Research

Research is the systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge. It is used to establish or
confirm facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support
theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion on past work in
the field. In order to test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may
replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic
research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the
research and development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge.
Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and
between humanities and sciences.

Definitions:
Research has been defined in a number of different ways.

A broad definition of research is given by Martin Shuttleworth - "In the broadest sense of the
word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge."

Another definition of research is given by Creswell who states - "Research is a process of steps
used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It
consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an
answer to the question.

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail as "a studious inquiry or
examination; especially : investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws"

Steps in conducting research

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research. The hourglass
model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through
the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the
form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:

 Identification of research problem

 Literature review
 Specifying the purpose of research
 Determine specific research questions or hypotheses
 Data collection
 Analyzing and interpreting the data
 Reporting and evaluating research

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The steps generally represent the overall process, however they should be viewed as an ever-
changing process rather than a fixed set of steps. Most researches begin with a general statement
of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study. The literature review identifies
flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature
review is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is identified. A gap in the
current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research
question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The
researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets
the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as Empirical research.
The results of the data analysis in confirming or failing to reject the Null hypothesis are then
reported and evaluated. At the end the researcher may discuss avenues for further research.

Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is
only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can
one have confidence in the results."

Research methods

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic
or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries
between them may be obscure):

 Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.

 Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or
question.
 Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence.

Forms of Research:

There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business,
etc.

Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity.
This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and
the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded
by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including many
companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their
academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely used criterion for judging
the standing of an academic institution, such as business schools, but some argue that such is an
inaccurate assessment of the institution.

Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and
semiotics, and a different, more relativistepistemology. Humanities scholars usually do not
search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead explore the issues and details that
surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural
or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in

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historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically
investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.

Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are
considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought
which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge
and truth.

There are two ways to conduct research:

Primary research
Using primary sources, i.e., original documents and data.
Secondary research
Using secondary sources, i.e., a synthesis of, interpretation of, or discussions about
primary sources.

There are two major research designs: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers
choose one of these two tracks according to the nature of the research problem they want to
observe and the research questions they aim to answer:

Qualitative research
Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a
broad question and collecting word-type data that is analyzed searching for themes. This
type of research looks to describe a population without attempting to quantifiably
measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as
more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and time consuming,
and typically limited to a single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is often used
as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.
Quantitative research
Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their
relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing
statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlation, and
survey (or descriptive). Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to
establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables.

The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods
produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a
phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly
assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a
true experiment). If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and
situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or
outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.

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Research Process

Steps of the research process:

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a
multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This
process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method
(scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on
testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this
process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct the same
study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without documenting
the study so that others can review the process and results is not an investigation using the
scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the
steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the
process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected
throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often involved in conducting
research or evaluation projects within the agency. These professionals need to understand the
eight steps of the research process as they apply to conducting a study. Table 2.4 lists the steps of
the research process and provides an example of each step for a sample research study.

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Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research
problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information
that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the
example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a
local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research
problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of
literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how
these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the
review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-
term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical
costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and information from the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The
information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand the magnitude of
the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to combat
obesity (i.e., walking).

Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the
study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained
through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research
project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the
purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family
environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas
cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be
more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine
if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual’s health. This
purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.

Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study.
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To
minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically
define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual’s health” can be
defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this
study, the individual’s health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may

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also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more
narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and
cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more
manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This
also makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.

Step 5: Define the Population

Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of
people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people
living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are
available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and
the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In
research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the population. Defining the
population assists the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a
very large population to one that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that
the researcher’s efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher
stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher
identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in
table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12
years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and
resources.

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves
as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and
where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous
decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the
researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The
group of participants is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population
specified for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the
community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the
plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will
be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation
plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the
programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-
step plan to be followed in the study.

Step 7: Collect Data

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data.
The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the
research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from

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the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the
form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In
the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight,
percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of
10,000 steps during the class.

The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These
two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body
fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to
move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.

Step 8: Analyze the Data

All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will
be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this
analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight, percentage
of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to the
measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data will be
analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the second
measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to determine if
the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the study
validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable
information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.

As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot
conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done at
the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or
conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.

Research forms a cycle. It starts with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem. The
problem statement is therefore the axis which the whole research revolves around, beacause it
explains in short the aim of the research.

Identification and formulation of Research Problem:

1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and
ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the WHO or
WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.

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There are many problem situations that may give rise to reseach. Three sources usually
contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a
source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about
certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research
problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.

Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying

contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or
unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing
practical problems.

2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research (problem
identification). The question that he/she should ask is: Are there questions about this problem to
which answers have not been found up to the present?

Research originates from a need that arises. A clear distinction between the PROBLEM and the
PURPOSE should be made. The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, thinks
about, and wants to find a solution for. The purpose is to solve the problem, i.e. find answers to
the question(s). If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and methods are
meaningless.

Keep the following in mind:

 Outline the general context of the problem area.

 Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this area.
 What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this area?
 Why are these issues identified important?
 What needs to be solved?
 Read round the area (subject) to get to know the background and to identify unanswered
questions or controversies, and/or to identify the the most significant issues for further
exploration.

The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on
the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated
problem. Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements.

 The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as

completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you
use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what
your intentions are.
 Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into
sub problems is of the utmost importance.

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3 SUBPROBLEM(S)

Sub problems are problems related to the main problem identified. Subproblems flow from the
main problem and make up the main problem. It is the means to reach the set goal in a
manageable way and contribute to solving the problem.

4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie the
WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the hypothesis.

5 CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:

YES NO
Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have social, educational or
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scientific value?
2 Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?
3 Does the research contribute to the science of education?
4 Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?
5 Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result?
6 Is there enough scope left within the area of research (field of research)?
Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will you be able to handle
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the research problem?
8 Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?
9 Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research?
10 Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?
11 Will it have any value?
Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are you qualified
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to undertake the research?
13 Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the research?
Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and energy to
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complete the project?
15 Do you have the necessary funds for the research?
16 Will you be able to complete the project within the time available?
Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities the research
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necessitates?
TOTAL: