2 Rivers-and-Streams

Eugene C.
HERRERA Institute of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines

Great Rivers of the World
Tigris – Euphrates River  River that was a
boundary of
Mesopotamia, or the
"land between the
rivers" .
 The lifeblood of
Mesopotamian
civilizations.
 Water sharing dispute
between Iraq, Turkey,
SA, Iran, Kuwait and
Syria.
Nile River  Longest river in the world
with a total length of
6695 km.
 The lifeblood of Egyptian
civilization.
 The river where a great
deal of water resource
development through
irrigation system started.
 Water sharing dispute
between northeastern
African countries
Amazon River  2nd longest river in the
world with a total length
of 6712 km.
 The river with the largest
discharge in the world.
 Accounts for
approximately one-fifth
of the world's total river
flow (209,000 m3/s).
 Rich biodiversity of
aquatic plants and
animals
Yangtze River  3rd longest river in the
world with a total
length of 6300 km.
 With plenty of rainfall
all year round, the
Yangtze River is named
the golden
watercourse.
 Historically been used
for trade and
transportation.
 Three Gorges Dam river
Mississippi River  The 4th longest river in
the world (3730 km)
 The chief river of the
largest drainage
system on the North
American continent.
 The Mississippi river is
the nation's chief
navigable water route.
 Its valley is one of the
most fertile agricultural
regions of the country.
River System
 A river system consists of a river and all of its tributaries
o The drainage basin
of a river system is all Tributary
the land that is Divide
drained by the river
and its tributaries. A
river’s velocity,
gradient, discharge, River
and channel shape
affect how it erodes
and transports
materials.
Rivers Upstream
 Most streams begin in the mountains or highlands. They collect water
from:
o Mountain springs (water seeping out from between rock layers).
o Run-off from rainwater in the mountains
o Snowmelt in the spring
Rivers Upstream
 High in the mountains, streams are narrow and flow swiftly.
 These young streams typically have V-shaped valleys.
 The rushing water moves stones and soil.
 Streams wear down rocks to form rapids and waterfalls.
Rivers Downstream
 Fast moving upstream portions can often move rocks and boulders.
Downstream portions usually only transport small silts and clays.
 A stream or river can not cut its bed any lower than the body of water into
which it flows. As the stream approaches this base level, the slope and
speed of the stream decrease.
 When the stream descends to flatter land, it becomes wider, slower and
muddier. It becomes more of a U shape with a wider river floor.
River Channels and Drainage
 There are different types of river channel patterns and river drainage
patterns.
1. Dendritic
2. Radial
3. Rectangular
4. Trellis
 A dendritic network has a
drainage whose
interconnecting streams
resemble the pattern of
branches connecting to a
deciduous tree.
 A radial network has a
drainage in which the
streams flow outward from a
cone-shaped mountain, and
define a pattern resembling
spokes on a wheel.
 A rectangular network has a
drainage in which the
streams join each other at
right angles because of a
rectangular grid of fractures
that breaks up the ground
and localizes channels.
 A trellis network has a
drainage that develops across
a landscape of parallel valleys
and ridges so that major
tributaries flow down the
valleys and join a trunk
stream that cuts through the
ridge; the resulting map
pattern resembles a garden
trellis.
Stream Order
 Streams are classified based on the hierarchy of streams according
to the number of tributaries upstream.
 A method of classifying or ordering
the hierarchy of natural channels.
 Streams are called rivers when they

become seventh-order streams or
higher.
 Stream order correlates well with

drainage area, but is also regionally
controlled by topography & geology
Stream Order
 Which flows
faster (in
general), small
headwater rivers
or large valley
rivers?
River Erosion and Deposition
 The ability of a stream or river to erode and transport sediments is
affected by many factors. The most important factors are:
 Velocity
 Gradient
 Discharge
 X’s Area
 Channel
John Wiley and

Sons, Inc., 1999
 Rivers wear down Earth’s surface and erode and deposit materials. A
river may carry materials in solution, in suspension, and in its bed load.
Flow
Suspension:
Silt and clay
Bed load:
sand, gravel,
pebbles and
boulders
Materials carried in solution cannot be seen.

 An alluvial fan develops when a stream spreads out onto a less steep
area. The deposit is formed on land, not in water.
 An delta develops where a stream carrying sediment load empties into a
larger body of water.
 The river tends to be split into channels by its own deposits as it drops
more sediment. As the deposits grow, they resemble the Greek letter
▲(delta).
Over time, sediments

build up, forming a
delta.
River Stages
Youthful Old
Youthful
 Rapids  Broad floodplain
 Waterfalls  Meanders
 Fast-moving  Oxbow lakes
Mature
 Steep slope  Meander Scars
Old
River Valleys
 Youthful rivers form steep-sided canyons and V-shaped valleys. The
lowest level to which a river can erode its bed is called its base level.
 Rapids can form as a river runs down a deep

slope, while a river that plunges over a cliff
forms a waterfall.
River Floodplains
 A river that has cut down close to its base level tends to erode the sides
of its valley, forming a meandering river in a wide flood plain.
Valley wall
Back swamp
Oxbow lake
Meander
Natural
levees
Yazoo
tributary
floodplain
River Meanders
 The bends and curves of a stream.
Oxbow
lake
deposition
erosion
Principal River Channel Patterns
 Braided rivers are typically developed in mountainous terrain on higher gradients.
Typified by high degree of seasonality. Permanent channels with ripple crossed
bedded sands develop during periods of low flow. These channels meander
between sand bars that are active only during flood stage, these develop larger
scale cross beds. Sediments are typically sandy and pebbly, usually moderate to
well sorted, texturally moderately mature.
Rakaia River,
New Zealand
Rakaia River, Platte River, Nebraska
New Zealand
 Anastomosing streams are a type of organic-rich branching river that consist of
multiple channels that divide and reconnect and are separated by such cohesive
material that they would likely not be able to migrate from one channel position
to another.
Columbia River, Canada Narew River, Poland

 Meandering rivers are typically developed in coastal plain areas, lower gradient.
More continuous flow, finer grained sediment than braided. Channel sediment is
marked by the deep stream migration of meanders and the construction of cross
laminated sands on point bars in the inner bends of meanders. Flood stage can
lead to cut-off of meanders and break-through of river.
Williams River, Alaska Pecatonica River, Canada

River Discharge Measurement
 Velocity-area method
 Estimation of water velocity (using an impeller meter) multiplied by
area of water in a cross section
 Dilution gauging
 Add a known concentration of chemical to the river and measure dilution
 A graph of concentration against time is plotted
 Rating curve
 Measure river discharge when the river is at different water levels
 When plotted the equation of the line of best fit allows discharge of
any water level to be inferred
 Care is necessary because
 Curve can change shape when river burst banks
 Inevitable errors with measuring discharge
Discharge Gauging:
Velocity-Area Method
Methods used to measure
water velocity include:
● Timing a floating
object
● Propeller rotation
speed
● Electromagnetic
● Acoustic Doppler
Measurement for
relatively large rivers
Measurement
for relatively
large rivers
ADCP connected to laptop

computer using radio modem Riverboat with ADCP
Discharge Gauging:
Tracer Dillution Curved Method
Constant Injection
Constant Injection Q1C1 = Q2C2
 Inject tracer with a known
concentration (C1) at a known
flow rate (Q1) into the stream
 Measure the stream
concentration (C2) after
complete mixing
 Calculate the stream flow
Q2 = (Q1C1)/C2
Slug Injection
Slug Injection Q = M/Σ mxt/V
 Dump a known mass of tracer
into the stream
 Measure the whole peak
after mixing downstream
 Calculate discharge
Q = Mass/Area under Curve
Discharge Gauging:
Stage-Discharge Rating Curve Method
Water Balance Method
Evapotranspiration
Precipitation
ΔSQ= P -EE -Q

sS– Qa
Q: Runoff
P: Precipitation
E: Evapotranspiration
ΔS: Change in storage
Surface Runoff STREAM

Root Zone
Infiltration/plant uptake/ Soil FLOW
moisture redistribution
Vadose Lateral Flow
(unsaturated)
Zone
Shallow Revap from Percolation to

(unconfined) shallow aquifer shallow aquifer
Aquifer Return Flow
Confining Layer
Deep (confined) Flow out of watershed

Aquifer Recharge to
deep aquifer
 Collecting discharge measured over a long period of time allows
identification when changes in flow rates occur and the potential causes.
Potential environmental
influences on discharge include:
o Drought
o Storm Events
o Climate Change
o Seasonality
Potential human influences on
discharge include:
o Land Use Changes
(agriculture, development)
o River alterations
(dams, dikes, diversions)
River Hydrograph and Production
 The shape of the curve in the high-flow region indicates the type of flood regime
the basin is likely to have, whereas, the shape of the low-flow region characterizes
the ability of the basin to sustain low flows during dry seasons.
700
600 280000 290000 300000 310000 320000 330000 340000 350000
1640000
1640000
500 Marikina River
1630000
1630000
400 Marikina
300
Flow Duration Curve
1620000
1620000
200
1610000
1610000
Discharge (m3/s)
100
1600000
1600000
0
70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1590000
1590000
60 Percent Exceedance (%)
Pagsanjan River
50
1580000
1580000
Sta. Cruz River
40
1570000
1570000
30 Pagsanjan
20
1560000
1560000
10
1550000
1550000
0 Sta. Cruz
280000 290000 300000 310000 320000 330000 340000 350000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Exceedance (%)
Marikina River Basin Hydrograph Analysis
100 1000
Hyetograph
Hydrograph  Rainfall-runoff lag time
Peak of 9-10 hours
80 Peak Rainfall Discharge 800
6hr Unit Hydrograph  High peak and short
Lag Time
Rainfall Depth (mm)
base resultant runoff

0.40
Discharge (m3/s)
0.30
60 600
0.20
discharge
0.10  Base-flow range of 40-
40 0.00 400 100 m3/s
Storm 0 2 4 6 8 10
Flow  Unit hydrograph

20 200 distribution representative
of steep, urban, low GW
Base Flow discharge basins
0 0
5/17 0:00 5/18 0:00 5/19 0:00 5/20 0:00 5/21 0:00 5/22 0:00
Time (hours)
Pagsanjan River Basin Hydrograph Analysis
100 120
Hyetograph  Rainfall-runoff lag time
Hydrograph
of 15 hours
80 Peak 100
Discharge 6hr Unit Hydrograph  Flatter peak and larger
Rainfall Depth (mm)
0.30
base resultant runoff
Discharge (m /s)
Peak Rainfall
3
60 80
0.20
discharge
Lag Time
0.10
 Base-flow range of 35-
40
Storm
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10
60 50 m3/s
Flow  Unit hydrograph
20 40 distribution representative
Base Flow of flat,
agricultural/forested, high
0 20 GW basins
9/29 0:00 9/30 0:00 10/01 0:00 10/02 0:00 10/03 0:00 10/04 0:00
Time (hours)
Legend
llwsheddem_ProjectRaster.imgValue
2000: 2160
High m  Topography gives rise to a variety of
climate variations
Low
5 m: 1
Rainfall-Elevation Relationship
6000
y = 5.0688x + 1864.3
5000
R2 = 0.7701
Rainfall (mm)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Elevation (m)
 Basin properties affecting river discharge other than precipitation.
Topography River network Slope Land/Soil cover

Factors affecting Dissolved Oxygen
 Important factors that
affect DO in water include
water temperature, aquatic
plant photosynthetic activity,
wind and wave mixing,
organic contents of the water,
and sediment oxygen
demand.
Dissolved Oxygen Saturation
 DO saturation (DOsat) values for values water temperatures can be
computed using the ASCE formula: :
DOsat=-14.652 - 0.41022T + 0.0079910T2 - 0.000077774T3
DOsat = dissolved oxygen saturation concentration, mg/L
T= water temperature , oC
- This formula represents saturation values for distilled water (β=1.0) at sea level
pressure. Water impurities can increase the saturation level (β>1.0) or decrease the
saturation level (β<1.0), depending on the characteristics of the contaminant. For
most cases, β is assumed to be unity.
- The DO saturation concentrations generated by the formula must be corrected
for differences in air pressure caused by air temperature changes and for elevation
above mean sea level. The correction factor is given by the following formula:
where,
2116.8  (0.08  0.000115 A) E f= correction factor for above MSL
f= A= air temperature, oC
2116.8 E= elevation of the site, ft above MSL
Sample Problem:
Find the correction factor of DOsat value for water at 620 ft above the
MSL and air temperature of 25 oC. What is DOsat at a water temperature
of 20 oC?
Solution:
2116.8  (0.08  0.000115 A) E
f= f  0.977
2116.8
Compute for Dosat, for T= 20 oC
DOsat=-14.652 - 0.41022T + 0.0079910T2 - 0.000077774T3
DOsat= 9.02 mg/L

With an elevation correction factor of 0.977,
DOsat= 9.02 mg/L x 0.977 = 8.81 mg/L
Transport of Suspended Matter
 Fall velocity (or settling velocity) is the velocity at which a sediment particle falls
through a fluid.
 At equilibrium, the gravity forces is in balance with the drag
force and a terminal velocity exists.
 Relationships for the fall velocity can be developed using
impulse-momentum principle.
d
F y   vy d  
dt CV CS
v y  V  A
   
 Fy  Fg  FD  FB Fg   D 3   s
6 
Fb   D 3  
6 
  W
2
FD  CD  D 2  
4  2
 The drag coefficient is a function of the Reynolds number for a sphere.
 The change in momentum in the control volume and the net rate of momentum
  3  dW
outflow is:
 v y  V  A  0 d
 y
v  d   s D 
CS dt CV 6  dt
 The momentum equation is derived by substituting the appropriate equations:
 3  3  2  W   3  dW
2
 D  
 s  D    C D D     s D 
6  6  4  2 6  dt
 The Reynolds number can be expressed as follows: WD
Re 

24
 For the range Re<1, Stoke’s Law is expressed as: CD 
Re
 We may derive Stoke’s Law:
 24 
  W
2
   W FD  3WD
2
FD  CD  D 2   FD   WD   D 2  
4  2    4  2
 
 Substituting the equation for Stoke,s Law into D2 g  s     18 t   
W   1  1  exp   
the above momentum equation & integrating: 18       s /   D 2

D2 g  s 
 For the terminal velocity t  WT    1
18   
D2 g  s 
WT    1
18   
D2 g  s     18 t   
W   1  1  exp  2 

18    
 s  /   D 
In the case of suspended particles, the settling of the particles is influenced
by the size, shape, and density of the particles in addition to the ambient
flow velocity. The process by which suspended particles settle to the
bottom of water bodies is called sedimentation, and the settling velocity, vs,
of suspended particles with diameters less than or equal to 0.1 mm (100μm)
can be estimated by the following equation:
where,
  s /  w  1 g 2
α= dimensionless form factor
ρs= density of suspended particle
vs  ρw= density of the ambient water
18vw g= acceleration due to gravity
φ= particle diameter
vw= kinematic viscosity of the ambient
water
Sample Problem:
Analysis of water from a river indicates a suspended-solids concentration of 50 mg/L. The
suspended particles are estimated to have an approximately spherical shape with an average
diameter of 4μm and a density of 2650 kg/m3. (a) If the water temperature is 20oC, estimate the
settling velocity of the suspended particles. (b) If there is 1g of heavy-metal ion per kilogram of
suspended particles, determine the rate at which heavy metals are being removed from the
river by sedimentation.
Solution:
(a) From the data given, α= 1 (spherical particles), ρs= 2650 kg/m3, ρw =998 kg/m3 at 20 oC,
φ= 4μm= 4x10-6 m, and νw= 1.0010-6 m2/s. Substituting into the equation gives :
vs 
  s /  w  1 g 2
 (1)
 2650 / 998  1 (9.81)(4x106 ) 2
18vw 18(1.00x106 )
 1.44x105 m/s=1.25 m/day
Solution:
(b) Since the concentration, c, of suspended particles is 50 mg/L= 0.05
kg/m3, the rate at which sediment is accumulating on the bottom of the
river is given by:
removal rate of suspended particles= vsc=1.25(0.05)=

0.0625 kg/day ·m2
Since heavy metals are attached to the sediment at the rate of 1 g/kg,
the removal rate of heavy metals is given by:
removal rate of heavy metals=1(0.0625)= 0.0625 g/day ·m2

River Water Quality Problems
 Threats to the water quality in streams and rivers
commonly originate from end-of-pipe discharges
 The four most prevalent water-quality problems
affecting rivers and streams are siltation, oxygen-
depleting substances, nutrients, and pathogens.
Regulatory Mixing Zones
 Treated sewage effluent, industrial wastewaters, and storm-water runoff are
discharged routinely into inland streams, and in most cases the wastewater
discharges do not meet the ambient water-quality standards of the stream.
 In the US, regulatory mixing zones are usually permitted in the vicinity of the
discharge location. Within these mixing zones, dilution processes reduce the
contaminant concentrations to levels that meet the ambient water-quality criteria.
 Typical flow velocities in rivers and streams range from 0.1 to 1.5 m/s, corresponding
to channel slopes of 0.02 to 1%
Water Assimilative River Capacities
Point Source Dilution
- Point source pollutants are commonly regulated by a deterministic model
for an assumed design condition having a specific probability of
occurrence. A simplistic dilution and/or balance equation can be given
by:
where,
QuCu  QeCe
Cd 
Cd= completely mixed constituent concentration
downstream of the effluent, mg/L
Qu  Qe Qu= stream flow upstream of the effluent, cfs
Cu= constituent concentration of upstream flow, mg/L
Qe= flow of the effluent, cfs
Ce= constituent concentration of the effluent, mg/L
Sample Problem:
A power plant pumps 27 cfs from a stream, with a flow of 186 cfs. The
discharge of the plant’s ash pond is 26 cfs. The carbon concentrations
for upstream water and the effluent are 0.051 and 8.9 mg/L,
respectively. Compute the carbon concentration in the stream after
completely mixing.
Solution:
Q C  QeCe (186  27)(0.051)  26x8.9
Cd  u u Cd 
Qu  Qe (186  27)  26
Cd  1.29 mg/L
 Diffusion and dispersion are the processes by which a tracer spreads within a fluid.
 Diffusion is the random advection of tracer molecules on scales smaller than some
defined length scale. At microscopic scales, tracers diffuse through Brownian
motion.
 Where spatial variations in the
macroscopic velocity are responsible for
the mixing of a tracer, the process is
called dispersion.
c
Fick’s Law qi   D
d
xi
c  2c  2c  2c
 Dx  Dy  Dz Three dimensional advection-diffusion
t x ' 2
y ' 2
z '2
equation
Initial Mixing
 Contaminant discharges from point sources spread in the vertical and
transverse directions by turbulent diffusion until the pollutant is well
mixed across the stream cross section, at which time almost all of the
mixing will be caused by longitudinal shear dispersion.
 The shear velocity in rivers causing contaminant dispersion is given by:

o f
u*  o  V 2
 f
u* 
8
V
8
where f is the friction factor and V is the channel velocity
Initial Mixing
 Based on a theoretical analysis of turbulent mixing, the average value of
the vertical and transverse turbulent diffusion coefficient, εv ,and εT
respectively in a wide open channel can be estimated by the relations.
 v  0.067du*
 T  0.6du*
where d is the depth of the channel and u* is the channel shear velocity
Initial Mixing
 Many mixing-zone analyses assume instantaneous cross-sectional mixing
and then calculate longitudinal variations in cross-sectionally averaged
concentrations downstream from the discharge location. Considering a
stream of characteristic depth d and width w, the time scale, Td, for
mixing over the depth of the channel can be estimated by,
d2 w2
Td  or Tw 
v T
 and the distance, Ld, downstream from the discharge point to where
complete mixing over the depth occurs is given by
Vd 2 Vw2
Lv  VTd  Lw  VTw 
v T
Initial Mixing
Sample Problem:
A municipality discharges wastewater from the side of a stream
that is 10m wide and 2 m deep. The average flow velocity in the
stream is 1.5 m/s, and the friction factor is estimated to be 0.03.
(a) Estimate the time for the wastewater to become well mixed over
the channel cross section. (b) How far downstream from the
discharge location can the effluent be considered well mixed across
the stream?
Solution:
(a) From the data given, f=0.03 and V=1.5 m/s. Therefore, the
shear velocity, u*, is given by
Initial Mixing
f 0.03
u*  V (1.5)  0.092 m/s
8 8
Since d=2 m, the vertical and transverse diffusion coefficients are
 v =0.067du*  0.067(2)(0.092)  0.012 m2 /s
 T =0.6du*  0.6(2)(0.092)  0.11 m2 /s
The time scale for vertical mixing, Td, is given by
d2 (2)2
Td =   333 s=5.6 min
 v 0.012
Initial Mixing
w2 (10)2
Tw =   909 s=15 min
 T 0.11
The discharge is well mixed over the channel cross section when it
is well mixed over both the depth and the width, which in this
case occurs after about 15 min.
(b) In a time interval of 15 min (909 s), the discharged effluent
travels a distance, VTw, given by
VTw =1.5(909)=1364 m
c  2c  2c  2c Three dimensional advection-diffusion
 Dx  Dy  Dz
t x ' 2
y ' 2
z '2 equation
One-dimensional advection-diffusion/longitudinal dispersion
- The concentration distribution relationship for mixing of a tracer released
instantaneously into a flowing fluid, where the tracer undergoes one-
dimensional diffusion is given by :
where,
C(x, t)= contaminant concentration at x-
M  ( x  Vt )2  distance and t-time downstream, mg/L
c(x, t)= exp    M = mass of contaminant, kg
A 4 Dx t  4 D x t  A = river cross-sectional area, m2
Dx = dispersion coefficient, m2/s
V = flow velocity, m/s
Sample Problem:
One hundred kilograms of a contaminant is spilled into a small river and instantaneously mixes
across the entire cross section of the river. The cross section of the river is approximately
trapezoidal in shape, with a bottom width of 5 m, side slopes of 2:1 (H:V), and a depth of flow of
3 m. The discharge in the river is estimated as 30 m3/s, and the dispersion coefficient for mixing
along the river is estimated as 10m2/s. Estimate (a) when the maximum contaminant
concentration will be observed at a park recreation area 10 km downstream of the spill, and (b)
the maximum concentration expected at the park.
Solution:
(a) From the data given, M=100 kg, Dx=10 m2/s, and the flow rate, Q, in the river is 30 m3/s.
The cross-sectional area, A, of the river is given by:
A=by+my2
where b=5 m, y=3 m, and m= 2; hence,
A= 5(3)+ 2(3)2 = 33 m2
And,
Q 30
V   0.909 m/s
A 33
The distance, xm, of the maximum concentration from the spill location
at any time, t, is given by:
Xm=Vt
Therefore, for x m=10 km=10,000 m,
xm 10,000
t=   11,000 s = 3.06 h
V 0.909
Hence, the park can expect to see the peak contaminant concentration
3.06 h after the spill occurs.
(b) The maximum contaminant concentration at any time (t) and location
(x) is given by the diffusion equation for x=Vt as:
M
c(x, t)=
A 4 Dx t
100
c(x, t)=  2.58x10-3 kg/m3  2.58 mg/L
33 4 (10)(11,000)
Hence, the maximum contaminant concentration observed at the
recreation area is expected to be 2.58 mg/L.
Two-dimensional advection-diffusion/longitudinal dispersion
instantaneously into a flowing fluid, where the tracer undergoes two-
M  x2 y2 
c( x, y , t )  exp    
4 tL Dx Dy 
 4 Dxt 4 Dy t 
where,
C(x, y, t)= contaminant concentration at x-y position and t-
time downstream , mg/L
M= mass of contaminant, kg
L= river depth, m
Dx ,Dy= dispersion coefficients in x and y directions, m2/s
Sample Problem:
One kilogram of a contaminant is spilled at a point in a 4-m-deep reservoir and is
instantaneously mixed over the entire depth. (a) If the diffusion coefficients in the N-S and E-W
directions are 5 and 10m2/s, respectively, calculate the concentration as a function of time at
locations 100 m north and 100 m east of the spill. (b) What is the concentration at the spill
location after 5 min?
Solution:
(a) From the data given, M= 1kg, L= 4m, Dx= 5m2/s (N-S), and Dy=10m2/s (E-W). At 100 m
north of the spill, x= 0m, y= 100 m, and the concentration as a function of time is given by :
M  x2 y2 
c( x, y , t )  exp    
4 tL Dx Dy  4 D t 4 D t
 x y 
1  1002  0.00281  500 

c(0,100, t )  exp     exp   kg/m
3
4 t (4) 5(10)  4(5)t  t  t 

At 100 m east of the spill, x= 100 m, y= 0 m, and the concentration as a
function of time is given by:
M  x2 y2 
c( x, y , t )  exp    
4 tL Dx Dy 
 4 Dxt 4 Dy t 
1  1002  0.00281  250 
c(100,0, t )  exp     exp    kg/m 3
4 t (4) 5(10)  4(10)t  t  t 

(b) At the spill location, x= 0 m and y= 0 m, and the concentration as a
function of time is given by :
M  x2 y2 
c( x, y , t )  exp    
4 tL Dx Dy  4 D t 4 D t
 x y 
1 0.00281
c(0,0, t )   kg/m3
4 t (4) 5(10) t
The concentration at the spill location after 5 min is given by:
At t= 5 min= 300 s,
0.00281
c(0,0,300)  = 9.37x10-6 kg/m3  9.37 g/L
300
Three-dimensional advection-diffusion/longitudinal dispersion
instantaneously into a flowing fluid, where the tracer undergoes three-
M  x2 y2 z2 
c( x, y , z , t )  exp     
(4 t ) 3/2
Dx Dy Dz  4 D t 4 D t 4 D t
 x y z 
where,
C(x, y, z, t)= contaminant concentration at x-y-z position and
t-time downstream , mg/L
M= mass of contaminant, kg
Dx ,Dy ,Dz= dispersion coefficients in x, y, and z directions, m2/s
Spills
 Spills of contaminants in rivers are typically associated
with major accidents on transportation routes across or
adjacent to rivers, although other mechanisms, such as illicit
dumping and spikes in continuous wastewater discharges, are
also possible.
 Spills are characterized by
the introduction of a large mass
of contaminant in a very short
period of time.
Spills
 The governing equation for the longitudinal dispersion of
contaminants that are well mixed over the cross sections of
rivers and streams and undergo first-order decay is given by:
Me  kt  ( x  Vt )2 
c(x, t)= exp   
A 4 K Lt  4 K Lt 
where c is the contaminant concentration, M is the mass of the
contaminant, x is the distance downstream of the spill, t is the
time since the spill, A is the cross-sectional area, V is the average
stream velocity, and k is the first order decay factor.
Spills
KL
 5.93
du*
Only vertical
variations in
the mean
velocity are
considered
Continuous Discharges
 Continuous discharges of contaminant-laden wastewater
into rivers typically occur from domestic wastewater
treatment plants and industrial plants.
 The continuous discharge into rivers and streams of
wastewaters with high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
depletes the dissolved oxygen in the ambient water and can
sometimes cause severe stress on aquatic life.
 The concentration of dissolved oxygen in natural waters is a
primary indicator of overall water quality and the viability of
aquatic habitat.
Continuous Discharges
 Certain organic materials added to water stimulates oxygen
consumption by decomposers:
o Sewage
o Paper pulp
o Food processing waste
Factors affecting Dissolved Oxygen
 Important factors that
affect DO in water include
water temperature, aquatic
plant photosynthetic activity,
wind and wave mixing,
organic contents of the water,
and sediment oxygen
demand.
Oxygen Demand of Wastewater
 The oxygen demand of wastewaters is typically measured
by the BOD, and the associated rate of (de)oxygenation, S1
[M/L3T], is commonly described by a first-order reaction of
the form:
S1  k1L k1T  k120 T 20
where k1 is a reaction-rate constant [T-1], and L is the BOD
remaining [M/L3]
Oxygen Demand of Wastewater
  1.135 for 4oC<T<20oC

  1.056 for 20oC<T<30oC
where T is the temperature of the
stream, k1T and k120 are the values
of k1 at temperatures T and 20oC,
respectively, and θ is a
dimensionless temperature
coefficient.
Re-aeration Rate
 The rate at which oxygen is transferred from the
atmosphere into a stream, defined as the re-aeration rate, S2
[M/L3T], is commonly described by an equation of the form
S2  k2 (cs - c)
where k2 is the re-aeration constant [T-1], cs is the dissolved-
oxygen saturation concentration [M/L3], and c is the actual
concentration of dissolved oxygen in the stream.
k2T  k220 T 20 1.024    1.025
Re-aeration Rate
Re-aeration Rate
Streeter-Phelps Model
 The total flux of oxygen into river water, Sm [M/L3T], can be
estimated by adding the (de)oxygenation rate due to
biodegradation, S1, to the oxygen flux due to reaeration, S2.
Combining with the advection-dispersion equation, the
differential equation can be solved to arrive at: Sm  k1L  k2 (cs  c)
c c   c  dD k1 k
V   K L   k1L  k2 (cs  c) D  cs  c  L 2 D
t x x  x  dx V V
k1Lo  k1 x k2 x  k2 x
D( x )  exp(  )  exp(  )  D exp(  )
k2  k1  V 
o
V V
 A plot of the Streeter–Phelps equation is commonly referred
to as the Streeter–Phelps oxygen-sag curve. The reason for
using the term sag curve is apparent from a plot of the oxygen
deficit, D(x), as a function of distance, x, from the source:
 Oxygen consumption for biodegradation begins immediately
after the waste is discharged, at x0, with the oxygen deficit in the
stream increasing from its initial value of D0. Since re-aeration is
proportional to the oxygen deficit, the re-aeration rate increases as
the oxygen deficit increases, and at some point the re-aeration rate
becomes equal to the rate of oxygen consumption. This point is
called the critical point, xc, and beyond the critical point the
reaeration rate exceeds the rate of oxygen consumption, resulting
in a gradual decline in the oxygen deficit.
V  k2 Do (k2  k1 )  k1 k1 xc
xc  ln  (1   Dc  Lo exp(  )
k2  k1  k1 k1Lo  k2 V
 The Streeter-Phelps model, assumes that the river is mixed
completely and uniformly in the transverse directions and the
longitudinal dispersive flux is negligible compared with the
advective flux.
Peclet number, where V is the stream
V2 velocity, L is the characteristic length scale, k
Pe  is the rate constant for non-conservative
kK L substance, and KL is the longitudinal
dispersion coefficient.
 The assumption that longitudinal dispersion can be neglected is
justified when Pe>10, and dispersion cannot be neglected when
Pe<1.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
CDO Meat Factory is to apply for a discharge permit from the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources for use of Bocaue
River for discharging its factory sewage. The River has a mean velocity of
3 cm/s. Initial test results showed, the dissolved-oxygen concentration in
the river is 9.5 mg/L at a temperature of 15 oC, after initial mixing. Also,
for an ultimate BOD of the mixed river water of 30 mg/L, the rate
constant for BOD at 20 oC is 0.6 day -1, and the re-aeration rate constant
at 20 oC is 0.8 day -1. Estimate the minimum dissolved oxygen
concentration and the critical location downstream in the river. The DO
water quality standard of DENR for the Bocaue River is 5.00 mg/L. Based
on the results, would you impose treatment before disposal?
SOLUTION:
At T = 15 oC, the saturation concentration of oxygen is computed using the following
formula:
DOsat=14.652 - 0.41022T + 0.0079910T2 - 0.000077774T3
Which yields DOsat = 10.1 mg/L. Hence the initial oxygen deficit, D0, is 10.1 - 9.5 = 0.6
mg/L. The BOD rate constant at 15 oC, k115, is given by:
k115  k120 (1.04)T 20  0.6(1.04)1520  0.48 day-1
The reaeration rate constant at 15 oC, k215, is given by:
k2 15  k220 (1.024)T 20  0.8(1.024)1520  0.72 day-1
Since Lo = 30 mg/L and V = 3 cm/s = 2592 m/day, the following equation gives the
location, xc, of the critical oxygen deficit as
V k D (k  k ) 
xc  ln  2 (1  o 2 1 ) 
k2  k1  k1 k1Lo 
2592  0.72 0.6(0.72  0.48) 
xc  ln  (1  )
0.72  0.48  0.48 0.48(30) 
xc  4270 m
Correspondingly, the following equation gives the critical oxygen deficit, Dc, as
k1 kx
Dc  Lo exp(  1 c )
k2 V
0.48 0.48(4270)
Dc  (30) exp(  )  9.0 mg/L
0.72 2592
Hence the minimum dissolved oxygen level in the stream is 10.1 - 9.0 = 1.1
mg/L. This level of dissolved oxygen will be below the required criteria of
DENR which is at 5.0 mg/L. Treatment before disposal should be required.
Nitrification
 In streams and rivers with travel times greater than about 5 days, the
ultimate BOD, L0, in the Streeter–Phelps equation must include both
carbonaceous and nitrogenous demand. Lo  1.2CBOD5  4.33TKN
We therefore define the additional oxygen deficit caused by nitrification:
k N LoN  kN x k2 x 
DN ( x )  exp(  V )  exp(  V )  LoN  4.33xTKN
k2  k N
where CBOD5 is the 5-day carbonaceous BOD, TKN is the total Kjeldahl
nitrogen (organic Nitrogen+ammonia) in mg/L, kN is the first-order
nitrification rate (day-1), and L0N is the initial nitrogenous BOD. The
magnitude of the nitrification reaction rate constant, kN, has been reported
to range from 0.1 to 15.8 day-1 (Ruane and Krenkel, 1975)
Photosynthesis, respiration and SOD
 Besides biochemical oxygen demand and reaeration, other sources and
sinks of oxygen that are distributed along rivers include photosynthesis,
respiration of photosynthetic organisms, benthic oxygen demand, and BOD
from distributed (diffuse) sources along the river.
CO2 +H 2O+  C(H 2O)+O2 C(H 2O)+O2  CO2 +H2O+
Photosynthesis and respiration are a major source and sink of oxygen
(respectively), particularly in slow-moving streams and lakes, and can be
expected to be significant for algal concentrations in excess of 10 g/m3 (dry
mass). Quantification of oxygen fluxes associated with photosynthesis and
respiration is difficult. Reported photosynthetic oxygen production rates,
(averaged over 24 h) range from 0.3 to 3 g/m2 · day for moderately
productive surface waters up to 10 g/m2 · day for surface waters that have a
significant biomass of aquatic plants (Thomann and Mueller, 1987).
 Empirical equations that have been proposed for estimating
photosynthetic oxygen production and respiration rates are (Di Toro, 1975):
S p  0.25Chla Sr  0.025Chla
where Sp and Sr are the average daily oxygen production and respiration rates,
respectively, in mg/L · day, and Chla is the chlorophyll a concentration in μg/L
 Benthic oxygen demand or sediment oxygen demand (SOD) results
primarily from the deposition of suspended organics and native benthic
organisms in the vicinity of wastewater discharges and can be a major sink of
dissolved oxygen in heavily polluted rivers and streams.
Benthic oxygen demand Sb* [M/L2T], is typically taken as a constant, and the
benthic flux of oxygen, Sb [M/L3T], used in the advection–dispersion equation
is derived from Sb* using the relation S  Sb * As  Sb *

b
d
 Typical values of Sb* at 20oC are given in the table below, and calculated
values of Sb at 20oC can be converted to other temperatures using:
Sb T  Sb 20 (1.065)T 20
Sb T  Sb 20 (1.065)T 20
 Incorporating photosynthetic, respiratory, and benthic oxygen fluxes into
the oxygen sag model yields the following equation:
which assumes that the BOD in the river originates from the wastewater discharge
and that the only source of oxygen is from atmospheric reaeration, and ΔDS(x) is the
additional oxygen deficit caused by the net effect of photosynthesis, respiration,
and benthic oxygen demand and is given by (Thomann and Mueller, 1987)
Stream Order
 Headwater streams move
slowest
 Mouth of stream moves

fastest
 Deeper stream move faster

than shallow streams -- less
resistance from the stream
bed

2 Rivers-and-Streams

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2 Rivers-and-Streams

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Eugene C.

HERRERA Institute of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines

 Streams are called rivers when they

 Stream order correlates well with

John Wiley and

Materials carried in solution cannot be seen.

Over time, sediments

 Rapids can form as a river runs down a deep

Columbia River, Canada Narew River, Poland

Williams River, Alaska Pecatonica River, Canada

ADCP connected to laptop

ΔSQ= P -EE -Q

Surface Runoff STREAM

Shallow Revap from Percolation to

Deep (confined) Flow out of watershed

base resultant runoff

Flow  Unit hydrograph

Topography River network Slope Land/Soil cover

DOsat=-14.652 - 0.41022T + 0.0079910T2 - 0.000077774T3

DOsat= 9.02 mg/L

removal rate of suspended particles= vsc=1.25(0.05)=

removal rate of heavy metals=1(0.0625)= 0.0625 g/day ·m2

 The shear velocity in rivers causing contaminant dispersion is given by:

1  1002  0.00281  500 

4 t (4) 5(10)  4(5)t  t  t 

4 t (4) 5(10)  4(10)t  t  t 

  1.135 for 4oC<T<20oC

 Mouth of stream moves

 Deeper stream move faster

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