likewise, you will find in this lesson the description of
the nature and scope of curriculum from several points of view. This lesson will also
explain how curriculum is being approaches. It further shows a development process as a
concept and as a process as applied to school curriculum.

Content Focus
Whether curriculum is taken in its narrow View as a listing of subjects to be
taught in schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals undergo while in
school, we cannot deny the fact that curriculum should be understood by teachers and
other stakeholders for curriculum affects all teachers, students, parents, politicians,
businessmen, professionals, government officials or even the common people.
Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common definition of
‘curriculum’. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is sometimes characterized as
fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the word originates from the Latin word
currere referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots raced. The New
International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course ‘in an
educational institution or by a department while the Oxford English Dictionary defines
curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means different things
to different people. Sometimes educators equate curriculum with the syllabus while a few
regard it as all the teaching-learning experiences which the student encounters while in
school. Numerous definitions indicate dynamism which connotes diverse interpretations
as influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, philosophies, and political as well as
cultural perspectives. Here are some of them.

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended
outcomes, formulated through systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in
personal social competence.” (Daniel Tanner, 1980)
2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives,
content, learning activities evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities
the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to
reform society make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
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4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have in a

program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific
objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and
present professional practice." (Hass, 1987)
5. It is a programme of activities {by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils
will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
(Grundy, 1987)
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and
place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of
the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)
7. It provides answers to three questions: it what knowledge, skills and Values are
most worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3 How should the young acquire
them? (Cronbcth, 1992)

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person’s point of
view, this has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However when put together,
the different definitions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as
dynamic and perhaps ever changing. ‘
Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive
according to the person’s philosophical, psychological and even psychological
orientations. These views can also define what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins,
Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.
 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies" where rules of
grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are
emphasized. The 3R5 (Reading, Writing, ‘rithmetic) should be emphasized in
basic education while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.
 Arthur Beater as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be
intellectual training; hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental
intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should include
mathematics, science, history and foreign language.
 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the
subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many
more. In college, academic disciplines are labeled as humanities, sciences,
languages, mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling
doctrine for curriculum development.
 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which
comes from various disciplines.
Collectively from the traditional view of theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor
and Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic
and is concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological and social issues.
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From a traditional View, curriculum is mostly written documents such syllabus, course of
study, books and references where knowledge is found but 1S used as a means to
accomplish intended goals.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and
specific discipline does not make a curriculum In its broadest terms, a progressive view
of curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how
curriculum is defined from a progressive point of View.
 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a
means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application. .
 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children
have under the guidance of teachers.
 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise _ defined curriculum
as a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
 Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by
the students.
The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a
person’s philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary.
CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, ‘a set of subjects, a content, a
program of studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance
objectives, everything that goes within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside
of school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences
undergone by learners in school or what individual learner experiences as a result of
school. In short, Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the learner, under the
guidance of the teacher.

Take Action

Activity 1 - Traditional or Progressive: What is your View of Curriculum?

1. What is your own definition of a curriculum? Write down your answer in the
space provided.
2. DO you have a traditional View of a curriculum, progressive View or both?
Explain your View based on you definition.
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Self-Check
Label the description/definition on the left with either Traditional (T), or
Progressive (P).
No. Description (T) (P)
1. Teachers are required to
teach the book from
cover to cover.

2. If we learners can
memorize the content,
then the curriculum is
best.

3. Children are given

opportunity to play
outdoors.
4. Parents send children to
a military type school
with rigid discipline.

5. Teachers are reluctant

to teach beyond the
written curriculum.

6. Prerequisites to
promotion for the next
grade are skills in
reading, ‘ writing and
arithmetic only.

7. Teachers provide varied

experiences for the
children.

8. learning can only be

achieved in schools.

9. it is the systematic
arrangement of contents
in the course syllabus,
10. Co-curricular activities
are planned for all to
participate.
 18

Self-Reflect
Pick up a daily newspaper and read today’s headline. Choose one and reflect on
this headline that relates on curriculum and to your becoming a curricularist. Write your
answer in at least two paragraphs.
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Lesson 2
Approaches to School Curriculum
Desired Learning Outcomes
 Describe the different approaches to school curriculum
 Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the definition of curriculum
 Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other

Take Off
From the various definitions, we realize that curriculum is viewed in many ways.
Let us look back and use the definitions as a way of classifying how curriculum is
viewed. In this lesson, let us look at the curriculum as Content, a Process or a Product to
fully understand the different perspectives of what curriculum is all about. This can be
one way of approaching a curriculum.

Content Focus
Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum
Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as content,
a process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the
field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as content
or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to approach it as a product or the
learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a process or what
actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practiced.
1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge
It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline,
subject matter, or concepts to be included in the syllabus or a book. For example, a
primary school mathematics curriculum consists of topics on addition, multiplication,
 19

subtraction, division, distance, weight and many more. Another example is in secondary
school science that involves the study of biological science, physical science,
environmental science and earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with biological science
such are plants and animals, physical science with the physical elements, force and
motion, earth science with the layers of the earth and environmental science with the
interaction of the biological and physical science and earth’s phenomena, climate
vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining industries,
urbanization and so forth.
If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge
to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method. There can be likelihood
that teaching will be limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the
subject matter. However, the content or subject matter can also be taken as a means to an
end.
All curricula have content regardless of their design or models; the fund of
knowledge is the repository of accumulated discoveries and ~ inventions of man from the
explorations of the earth and as products of research. In most educational setting,
curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge or discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum these are:
1. Topical approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and experiences
are included;
2. Concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts
and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized;
3. Thematic approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual
structures, and
4. Modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter.
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et a1 2009)
1. Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and
generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if
content becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of
the learner. As education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant when
this will address the cultural context of the learners.
2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes
obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and
verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its original fowl
may not continue to be valid in the current times.
3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. it may have been useful in the past, but
may not be useful now or in the fume. Questions like: Will I use this in my future job?
Willit add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be useful in
solving current concerns?
 20

4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences
of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate
organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles that
would inhuence learnability.
5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are
there opportunities provided to learn these?
6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria
mentioned earlier, may include the following guide in the selection of the CONTENT.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content

In 1952, Palma proposed the principle of BASIC as a guide in addressing

CONTENT in the curriculum. B.A.S.I.C. refers to Balance, Articulation, Sequence,
Integration and Continuity. In organizing content or putting together subject matter, these
principles are useful as a guide.

Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will
guarantee that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the
contents needed within the time allocation.
Articulation. As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels,
vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging
should be provided. This will assure no gaps or over aps in the content. Seamlessness 1n
the content is desired and can be assured if there is articulation 1n the curriculum. Thus,
them is a need of team among writers and implementers of curriculum.
Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequences or order
This can be done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the
same content. In both ways, the pattern usually 18 from easy to complex, what 18 known
to the unknown, what is current to something 1n the future.
 21

Integration. Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has
some ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused
in other disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or uniiied view of
curriculum instead of segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines
acquire a higher premium than when isolated.
Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it
was before, to where it is now, and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It
endures time. Content may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past
since changes and developments in curriculum occur. Qggstant repetition, reinforcement
and enhancement of content are all elements of continuity.

2. Curriculum as a Process
We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. 0n the other
hand, it can also be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical
thing or a noun, but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers,
students and content. As a process, curriculum happens in the classroom as the questions
asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged in by the students. It is an active
process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occur. Used in analogy of
the recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content while the ways of cooking is the process.
Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is
not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is only
part of the learning environment where the teacher places action using the content to
achieve an outcome. Hence the process of teaching and learning becomes the central
concern of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, thinking meaning-making and heads-
on, hands-on doing and many others.
As a process, curriculum links to the content While content provides materials on
what to teach, the process provides curriculum or1 how to teach the content When
accomplished, the process will result to various curriculum experiences for the learners.
The intersection o: the content and process is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge
or PCK. It will address the question. If you have this content, how wil1 you teach it?
This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where
learning experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor
of curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the
contents will be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.
To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin:
instruction, implementation, and teaching. These three words connote the process in the
curriculum. When educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the
answers will be: 1. Problem based. 2. Hands-0n, Minds on 3. Cooperative Learning 4.
Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6. Case-based and many more. These responses Approach
curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of teaching, ways of managing the content,
guiding learning, methods of teaching and learning and strategies of teaching or delivery
modes. In all of these, there are activities and actions that every teacher and learner do
together or learners are guided by the teacher. Some of the strategies are time tested
traditional methods while others are emerging delivery modes.
 22

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to
achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the
desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be
described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An
effective process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or Process that
gives action using the content, it has also been viewed as a Product. In other words,
product is what the students desire to achieve as a learning outcomes. '
The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills
and values to function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is to
bring about significant changes in students’ pattern of behavior. It is important that any
statement of objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be a statement of
changes to take place in the students. Central to the approach is the formulation of
behavioral objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired products so that
content and teaching methods may be organized and the results evaluated. Products of
learning are operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.
Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the
achieved learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but if the
process is not successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or
achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful
experiences in the curriculum. All of these are result of planning, content and processes
in the curriculum.
 23

Take Action
Activity I: Making an Inventory of Curriculum Approach as Content, Process and
Product.
Instruction: Choose a book that is being used in elementary, high school or
college. Identify the following: Content Process, Product.
Inventory of the Curriculum Content, Process and Product
Title of the Book:

Grade Level: Subject area used:

No Content Process Product/Outcome

Example: Example: Example:
A. Type of curriculum A. Individual A. Lists of types of
in the classroom Research curriculum
B. Interview B. Skill in
C. Observation interview and
observation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Self-Check
Instruction: Match the CONCEPT in Column II with the CHOICES in Column III. Write
the letter of your ANSWER in Column I.
I. Answer II. Concepts III. Choices
1. Curriculum as way of doing A. Content
2. Authenticity of the content B. Process
3. Curriculum as the subject matter C. Product
4. Fair distribution of the content D. Validity
across the subjects
5. Curriculum as the outcome of E. Balance
learning
6. Seamless how of content vertically F. Articulation
or horizontally
7. Evidence of successful teaching G. Sequence
8. Enduring and perennial content, H. Integration
from past to future
9. Allowing the transfer of content to I. Continuity
other fields.
10. Arranging of contents from easy to J. Learning
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difficult Outcomes

Self-Reflect

Instruction: After learning from this lesson, how would you prepare yourself to become a
teacher, using the three approaches to Curriculum? Write on the space below:

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Lesson 3
Curriculum Development: Processes and Models
Desired Learning Outcome
 Explain and summarize the curriculum development process and models

Take Off
Curriculum is a dynamic process. In curriculum development, there are always
changes ts at occur that are intended for improvement. To do this, there are models
presented to us from well-known curricularists like Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen
Saylor and William Alexander which would help clarify the process of curriculum
development. There are many other models, but let us use the three for this lesson.

Content Focus
Curriculum Development Process
Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people
and procedures. Development connotes changes which is s systematic. A change for the
 25

better means alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce

positive changes, development should be m1, planned and progressive. Usually it is
linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases:
curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum
evaluation. Generally, most models involve four phases.
1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also
includes the philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will
eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.

2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the

selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning
experiences or activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools
to measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the
resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the
curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The
teacher is the facilitator of learning and, together with the learners, uses the
curriculum as design guides to what will transpire in the classroom with the end in
view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum
is where action takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every
teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an active process.

4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes

have been achieved. This procedure is ongoing as in finding out the progress of
learning (formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way,
evaluation will determine the act. at have 1'1derec a . a the implementation. It will
also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective measures,
introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision making of
curriculum planners, and implementors.
Curriculum Development Process Models
1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles
Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the
planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the
following questions:
1. What educational ex-eriences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
2. What education pugoses should schools seek to attain?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
Tyler’s model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations
should be made:
1. Purposes of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience
 26

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. She believed that teachers should participate
in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach Taba begins from the bottom,
rather than from the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps to her
linear model which are the following:
1. Diagnosis of ‘learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as
consisting of four steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities
to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable
population served by a single school center.”
1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the
major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal
represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human relations, continued
learning skills and specialization. The goals, objectives and domains are identified and
chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, and views of the different
stakeholders.
2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate
learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the
curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student
needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be
answered at this stage of the development process
3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for
implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives
are specified and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the
desired learning outcomes among students.
4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A
comprehensive evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It
should involve the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan,
the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation
process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the
school and the objectives of instruction have been met.
All the models utilized the processes of (1) 64'7" Curriculum. planning, (2)
curriculum designing, (3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating.
 27

Take Action
Activity 1: Comparison of the Three Models (by groups or clusters of 3 (2051mm
to 5 persons)
Instruction: With your group members, determine the similarities and K/ «
differences of the three models of Curriculum Development Process.
How are the models similar?
Similar Features Tyler’s Taba’s Saylor & Alexander

Tyler xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Taba xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Saylor & Alexander xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Comment:

How are the models Different?

Similar Features Tyler’s Taba’s Saylor & Alexander

Tyler xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Taba xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Saylor & Alexander xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Comment:

Self –Check
1. Describe the model of curriculum development which you understand well. Write
in two paragraphs.

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Sell-Reflect

1. What phase of the curriculum process do you find very important as a teacher?
Why
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Lesson 4
Foundations of Curriculum Development
Desired Learning Outcomes
 Describe the foundation of curriculum development
 Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development
Take Off
Curriculum development is anchored on a very solid foundation. Although
considered to be a new discipline, its significance in the light of global developments has
now been acknowledged. What philosophical, historical, psychological and sociological
influences inform the current school curriculum? How do these foundations reflect the
development of curriculum in our let century classrooms and learning environment? Who
are the identified curricularists with these foundations? Let us find out!

Content Focus
Foundations of Curriculum
1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers , must have a
philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of
curriculum in the teachers’ classrooms or learning environment. Philosophy of the
curriculum answers questions like: What are schools for? What subjects are
 29

important? How should students learn? What methods should be used? What
outcomes should be achieved? Why?
The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a
philosophy John Dewey influenced the use of ‘learning by doing”, he being a
pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing
and arithmetic are essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those presented by
Omstein and Hunkins in 2004.
A. Perennialism
 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect.
 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring.
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts
B. Essentialism
 Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects
 Trends: Back to ‘basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy
C. Progressivism
 Aim: Promote democratic social living
 Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcomes-based
 Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic
education
D. Reconstructionism
 Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
 Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
 Focus: Present and future educational landscape
 Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and
Convergence, Standards and Competencies,

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? ‘The historical foundations will
show to us the chronological development along a time line. Reading materials would tell
us that curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the
book “The Curriculum.” Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum development
during his own time. Here are eight among the many; we consider having great
contributions.

Persons Contributions / Theories and Principles
Franklin Bobbit
(1876-1956)
Werret Charters
(1875-1952)
William Kilpartick
(1875-1952)
Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
30
 He started the curriculum development
movement.
 Curriculum is a science that emphasizes student’s
needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
 Objectives and activities should group together 1
when tasks are clarified.
 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science
and emphasizes students’ needs.
 Objectives and activities should match. Subject
matter or content relates to objectives.
 Curricula are purposeful activities which are
child-centered.
 The purpose of the curriculum is child
development and growth. He introduced this
project method i I where teacher and student plan
the activities.
 Curriculum develops social relationships and
small group instruction.
 Curriculum should develop the whole child.
 With the statement of objectives and related
learning activities, curriculum should produce
outcomes.
 Emphasized social studies and suggested that the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.
 Curriculum is organized around social functions
of themes, organized knowledge and learner‘s
interest.
 Curriculum, instruction and learning are
interrelated.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter
is developed around social functions and learners’
 Curriculum is a science and an extension of
school’s philosophy. It is based on students’
needs and interest.
 Curriculum is always related to instruction.
Subject matter is organized in terms of
knowledge, skills and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving.
Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not
specialists.
 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical
foundations of concepts development and critical
thinking in social studies curriculum.
 She helped lay the foundation for diverse student
population
 He describes how curriculum change is a
cooperative endeavor.
 Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the
professional core of planners.
 Significant improvement is achieved through
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group activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It
unifies elements of the learning process. Questions with can be addressed by
psychological foundations of education are: How should curriculum be organized to
enhance i learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in learning the
various contents of the curriculum? In this module, we shall consider three groups of
learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive information processing
theories and if humanistic theories (Omstein & Hunkins, 2004).
Let us rev1iew some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.
3.1. Association and Behaviorism
3.2.Cognitive Information Processing Theory
Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles
 He is the father of the Classical Conditioning
Theory, the S-R Theory
 The key to learning is early years of life are
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) to train them what you want them to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning
practice called indoctrination.

 He championed the Connectionism Theory.

 He proposed the three laws of learning:
Law of readiness
Edward Thorndike Law of exercise
(1874-1949) Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response.

 He proposed the Hierarchical Learning

Theory. Learning follows a hierarchy
Robert Gagne (1916-2002)  Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
 He introduced tasking in the formulation of
objectives.

 Theories of Jean Piaget

 Keys to learning
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
 Cognitive development has stages
from birth to maturity: ' Sensorimotor
stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-
7), concrete operations stage (7-11)
and formal operations (11 onwards)
 Assimilation (incorporation of new
experience)
 Accommodation (learning
modification and adaptation)
 Equilibration (balance between
previous and later learning)

 Theories of Lev Vygotsky

 Cultural transmission and
development: Children could, as a
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) result of their interaction with
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society, actually perform certain

cognitive actions prior to arriving at
developmental stage
 Learning precedes development

 Sociocultural development theory

 Keys to Learning
 Pedagogy creates learning processes
that lead it to development.
 The child is an active agent in his or
her educational process.

 Gardner's multiple intelligences

 Humans have several different ways
of processing information and these
ways are relatively independent of
one another.
Howard Gardner  There are eight intelligences:
linguistic, logico-mathematical,
musical, spatial, ' bodily/kinesthetic,
interpersonal, l intrapersonal, and
naturalistic.

 Emotion contains the power to affect action

Daniel Goleman  He called this Emotional Quotient.

3.1 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/ Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles

 Gestalt Theory
 Learning is explained in terms of
“wholeness” of the problem.
 Human beings do not respond to
isolated stimuli but to an organization
or pattern of stimuli.
 Keys to learning

 Learning is complex and abstract. 0

Gestalt Learners analyze the problem,
discriminate between essential and
nonessential data, and perceive
relationships.
 Learners will perceive something in
relation to the whole. What/how they
perceive is related to their previous
experiences.

 He advanced the Self-Actualization

Theory and classic theory of human
needs.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)  A child whose basic needs are not
 33

met will not be interested in

acquiring knowledge of the world.
 He put importance to human
emotions, based on love and trust.
 Key to learning
 Produce a healthy and happy learner
who can accomplish, grow and
actualize his or her human self
 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning
 He established counseling procedures
and methods for facilitating learning.
 Children’s perceptions, which are
highly individualistic, influence their
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) learning and behavior in class.
 Key to learning
 Curriculum is concerned with process,
not , product; personal needs, not
subject matter, psychological
meaning, not cognitive scores

Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/ Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles

 Society as a source of change

School and Society  Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change

 Considered two fundamental

clematis-schools attention and
John Dewey (1859-1952) reconstruction to encourage
experimental intelligence and
plurality

 Wrote the book Future Shock

 Believed that knowledge should
prepare students for the future
 Suggested that in the future, parents
might luv: the resources to teach
Alvin Tofller prescribed curriculum from home
as a result of technology, not in
spite of it. (Home Schooling)
 Foresaw schools and students
worked creatively, collaboratively,
and independent of their age.

In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational

philosophies, historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal
influences. All of these foundations are interrelated to each.
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Take Action
Activity 1: Explore the Web (by Groups)
Instructions:
1. Form a live-member group. Choose a group leader. With all the group members,
search two outstanding personalities in the cluster of Curriculum Foundations
who contributed to curriculum development. Write their biographies. You.“ may
find other persons not included in the list given in this lesson.
Cluster 1 -Philosophical Foundations
Cluster 2 ~Historical Foundations
Cluster 3 -Psychological Foundations
Cluster 4 -Sociological Foundations

2. Submit in group me biographies of less than 3 pages, short-sized bond list of

references at the end.

Self-Check
Quick Check! Tag the Person
What significant contribution can you recall about this person?
1. Lev Vygotsky
2. Daniel Goleman
3. William Kipatrick
4. Hilda Taba
5. Ralph Tyler
6. John Dewey
7. Abraham Maslow
8. Carl Rogers
9. Franklin Bobbit
10. Alvin Toffler
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Self-Reflect
After discussing this lesson, reflect on the following questions.
1. Identify which among the foundations of curriculum, has influenced what you
have learned in school as a college student?
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2. How will the thinker of Abraham Maslow influence your teaching practice in the
future?
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3. Do you agree with Alvin Tomes?

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