SECOND-ORDER LINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

© R. Eugene Stuffle, Ph.D., M.S.B.A., P.E.

Second-order linear dynamic systems are described by equations of the form:

d 2 y t  dy
2
 2n  n2 y  t   An2 z  t  (1.1)
dt dt

where y  t  is the system response, or output, and z  t  is the forcing function, or input. The
symbols adopted here are a commonly used engineering notation, regardless of the field of
concern.  is called the damping ratio, A is the DC or static gain, and n is the natural
frequency of the system. Several examples are given below.

Page 1
Parallel RLC Circuit

Using the elementary component i-v relationships, we write:

diL  t 
v t   L (1.2)
dt

 di  t   di  t 
iG  t   Gv  t   G  L L   GL L (1.3)
 dt  dt

dv  t  d  di  t   d 2i  t 
iC  t   C  C  L L   CL L 2 (1.4)
dt dt  dt  dt

Upon applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law

iC  t   iG  t   iL  t   iS  t  (1.5)

we see that this circuit can be described by the second-order linear ordinary differential equation:

d 2iL  t  di  t 
CL 2
 GL L  iL  t   iS  t  (1.6)
dt dt

d 2iL  t  G diL  t  1 1
or 2
  iL  t   iS  t  (1.7)
dt C dt LC LC

Comparing this result to equation (1.1), we see that

1 1
n2   n  (1.8)
LC LC

1
An2   A 1 (1.9)
LC

G G G L
and 2n      (1.10)
C 2nC 2 C

Page 2
Series RLC Circuit

Using the elementary component i-v relationships, we write:

dvC  t 
i t   C (1.11)
dt

 dv  t   dv  t 
vR  t   Ri  t   R C C   RC C (1.12)
 dt  dt

di  t  d  dv  t   d 2vC  t 
vL  t   L  L C C   LC (1.13)
dt dt  dt  dt 2

Upon applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

vL  t   vR  t   vC  t   vS  t  (1.14)

we see that this circuit can be described by the second-order linear ordinary differential equation:

d 2 vC  t  dv  t 
LC 2
 RC C  vC  t   vS  t  (1.15)
dt dt

d 2 vC  t  R dvC  t  1 1
or 2
  vC  t   vS  t  (1.16)
dt L dt LC LC

Comparing this result to equation (1.1), we see that

1 1
n2   n  (1.17)
LC LC

1
An2   A 1 (1.18)
LC

Page 3
 R R R C
and 2n      (1.19)
L 2n L 2 L

Page 4
Translational Mechanical System

When f  t  is applied, friction and the spring will resist any motion so that, according to
Newton’s Second Law of Motion,

f  t   Bv  t   Kx  t   Ma t  (1.20)

dx  t  dv  t  d  dx  t   d 2 x  t 
where v  t   is the velocity, and  
a t     is the acceleration.
dt dt dt  dt  dt 2
Substituting these into equation (1.20) yields the second-order linear ordinary differential
equation:

dx  t  d 2 x t 
f t   B  Kx  t   M (1.21)
dt dt 2

d 2 x  t  B dx  t  K 1
or 2
  x t   f t  (1.22)
dt M dt M M

verifying that Newton’s Second Law of Motion is clearly a mechanical equivalent to Kirchhoff’s
Laws for electrical circuits. Comparing this result to equation (1.1), we see that

K K
n2   n  (1.23)
M M

1 1
An2   A (1.24)
M K

Page 5
 B B B
and 2n      (1.25)
M 2n M 2 KM

Page 6
Rotational Mechanical System

When T  t  is applied, friction and the spring will resist any motion so that, according to
Newton’s Second Law of Motion,

T  t   B  t   K  t   J  t  (1.26)

d  t  d   t  d  d  t   d 2  t 
where   t   is the angular velocity, and   t      is the
dt dt dt  dt  dt 2
angular acceleration. Substituting these into equation (1.26) yields the second-order linear
ordinary differential equation:

d  t  d 2  t 
T t   B  K  t   J (1.27)
dt dt 2

d 2  t  B d  t  K 1
or 2
   t   T t  (1.28)
dt J dt J J

which again is clearly analogous to Kirchhoff’s Laws for electrical circuits. Comparing this
result to equation (1.1), we see that

K K
n2   n  (1.29)
J J

1 1
An2   A (1.30)
J K

B B B
and 2n      (1.31)
J 2n J 2 KJ

Page 7
All of the examples considered here yield equations that are of the form of equation (1.1). Note
that, if z  t   0 , the differential equation is said to be homogeneous, and the system response
under that condition is called the natural response. If z  t   0 , the differential equation is said
to be non-homogeneous, and the complete response of the system with the forcing function
applied is a combination of the natural response and additional term(s) called the forced
response. Sometimes, these are called, respectively, the complimentary response and the
particular response.

Page 8
Zero-Input (Unforced) Systems

Consider the zero-input (homogeneous) form of equation (1.1):

d 2 y t  dy  t 
2
 2n  n2 y  t   0 (1.32)
dt dt

If we assume that the natural response of the system is exponential, i.e., y  t    ert , then

r 2  ert  2n r  ert  n2  ert  0 (1.33)

or r 2
 2n r  n2   ert  0 (1.34)

which means that

r 2  2n r  n2  0 (1.35)

Equation (1.35) is called the characteristic equation of the system, and it has roots given by:

2n   2n   4n2

2

r1,2 
2
 n  n  2  1 (1.36)


    2  1 n 
From this, we will see that there are four distinctly different forms of the solution to equation
(1.32), depending on the value of  with respect to the number 1.

Page 9
Case 1

 
If   1 , then  2  1  0 , and there will be two distinct negative real roots, r1     2  1 n

 
and r2     2  1 n . In this case, the system is said to be overdamped, and because there

are two roots to the characteristic equation, y  t  will have two exponential components:

y  t   1er1t  2er2t (1.37)

To determine the values of 1 and  2 note that

y  t   1r1er1t  2 r2er1t (1.38)

Evaluating equations (1.37) and (1.38) at t  0 , we have

1   2  y  0  (1.39)

and

r11  r2 2  y  0  (1.40)

These two simultaneous equations can be used to evaluate 1 and  2 using Cramer’s Rule as
follows:

y  0 1
y  0  r2 r2 y  0   y  0 
1   (1.41)
1 1 r2  r1
r1 r2

1 y  0
r1 y  0 y  0   r1 y  0 
2   (1.42)
1 1 r2  r1
r1 r2

Page 10
Example 1.1

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL di
2
 20 L  4iL  0 (1.43)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  20r  4  0 (1.44)

and

1
n  2 (1.45)
11 4 

5 1
 5 (1.46)
2 1 4
This is an overdamped system, with

 
r1  5  25  1 2  0.202 (1.47)

 
r2  5  25  1 2  19.798 (1.48)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL 1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

1 
 19.798 0   1  1  0.051
(1.49)
19.798   0.202  19.596

1   0.202  0  1
2    0.051 (1.50)
19.798   0.202  19.596

Hence,

Page 11
 iL  t   0.051e0.202t  0.051e19.798t A for t  0 (1.51)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 1.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 5
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 12
Example 1.2

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC dv
2
 20 C  4vC  0 (1.52)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  20r  4  0 (1.53)

and

1
n  2 (1.54)
11 4 

 
20 1 4   5
(1.55)
2 1

This is an overdamped system, with


r1  5  25  1 2  0.202 (1.56)


r2  5  25  1 2  19.798 (1.57)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

1 
 19.798 0   4  0.204
(1.58)
19.798   0.202 

4   0.202  0 
2   0.204 (1.59)
19.798   0.202 

Page 13
Hence,

vC  t   0.204e0.202t  0.204e19.798t V for t  0 (1.60)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 1.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 20
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 14
Case 2

If 0    1 , then  2  1  0 , and there will be two complex conjugate roots,

  
r1    j 1   2 n  n  jd and r2    j 1   2 n  n  jd . In this case, 
the system is said to be underdamped., and the quantity d  n 1   2 is called the damped or
ringing frequency.

As in Case 1, because there are two distinct roots to the characteristic equation, y  t  has two
exponential components:

y  t   1e
n  jd t
  2 e
n  jd t

(1.61)

 e nt 1e jd t   2 e  jd t 
However, it is usually preferred to use Euler’s identity

e  j  cos   j sin  (1.62)

to express y  t  in the alternate form

y  t   e nt  1  cos d t  j sin d t    2  cos d t  j sin d t  

 e nt  1   2  cos d t  j  1   2  sin d t  (1.63)
 e nt  B1 cos d t  B2 sin d t 

where B1  1   2 and B2  j  1  2  .

To determine the values of B1 and B2 note that

y  t   n ent  B1 cos d t  B2 sin d t   ent   B1d sin d t  B2d cos d t  (1.64)

Evaluating equations (1.63) and (1.64) at t  0 , we have

B1  y  0  (1.65)

and

n B1  B2d  y  0  (1.66)

Thus,

y  0   n B1 y  0   n y  0 
B2   (1.67)
d d
Page 15
Alternately, note that

B1 cos d t  B2 sin d t  B3 cos d t    (1.68)

B 
where B3  B12  B22 and   tan 1  2  , so that y  t  can be written in a slightly more
 B1 
compact form as

y  t   B3ent cos d t    (1.69)

Page 16
Example 2.1

1
5

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL 4 diL
  4iL  0 (1.70)
dt 2 5 dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

4
r2  r  4  0 (1.71)
5

and

n  2 (1.72)

1
  4  0.2 (1.73)
10

d  2 1   0.2  1.960
2
(1.74)

This is an underdamped system, with

r1,2  0.400  j1.960 (1.75)

r1,2  0.400  j1.960 (1.76)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL  t  1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

B1  0 (1.77)

1   0.2  2  0 
B2   0.510 (1.78)
1.960

Page 17
Hence,

iL  t   0.510e0.4t sin 1.960t  A for t  0 (1.79)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 2.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 {1/5}
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 18
Example 2.2

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC 4 dvC
  4vC  0 (1.80)
dt 2 5 dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

4
r2  r  4  0 (1.81)
5

and

n  2 (1.82)

2 1
   0.2 (1.83)
5 4

d  2 1   0.2  1.960
2
(1.84)

This is an underdamped system, with

r1  0.400  j1.960 (1.85)

r2  0.400  j1.960 (1.86)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

B1  0 (1.87)

Page 19
 4   0.2  2  0 
B2   2.041 (1.88)
1.960

Hence,

vC  t   2.041e0.4t sin 1.960t  V t  0 (1.89)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 2.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 {4/5}
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 20
Page 21
Case 3

If   1 , then  2  1  0 , and there will be two identical negative real roots, r1  r2  n . In this
case, the system is said to be critically damped. This case can be considered to be the
“borderline” between overdamped and underdamped systems.

The general form of the solution is

y  t    1  2t  ent (1.90)

To determine the values of 1 and  2 note that

y  t   2ent  n  1  2t  ent (1.91)

Evaluating equations (1.90) and (1.91) at t  0 , we have

1  y  0  (1.92)

and

2  n 1  y  0  (1.93)

Thus,

2  y  0   n 1  y  0   n y  0  (1.94)

Page 22
Example 3.1

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL di
2
 4 L  4iL  0 (1.95)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  4r  4  0 (1.96)

and

n  2 (1.97)

1
  4 1 (1.98)
2

This is a critically damped system, with

r1  r2  2 (1.99)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL 1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

1  0 (1.100)

2  1   2  0   1 (1.101)

Hence,

iL  t   te2t A for t  0 (1.102)

Page 23
To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 3.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 24
Example 3.2

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC dv
2
 4 C  4vC  0 (1.103)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  4r  4  0 (1.104)

and

n  2 (1.105)

4 1
  1 (1.106)
2 4

This is a critically damped system, with

r1  r2  2 (1.107)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

1  0 (1.108)

2  4   2  0   4 (1.109)

Hence,

vC  t   4te2t V t  0 (1.110)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Page 25
Example 3.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 4
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 26
Case 4

If   0 , then  2  1  1 , and there will be two conjugate imaginary roots, r1,2   jn . In this
case, the system is said to be undamped.

As there are two distinct roots to the characteristic equation, y  t  has two exponential
components

y  t   1e jnt   2e jnt (1.111)

Here again, as in Case 2, it is usually preferred to use Euler’s identity to express y  t  in the
alternate form

y  t   1  cos nt  j sin nt    2  cos nt  j sin nt 

  1   2  cos nt  j  1   2  sin nt (1.112)
 B1 cos n t  B2 sin nt

where B1  1   2 and B2  j  B1  B2  .

To determine the values of B1 and B2 note that

y  t   n B1 sin nt  n B2 cos nt (1.113)

Evaluating equations (1.112) and (1.113) at t  0 , we have

B1  y  0  (1.114)

and

n B2  y  0  (1.115)

so that

y  0
B2  (1.116)
n

Alternately, note that

B1 cos nt  B2 sin nt  B3 cos nt    (1.117)

Page 27
 B 
where B3  B12  B22 and   tan 1  2  , so that y  t  can be written in a slightly more
 B1 
compact form as

y  t   B3 cos nt    (1.118)

Page 28
Example 4.1

or

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL
 4iL  0 (1.119)
dt 2

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r2  4  0 (1.120)

and

n  2 (1.121)

 0 (1.122)

This is an undamped system, with

r1  j 2 (1.123)

r2   j 2 (1.124)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL 1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

B1  0 (1.125)

1
B2  (1.126)
2

Hence,

1
iL  t   sin 2t A for t  0 (1.127)
2

Page 29
To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 4.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 30
Example 4.2

or

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC
 4vC  0 (1.128)
dt 2

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r2  4  0 (1.129)

and

n  2 (1.130)

 0 (1.131)

This is an undamped system, with

r1  j 2 (1.132)

r2   j 2 (1.133)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

B1  0 (1.134)

4
B2  2 (1.135)
2

Hence,

vC  t   2sin 2t V t  0 (1.136)

Page 31
To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 4.2
L 0 2 1 IC=1
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 32
A comparison of the responses of the four parallel circuit examples (1.1, 2.1, 3.1 and 4.1) is
shown below:

Example 1.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 5
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 2.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 {1/5}
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 3.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 4.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

Page 33
A comparison of the responses of the four series circuit examples (1.2, 2.2, 3.2 and 4.2) is shown
below:

Example 1.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 20
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 2.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 {4/5}
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 3.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 4
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 4.2
L 0 2 1 IC=1
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

Page 34
Systems with a Constant Input

Next consider systems with constant input, z  t   K . In the case of electrical circuits, this
means DC sources are applied. Equation (1.1) becomes:

d 2 y t  dy  t 
2
 2n  n2 y  t   An2 K (1.137)
dt dt

If we assume that the natural response of the system is exponential, then y  t    ert   , and

r 2  ert  2n r  ert  n2   ert     0 (1.138)

or r 2
 2n r  n2   ert  n2  An2 K (1.139)

which means that

r 2  2n r  n2  0 (1.140)

n2  An2 K    AK (1.141)

Equation (1.140) is called the characteristic equation of the system, and it has roots given by:

2n   2n   4n2

2

r1,2 
2
 n  n  2  1 (1.142)


    2  1 n 
As in the unforced case, we will see that there are four distinctly different forms of the solution
to equation (1.137), depending on the value of  with respect to the number 1.

Page 35
Case 1

 
If   1 , then  2  1  0 , and there will be two distinct negative real roots, r1     2  1 n

 
and r2     2  1 n . In this case, the system is said to be overdamped, and because there

are two roots to the characteristic equation, y  t  will have two exponential components:

y  t   1er1t  2er2t  AK (1.143)

To determine the values of 1 and  2 note that

y  t   1r1er1t  2 r2er1t (1.144)

Evaluating equations (1.143) and (1.144) at t  0 , we have

1  2  AK  y  0  (1.145)

and

r11  r2 2  y  0  (1.146)

These two simultaneous equations can be used to evaluate 1 and  2 using Cramer’s Rule as
follows:

y  0   AK 1
y  0 r2 r2  y  0   AK   y  0 
1   (1.147)
1 1 r2  r1
r1 r2

1 y  0   AK
r1 y  0 y  0   r1  y  0   AK 
2   (1.148)
1 1 r2  r1
r1 r2

Page 36
Example 1.1

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL di
2
 20 L  4iL  0 (1.149)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  20r  4  0 (1.150)

and

1
n  2 (1.151)
11 4 

5 1
 5 (1.152)
2 1 4
This is an overdamped system, with

 
r1  5  25  1 2  0.202 (1.153)

 
r2  5  25  1 2  19.798 (1.154)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL 1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

1 
 19.798 0   1  1  0.051
(1.155)
19.798   0.202  19.596

1   0.202  0  1
2    0.051 (1.156)
19.798   0.202  19.596

Hence,

Page 37
 iL  t   0.051e0.202t  0.051e19.798t A for t  0 (1.157)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 1.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 5
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 38
Example 1.2

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC dv
2
 20 C  4vC  0 (1.158)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  20r  4  0 (1.159)

and

1
n  2 (1.160)
11 4 

 
20 1 4   5
(1.161)
2 1

This is an overdamped system, with


r1  5  25  1 2  0.202 (1.162)


r2  5  25  1 2  19.798 (1.163)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

1 
 19.798 0   4  0.204
(1.164)
19.798   0.202 

4   0.202  0 
2   0.204 (1.165)
19.798   0.202 

Page 39
Hence,

vC  t   0.204e0.202t  0.204e19.798t V for t  0 (1.166)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 1.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 20
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 40
Case 2

If 0    1 , then  2  1  0 , and there will be two complex conjugate roots,

  
r1    j 1   2 n  n  jd and r2    j 1   2 n  n  jd . In this case, 
the system is said to be underdamped., and the quantity d  n 1   2 is called the damped or
ringing frequency.

As in Case 1, because there are two distinct roots to the characteristic equation, y  t  has two
exponential components:

y  t   1e
n  jd t
  2 e
n  jd t
 AK
(1.167)

 ent 1e jd t   2e  jd t  AK 
However, it is usually preferred to use Euler’s identity

e  j  cos   j sin  (1.168)

to express y  t  in the alternate form

y  t   e nt  1  cos d t  j sin d t    2  cos d t  j sin d t    AK

 e nt  1   2  cos d t  j  1   2  sin d t   AK (1.169)
 e nt  B1 cos d t  B2 sin d t   AK

where B1  1   2 and B2  j  1  2  .

To determine the values of B1 and B2 note that

y  t   n ent  B1 cos d t  B2 sin d t   ent   B1d sin d t  B2d cos d t  (1.170)

Evaluating equations (1.169) and (1.170) at t  0 , we have

B1  AK  y  0  (1.171)

and

n B1  B2d  y  0  (1.172)

Thus,

B1  y  0   AK (1.173)

Page 41
and

y  0   n B1 y  0   n  y  0   AK 
B2   (1.174)
d d

Alternately, note that

B1 cos d t  B2 sin d t  B3 cos d t    (1.175)

B 
where B3  B12  B22 and   tan 1  2  , so that y  t  can be written in a slightly more
 B1 
compact form as

y  t   B3ent cos d t     AK (1.176)

Page 42
Example 2.1

1
5

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL 4 diL
  4iL  0 (1.177)
dt 2 5 dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

4
r2  r  4  0 (1.178)
5

and

n  2 (1.179)

1
  4  0.2 (1.180)
10

d  2 1   0.2  1.960
2
(1.181)

This is an underdamped system, with

r1,2  0.400  j1.960 (1.182)

r1,2  0.400  j1.960 (1.183)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL  t  1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

B1  0 (1.184)

1   0.2  2  0 
B2   0.510 (1.185)
1.960

Page 43
Hence,

iL  t   0.510e0.4t sin 1.960t  A for t  0 (1.186)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 2.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 {1/5}
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 44
Example 2.2

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC 4 dvC
  4vC  0 (1.187)
dt 2 5 dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

4
r2  r  4  0 (1.188)
5

and

n  2 (1.189)

2 1
   0.2 (1.190)
5 4

d  2 1   0.2  1.960
2
(1.191)

This is an underdamped system, with

r1  0.400  j1.960 (1.192)

r2  0.400  j1.960 (1.193)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

B1  0 (1.194)

Page 45
 4   0.2  2  0 
B2   2.041 (1.195)
1.960

Hence,

vC  t   2.041e0.4t sin 1.960t  V t  0 (1.196)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 2.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 {4/5}
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 46
Page 47
Case 3

If   1 , then  2  1  0 , and there will be two identical negative real roots, r1  r2  n . In this
case, the system is said to be critically damped. This case can be considered to be the
“borderline” between overdamped and underdamped systems.

The general form of the solution is

y  t    1  2t  ent  AK (1.197)

To determine the values of 1 and  2 note that

y  t   2ent  n  1  2t  ent (1.198)

Evaluating equations (1.197) and (1.198) at t  0 , we have

1  AK  y  0  (1.199)

and

2  n 1  y  0  (1.200)

Thus,

1  y  0   AK (1.201)

and

2  y  0  n 1  y  0  n  y  0  AK  (1.202)

Page 48
Example 3.1

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL di
2
 4 L  4iL  0 (1.203)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  4r  4  0 (1.204)

and

n  2 (1.205)

1
  4 1 (1.206)
2

This is a critically damped system, with

r1  r2  2 (1.207)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL 1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

1  0 (1.208)

2  1   2  0   1 (1.209)

Hence,

iL  t   te2t A for t  0 (1.210)

Page 49
To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 3.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 50
Example 3.2

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC dv
2
 4 C  4vC  0 (1.211)
dt dt

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r 2  4r  4  0 (1.212)

and

n  2 (1.213)

4 1
  1 (1.214)
2 4

This is a critically damped system, with

r1  r2  2 (1.215)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

1  0 (1.216)

2  4   2  0   4 (1.217)

Hence,

vC  t   4te2t V t  0 (1.218)

To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Page 51
Example 3.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 4
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 52
Case 4

If   0 , then  2  1  1 , and there will be two conjugate imaginary roots, r1,2   jn . In this
case, the system is said to be undamped.

As there are two distinct roots to the characteristic equation, y  t  has two exponential
components

y  t   1e jnt   2e jnt  AK (1.219)

Here again, as in Case 2, it is usually preferred to use Euler’s identity to express y  t  in the
alternate form

y  t   1  cos nt  j sin nt    2  cos nt  j sin nt   AK

  1   2  cos nt  j  1   2  sin nt  AK (1.220)
 B1 cos nt  B2 sin nt  AK

where B1  1   2 and B2  j  B1  B2  .

To determine the values of B1 and B2 note that

y  t   n B1 sin nt  n B2 cos nt (1.221)

Evaluating equations (1.220) and (1.221) at t  0 , we have

B1  AK  y  0  (1.222)

and

n B2  y  0  (1.223)

so that

B1  y  0   AK (1.224)

and

y  0
B2  (1.225)
n

Alternately, note that

B1 cos nt  B2 sin nt  B3 cos nt    (1.226)

Page 53
 B 
where B3  B12  B22 and   tan 1  2  , so that y  t  can be written in a slightly more
 B1 
compact form as

y  t   B3 cos nt     AK (1.227)

Page 54
Example 4.1

or

As shown by equation (1.7), this parallel RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2iL
 4iL  0 (1.228)
dt 2

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r2  4  0 (1.229)

and

n  2 (1.230)

 0 (1.231)

This is an undamped system, with

r1  j 2 (1.232)

r2   j 2 (1.233)

diL  t 
Suppose now that iL  0   0 and v  0   1 . Then, v  t   L , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
diL 1
yields  v  0   1 , and
dt t 0 L

B1  0 (1.234)

1
B2  (1.235)
2

Hence,

1
iL  t   sin 2t A for t  0 (1.236)
2

Page 55
To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 4.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The inductor current is:

and the capacitor voltage is:

Page 56
Example 4.2

or

As shown by equation (1.16), this series RLC circuit can be described by the equation

d 2vC
 4vC  0 (1.237)
dt 2

Hence, the characteristic equation is

r2  4  0 (1.238)

and

n  2 (1.239)

 0 (1.240)

This is an undamped system, with

r1  j 2 (1.241)

r2   j 2 (1.242)

dvC  t 
Suppose now that vC  0   0 and i  0   1. Then, i  t   C , when evaluated at t  0 ,
dt
dvC  t  1
yields  i  0   4 , and
dt t 0 C

B1  0 (1.243)

4
B2  2 (1.244)
2

Hence,

vC  t   2sin 2t V t  0 (1.245)

Page 57
To see what this looks like, we can simulate the circuit with PSpice as follows:

Example 4.2
L 0 2 1 IC=1
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

The capacitor voltage is:

and the inductor current is:

Page 58
A comparison of the responses of the four parallel circuit examples (1.1, 2.1, 3.1 and 4.1) is
shown below:

Example 1.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 5
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 2.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 {1/5}
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 3.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
G 1 0 1 0 1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 4.1
C 1 0 {1/4} IC=1
L 1 0 1 IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

Page 59
A comparison of the responses of the four series circuit examples (1.2, 2.2, 3.2 and 4.2) is shown
below:

Example 1.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 20
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 2.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 {4/5}
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 3.2
L 0 1 1 IC=1
R 1 2 4
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END
Example 4.2
L 0 2 1 IC=1
C 2 0 {1/4} IC=0
.TRAN 1 16 0 1m UIC
.PROBE
.END

Page 60