3 Ghashiram Kotwal: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

ACT I

Act I of the play under discussion depicts the rise of Ghashiram from that of an
outsider to the position of the Kotwal of the city. The process whereby such a position
is attained however, is not a straightforward one. It involves sacrifice of Ghashiram‘s
personal conscience and family ties as well as the use of inhuman and immoral means.

Also, we witness the religious and moral decadence of the Poona Brahmins and the
political corruption symbolized by Nana‘s pleasure-seeking ways. There are 6
significant episodes in the play which demonstrate these facts:-

1. Introduction of Poona Brahmins.

2. The Scene at Bhavanakhani.

3. The festival of giving Dakshina to the Brahmins.

4. Ghashiram in the prison cell.

5. Nana‘s encounter with Ghashiram‘s daughter and his attempts to capture her.

6. Nana-Ghashiram agreement by which Ghashiram is given the Kotwali of Poona and

Nana makes lalita-Gauri his mistress.

Each of these episodes can be divided in further judgments for the purpose of analysis.
The first episode, namely: the introduction of the Poona Brahmins has three
subsections: (a) the seeming holiness of the brahmins praying for the success of the
play. (b) description of the diverse composition of the brahmin community and (c) the
actual decadence of the Brahmins as manifested in their hurry to reach Bhavanakhani
the red light district.

1. The Brahnins, at the beginning of the play appears as pious people who praying to
Ganesh, Lakshmi and Sarswati for the success of the play. Such an invocation is very
much a part of the Indian tradition when gods are invoked for the success of an
important undertaking. Ganesh is specifically invoked at the commencement of a
venture.

Such invocation, besides being ritualistic, points to an atmosphere of order, unity and
piety which is in sharp contrast to what actually follows in the play. This ironic
deception on the part of the playwright appears to be deliberate when it is seen that one
of the important themes of this play is the de-idealization and break up of established
institutions. By depicting the religiosity and unity at the beginning of the play the

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dramatist appears to highlight in an effective manner the hidden social and moral
decadence of the Punekar community.

The intellectual learning of the Brahmins is further emphasized in their specific

introductions. We are told that the Brahmins are learned men in various discriplines
such as Vedanta, medicine, logic, Astrology and languages etc. They have come from
various holy place of south and north India, but are now a part of the Brahmin
community of Poona. The social, intellectual and moral superiority of this community
is however immediately exposed to us in the three encounters between the various
individual Brahmins and the Sutradhar.

The underlying issue in all these encounters is the overwhelming lustfulness, symbolic
of the moral corruption and decadence prevalent in this socially respected community
of Brahmins. The point is emphasized during the three encounters to indicate to us that
the moral decadence in respect of this Brahmin community is a class-trait and not just a
case of flaw in the character of specific individuals.

The technique used by the dramatist in this scene is that of gradual unfolding of reality
hidden behind the deception. The first Brahmin Bhatji Bhuwa (a priest who conducts
marriage cermonies) is unwilling to disclose his destination. When pressed by the
Sutradhar he insists that he is going to the burning ground. He hurriedly escapes when
the Sutradhar confronts him with the real motive of his journey, a journey to
Bavannakhani. The second brahmin ―the peyotl Brakman‖ equates Bavannakhani with
the ―temple‖ and the ―three handsome Brahmans‖ carry forward this idea in their
references to the idea of sermon, and ‗Kirtan‘ in the temple. It is to be noted however,
that the temple in this case is not a place of worship, but the house of the ―courtesan‖
Gulabi, the sermon is a reference to the ‗Lavani‘ being sung at the house of Gulabi,
‗Kirtan‘ refers to the singing and dancing at Gulab‘s house and the idea of ‗Darshan‘
implies Brahmins waiting for a glimpse of Gulabi. Religious terminology is thus
superimposed to conceal the decadent sexuality of the Poona Brahmins.

Sutradhar, who appeared naive about the Brahmins‘ motive in traveling so late at night
is wiser by the end of this episode. He unequivocally states that the night has come and
the Brahmins are going to house of Gulabi the courtesan. Religiosity is once again used
to confuse and cancel sexuality when Bavannakhani ―the red light district‖ is equated
with Mathura and the house of Gulabi is seen as a ―garden of krishna.‖

To compare the escapades of the Brahmins at Gulabi‘s house with Krishna‘s

relationship with the Gopi is a deliberate distortion and misappropriation of a religious
myth. Apart from unmasking the hypocrisy of the Brahmins, such a comparison also
points to how religion is used by brahmins to find justification for their immoral acts.

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References to krishna‘s relationship wit gopis and Mathura are treated in this as mere
convenience by the Brahmins.

2. The scene at Gulabi‘s house has three parts to it: Brahmins at Gulabi‘s house Nana
arrives at Gulabi‘s house and Ghashiram‘s insult by Gulabi after nana departs.

While the Brahmins are enjoying themselves at Gulabi‘s house, the Brahmin-wives
stay at home in ―solitary confinement.‖ This reference on the part of the playwright
introdce the treatment and condition of women in a male-dominated society. The
women in this play are largely treated as a suppressed section of society. While Gulabi
is a symbol of the suppression of women by a whole social class, the Brahman-wives
indicate the suppression of woman at the micro-level. Ironically, as the Brahman-wives
indulge in illicit relationships with Maratha Sardars at home , a mockery of the man-
women relationship is enacted in the ―Brahman/braman-wives‖ dance at Gulabi‘s
house. Interestingly, the character chosen for such a mockery is not one of the Poona-
Brahmins, but an outsider, nonetheless a Brahmin, Ghashiram.

This is Ghashiram‘s first appearance in the play. But here, he is trying to be a part of
the Brahmin of the community by playing upto Gulabi. He is her ―sychophant‖ as other
Brahmins are. There is an entry of Nana Phadnavis however, brings about a twist in the
situation. Nana‘s actions in this scene are in sharp contrast to his description by the
Sutradhar. The Sutradhar while introducing Nana‘s entry calls the Nana of ―wealth ad
power‖ and as ―the Peshwa‘s Chief Minister,‖ Indulging in sensuous dancing and
merry making is quite unexpected from such a figure. These unxpected actions of nana
no doubt shock the reader‘s sensibility specially in the light of the fact that in the
popular imagination nana exists as a symbol of great statesmanship and patriotism. As
we shall observe in a latter section of this study-material this deliberate distortion of
Nana‘s character was not an isolated example in literary history.

The Nana-Ghashiram episode in Gulabi‘s house is to be read symbolically. If the

brahmins symbolize sociocultural and religious decadence, Nana here, symbolizes the
corruptions and evil-doings of the politicians. The symbol of Nana‘s poltical power is
―the silver-handled walking stick‖ which he symbolically throws at Ghashiram toward
the latter part of Act I of this play. Despite this overwhelming symbol of power, he is
unable to hold firm and tumbles down. The slipping down and tripping of Nana is to be
viewed in moral and political terms and not just physical. Interestingly. Nana balances
himself with one foot on Ghashram‘s back which symbolically preempts a relationship
of mutual dependence that is to follow late in the play.

At one level, Ghashiram supports nana by allowing him to keep one foot on his back,
nonetheless, in visual as well as symbolic terms, despite this supportive role,
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Ghashiram remains at the feet of Nana: a servile, subservient being. Thus, one of the
salient themes of the play, the interdependence of Nana and Ghashiram in the poltical
power-game, is effectively brought out in this short episode.

Ghashiram‘s sherwdness, despite his apparent innocence is seen when he refuses the
reward offered by the Nana. The reasons for this refusal are twofold: firstly, Ghashiram
wishes to impress Nana by this refusal and hopes to win‘s favour in times to come.
And secondly, perhaps more significantly, by refucing the reward, Ghashiram wishes
to establish a position of superiority for himself vis-a-vis the Poona Brahmins. This
motive is clearly stated by him as he remarks:

―In my hands has fallen—grace.

All there envy my place.

This is a gift to last me all my days.‖

As Nana departs however, Ghashiram is quick to catch the necklace thrown at him as a
reward by Nana. As Gulabi demands the necklace he invokes Nana‘s authority behind
the reward: ―Thus is mine. Nana Sahib gave it to me.‖ Consequently, he faces the first
of the three physical as well as emotional scars and is thrown out by Gulabi‘s men.

3. The scene of the festival of giving Dakshina further reinforces the religious
corruptions in the Barhmins community in which it is so deeply steeped. This scene is
also the cause of the second physical assault on Ghashiram.

This scene, too, can be studied in three parts:

The Brahmins encounter with the English man, ―the White Sahib,‖ the actual festival
of Dakshina as narrated to us by the Sutradhar, and Ghashiram‘s treatment at the hands
of the soldiers.

The presence of the ―White Sahib‖ in this play is distant yet pronounced. It symbolizes
the British presence in India toward the end of the eighteenth century, and also the fact,
that by time, the British were not able to penetrate into Maratha Empire. The White
Shaib‘s encounter with the Brahmins is more a reflection on the natives than on the
Englishman. The festival of Dakshina is meant to be a solemn occasion but here, we
see that the Brahmins are haggling for small sums of money with the White Sahib to
let him in to see the Festival. It is materialism and not religiosity that is of paramount
importance to the Brahmin-community of this play.

It is the same materialism which is evident in the Sutradher‘s description of the

Dakshina Festival. ―There‘ll be great feast ... The Brahmans have started to fight.
They‘re gulping down the food. They‘re laden with gifts.‖

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The superficiality of the Brahman-class is further reinforced when Ghashiram asserts
his identity as a Kanauj Brahmin. The soldiers ask him to show his ―Shaven head,‖ His
―holy thread,‖ his ―pious look‖ and his ―holy book.‖ It is not the essence of
Brahminism, but the external symbols which are important here.

In the incident that follows, Ghashiram is accused of stealing money even when
someone else is the thief. He again, invokes Nana‘s authority and asks to be taken nana
for identification. In the first instance, he was wrongfully deprived of the necklace
which was given to him, and now he is accused of snatching another Brahmin‘s
money. Consequently ghashiram is beaten and put into the prison cell.

4. Ghashiram‘s encounter with the Sutradhar brings to fore in a direct manner some of
the key issues concerning contemporary situation. It dramatizes an encounter between
the simpleton, Ghashiram and the man of the world, the man of ―experience‖ the
Sutradhar. While Ghashiram wonders what his wife and children will say about his
being a theif when he is not, to the Sutradhar neither truth nor people‘s opinion really
matter. As for the opinion of others, he asserts thay will say ―what they want to say‖
and as for truth there is a rather thin dividing-line for the Sutradhar between truth and
falsehood. In his view, whether one is a theif or not is of no consequence, because

―in this damned spot.

We‘re in the same pot.‖

Thus, objective standards of morality, correctness and integrity have lost their identity,
It is a world when you meet the similar punishment irrespective of what you may have
dne or not done. The Sutradhar emphasizing this point states:

―You say, you didn‘t do it. I say I did do it. Just a difference of a negative. Otherwise,

it is all the same.‖

Another grim picture portrayed by the Sutradhar, resembling contemporary situation, is

the interdependent relationship between the State apparatus and the criminals. Such a
relationship is suggested in the Sutradhar‘s references to the relationship between the
police and the thieves. He states, ― the theif is dependent on the police. If not—they‘ll
soften your bones.‖ He goes on to add:

―The thief earns what he thieves.

It is easy income for the police.

It‘s a partnership.

The thief is a simple theif.

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The police is the official thief.‖

It is such a relationship between the state apparatus, and the individual which is later
enacted at the micro-level in the mutually convenient arrangment between ghashiram
and Nana.

For the while however, Ghashiram‘s humiliation is complete with being thrown into
audience, and all other characters of the play looking over with complacency on the
injured and rejected Ghashiram. In structural terms, this scene foreshadows the last
scene of the play in act II, when Ghashiram is stoned to death with the city of Poona
enjoying the spectacle. The difference between the two scenes however is that
ghashiram being so humiliated by the Poona community in act I, resolves to come back
and take revenge. His downfall thus, in a way has paved the path for his subsequent
rise.

The Ghashiram of the subsequent part of the play is a transformed being, not the
Ghashiram who came to Poona from Kanauj. Aware of this internal change in him,
Ghashiram remarks, ―I m a kanauj Brahman, but I‘ve become a Shudra, a criminal, a
useless animal. There is none to mock me now, to mock me, to make me bend, to cheat
me. Now I am a devil,‖ It is this devil in Ghashiram who trades his dear daughter to
Nana for becoming the Kotwal of Poona. Ghashiram‘s victimization is for the time
being over, we shall now witness the revenge of Ghashiram followed by his final
downfall.

5. If the first four episodes of Act i of this play are devoted to Ghashiram, the
remaining two unfold Nana‘s character as a lecherous and lustful politician who is
willing to sacrifice the welfare of Poona to gratify his physical desires. The fifth
episode of Act I of the play may again be divided into three parts: Nana at the Kirtan,
Nana‘s attempt to capture Gauri and Nana-Ghashiram encounter.

At an earlier point in the play, the ―three handsome Brahmans‖ had told the Sutradhar
the Sutradhar that they were going to the temple to listento the Kirtan when actually
they were on their way to Bavannakhani. The idea of sexuality, under cover of
religiosity is taken up in a more direct manner in the Kirtan scene. Nana has ostensibly
come to attend the Kirtan, a religious ceremony, his real intent however is to ―ogle‖ at
the women, making them Fell ―uncomfortable.‖ Earlier in the play religious
terminology was used to hide sexual motivations, here a religious cermony is used by
Nana to choose a woman for the satisfaction of his physical desires. He chooses a
young girl. Lalita Gauri, who incidentally happens to be the daughter of Ghashiram.

Nana now uses cunning and perverted logic to seduce Gauri. The scene also reveals his
utter disrespect for all religiosity. When the girl, pointing at Ganpati says. ―He will
see,‖ Nana mockingly replies. ―That idol of holiness?‖ He then goes to justify his
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amorous leanings towards her by saying that even Ganpati has two wives. It may be
pointed out here that Nana‘s predilectio for women as depicted in Ghashiram Kotwal
is, to an extent, based on historical facts. It is recirded in history that Nana Phadnavis
had nine wives. The playwright however uses this historical fact to point to the moral
dacadence of those in power.

Nana, being unable to win the favours of the girl by find words, now attempts to apply,
now attempts to apply force. While the girl runs away, Nana encounters Ghashiram.

It may be noticed that this point of the action of the play, Nana is unaware of the fact
the girl he is infatuated by is Ghashiram‘s daughter. Ghashiram on the other hand,
deliberately conceals this fact in order to gain the maximum advantage in the bargain
which is to ensue. The complicity sexuality and politics is well summed up when Nana
comments: ―Our grandeur is gone if she is not found.‖

While Nana‘s lack of self-control (so evident in this episode) is quite unbecoming of
his image and status, it is equally disturbing to see a father offering his own daughter to
gain worldly opportunities. Through the characters of both Nana and Ghashiram the
dramatist endeavours to stress upon the extent to which there has been a fall in moral
values in our social and political systems.

Even the closest of human relationships have become mere objects with which to
buy personal advancement. Nana‘s unmasking as a respectable Chief Minister of the
Pashwa is complete as we see that he is unable to think and do anything other than talk
of Gauri. He tells ghashiram that none will keep his head of she is not brought.
Ghashiram promises to oblige and soon we see nana and Gauri dance on stage.

There are three encounters between nana and Ghashiram in Act I. In the first,
ghashiram was in a position of servility, in the second, he maintains his servility
through he knows that he is an baragaining position, and in the third encounter, we shal
see him having an edge over nana as he asks for the kotwali of Poona. This change in
circumstances has been brought about by only one force: that of sexuality, the
sexuality of Nana and Ghashiram‘s daughter.

6. The dance of Nana and Gauri, Ghashiram‘s outbursts before the audience, and his
final bargaining with nana constitute the concluding part of Act I.

It is to be noticed that even when gauri dances with nana, she nonetheless maintains
her distance, much in the same manner in which Gulabi maintained an erotic distance
from the Brahmins earlier in the play. Clearly, Gauri like Gulabi, is aware of the strong
effect her sexuality has over Nana. The more impatient nana gets, the more it will be to
Ghashiram‘s advantage.

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Ghashiram, as we now notice, is driven with a sense of guilt and yet compelled by the
stronger motive of revenge. He tells the audience to spit at him and stone him for
―putting the child of his heart for sale,‖ and ironically that is exactly what fate has in
store for him, later in the play. Ghashiram‘s flaw of character lies in the fact that he is
unable to contain the fellings of revenge and thus his personal injuries overtake his
love for his daughter.

Therefore, when nana begs Ghashiram to let him have Gauri one more time, ghashiram
knows that Nana‘s weak hour has come. He does not let this occasion slip and asks for
the Kotwali of the city.

The theme of decedent sexcality is reiterated as Nana realizes that he has been put in a
difficult situation: ―You‘ve got me in a narrow pass.‖ To this ghashiram replies, ―Yes,
the narrow pass of my only daughter.‖ Though Ghashiram Prevails over Nana for a
while the arrangment, as we soon observe is more to Nana‘s advantage. By making
Ghashiram the Kotal of Poona. Nana procures Ghashiram‘s daughter for his physical
gratification, while on the poltical front he could be used by Nana as a foil to the
growing power of the Poona Brahmans. Ghashiram could also be used to cover Nana‘s
―misdeeds.‖ While Ghashira stands to merely satisfy his revenge motive, Nana stands
to gain from this arrangment, both personally and politically, and therefore consents to
it. The first Act thus concludes with Ghashiram being proclaimed the Kotwal.

ACT II

In Act I of the play we witnessed the rise of ghashiram with sexuality playing a
significant role in it. Act II unfolds to us the consequences of such a rise while lead to
Ghashiram‘s final downfall. If sexuality was the underlying governing force in Act I, it
is violence that force the central focus of the second Act.

Similar to Act I, Act II of this play aslo six important episodes, namely:

1. Portrayal of Ghashiram‘s rule, Ghashiram in action, as a Kotwal.

2. The Range Panchami festival.

3. The Dakshina festival.

4. The ordeal of the innocent Brahman.

5. Ghashiram and Nana break apart.

6. The coming of the Telangi Brahmans; the final downfall of Ghashiram.

1. Act II opens with twelve men standing in a line ―as in the beginning.‖ As in the first
Act, the interaction between the Sutradhar and the Chorus serves to highlight the

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condition of Poona society. But here, in the second Act, the perspective has changed.
The Sutradhr-chorus interaction brings to the fore, the strictness and the consequent
harshness of Ghashiram‘s rule. Interestingly, Ghashiram‘s order is that ―All old order
will be implemented strictly.‖ Thus, instead of the lawlessness of the Brahmins seen in
the first Act we notice their discomfiture at being made to observe a strict code of
conduct.

Ghashiram‘s stated motives about imposing such a strict code of conduct are allegedly
reformist: ―I‘ ll straighten out this adulterous city in six months,‖ he says. His real
motives are however to treat the Ponna brahmins with ruthlessness similar to the kind
with which was treated earlier. The strated earlier. The strategy impinging of power-
politics is evident as we are told: ―Gauri ordrs, Nana does, Ghashiram‘s reign is here.‖
As Gauri and Nana symbolize the complicity between sexuality and poltical power,
ghashiram stands for the deputation of that power: the executive authority.

Such an exercise of power on the part of ghashiram leads to what is commonly3known

in our times as the ―licence redime,‖ that is, securing pemits before doing anything.
Ironically, it is stated that with a permit in one‘s hands one can even indulge in
immoral acts. ―No whoring a permit,‖ we are told. The point is stressed again when it
is stated ―Do no wrong, without permit.‖ Permits are required even for walking in the
streets at night.

While the absurdity to which such a strict rule leads is made clear to us by the
Sutradhar and the Brahmin, There are two specific incidents that highlight this point:
these are, the interrogation of the Sutradhar, and that of the seventh Brahmin. While
the former indicates the suppression of one‘s liberty, the latter is an example of
invasion in one‘s private life by the state machinery.

The extremity of Ghashiram‘s rule is clear as he tells the Sutradhar that he should have
been aware when his wife was going to deliver and should have accordingly obtained a
permit. The socially sanctioned relationship between another Brahmin and his wife is
invaded by ghashiram and held up to public scruitiny in the middle of the night. The
absurdity of his rule is brought to its logical conclusion when ghashiram sends the
Brahmin and wife to prison despite their legally married. There is very little difference
between strict governance and whimsical dictatorship, the play seems to suggest.

Caught up in such a situation, the Poona community had bo one to turn to. ―Behind
ghashiram is Nana,― they fell so many complaint against Ghashiram will be taken as a
personal affront by Nana. If on the other hand, They quietly submit to ghashiram‘s
whims, they will continue to suffer under his revengeful rule.

2. Blissfully ignorant and uninterested in the condition of his people, Nana is busy in
personal pleasures, as we see him celebrating the Range Panchami festival with gauri
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and his wives. This episode corresponds in essence to the rejoicing and indulgence we
noticed at Gulabi‘s house in Act I of this play. When viwed in the light of the earlier
scene, this episode makes a sharp comment on the attitude of the statesmen who have
regad on for the sufferings of their people. Pleasure-seeking and power go hand-in-
hand in this play.

Ghashiram‘s brief statement in this scene is in sharp contrast to the action on the stage.
Here, we view Nana. Gauri, nana‘s wives and gulabi: all throwing colours at each
other. Ghashiram, on the other hand, wishes to establish the rule of law in arresting
anyone who is throwing ―power‖ at others. He further asserts, ―morality must be
respected.‖ In reality his power rests on the most immoral of the characer of the play,
namely, Nana. Thus, words such as ‗morality,‘ ‗law‘ and ‗order‘ become rather hollow,
devoid of any actual significance, a situation having resemblance with present day
reality.

A woman‘s complaint relating the corpse of her father-in-law not being allowed to be
cremated is yet another example of the arbitrariness of Ghashiram‘s rule: it reveals an
ego which seeks to assert itself even in maters such as death. The tragedy of the
woman is further heightened by the fact that Nana considers his pleasure to be more
importance than the woman‘s complaint, which is his official duty to attend to.
Ironically, the complaint is referred to the same authority against whom complaint is
made. Obviously, ther is no hope of justice as long as Nanas and Ghashirams remain in
power, the play seems to suggest.

3. The theme of injustice, ruthlessness and revenge is further mainfest in the Dakshina
ceremony. This cermony too, in many respects corresponds to the Dakshina festival
witnessed by us in Act I of the play. The primary difference between the two, however,
is that whereas in the earilier scene of Act I, Ghashiram was pushed around and beaten
by the soldiers even he was innocent. Here, in Act II, it is Ghashiram who has the
charge to enforce law and order. The rivalry and decadnece within the Brahmin-class is
evident in this scene as it was in the Dakshina scene. It is not justice or morality, but
purely a revenge motive which makes ghashiram subject the innocent Brahmin to the
―ordeal.‖

4. This ordeal of the innocent brahmin brings to the fore the extent to which bestiality
in human nature can take complete sway over himself. Interestingly, this scene also has
a parallel scene in the first Act: the scene of Ghashiram being in prison with the
Sutradhar. But whereas the earlier prison had focused on the complicity between the
criminals and the police, the present incident under discussion is a strong comment on
the third degree torturous methods used by th epolice to prove the guilt of the innocent.

This scene highlights the tyranny inherent in religious as well as temporal systems.
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Ostensibly, the Brahmin is made to pass the ordeal because ghashiram believes him to
be guilty of stealing. However, the justification given by ghashiram is based on a
religious belief, ―the true are never undergoing physical ordeals. Sita‘s ―Agni-
Pariksha‖ or test by fire, in Ramayana is one famous example.

Interestigly, it is an interrogation by the police to establish the falsehood or otherise of

the Brahmin. However, we notice that the ordeal is described and conducted in the
manner of a religious ritual. We are told that ―Seven rengoli are draw on the floor.‖
Further, the God of fire (agni) is invokved: ―I bow to three, O Agni.‖ The ritual in the
ordeal is carried forward by placing ―six leaves‖ on the hands of the Brahmin and by
rubbing ―oil‖ on them. ―Chira-Partra leaves and bhal leaves are tied to brahmin‘s
head.‖ When the Brahmin takes the oath, ―water from a Mahar House‖ and ―water
from a Mang house‖ is brought. Theseare not the details which in any way correspond
to a police interrogation.

The playwright‘s intention, in using religious terminology to describe a secular

interrogation, appears to be to attack the illogicalities which lie behind the extremities
of brahminism in Punekar society as well as behind ghashiram‘s rule. In other words,
the extermities inherent in the class in power are the focus of the dramatist‘s criticism.

As we view this scene, we are reminded of the third-degree tortures used the police to
create false evidence and to prove those innocent guilty. Overcome by the torture
inflicted on him, the Brahmin confesses to the guilt even when the audience know him
to be innocent. This confession leads to the cutting off his hands and expulsion from
city. It is to be noted that the Brahmin‘s hands would have burnt if he had chosen to
undergo the ordeal instead of admitting the stealing. So whether or not he speaks the
truth he would lose his hands. One is reminded here of the Sutradhar‘s statement to
Ghashiram in prison cell when he says that it makes no difference whether one had
stolen or not and being called a theif is a s good as not beig called a theif.

It is believed in Hinduism that the curse by an inocent Brahmin surely has its effect.
Ironically the curse by the innocnt Brahmin in the ordeal scene is soon realized and at
the end of the play we shall see Ghashiram perish in the manner stated in the curse. For
the moment, however, Ghashiram proud of his achievements as a Kotwal, Beings to
make plans for the marriage of his daughter.

5. Ghashiram-Nana agreement falls apart in this part of the play, but not before
Ghashiram has paid a heavy price for being the Kotwal.

This section of the play has three parts to it: Ghashiram planning for the wedding of his
daughter, the celebration of Nana‘s seventh marriage, and thirdly, the death of Gauri
and Ghashiram‘s further degeneration.

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Ghashiram, as he planes for the daughter‘s wedding, appears to us a fulfilled person.
Interestingly, he also appears to have got over the guilt about his daughter being used
by Nana. Like a true man of the world, he now beliees that it is to find a match for his
daughter when one has position and power and money. He also hopes to use his power
to silence any loose talk that may arise about his daughter‘s sexual relationship with
Nana. Our sympathies, if any, towards Ghashiram, being to weaken at his point.
The scene that follows however, celebrates no Gauri‘s, but Nana‘s seventh marriage.
The encounter between Bhatji Buwa and the Sutradhar the precedes the marriage
clebration is described by playwright in much the same manner in which such an
encounter took place in the first episode of the first Act when Bhatji Buwa was on his
way to Gulabi‘s house. Much in the manner of the earlier episode, bhatji Buwa is
evasive when asked about the purpose of his journey. Here however, it is not the
immorality of the Brahmin, but the implied immoral nature of Nana‘s marriage that is
the issue. One needs to be as secretive while going to the clandestine marriage of Nana
as one is while going Gulabi‘s house the playwright appears to immply. Nana‘s power
over the Brahmin-class is suggested in the Bhatji-Buwa asking the Sutradhar to keep
the news of Nana‘s wedding a secret.

What follows however, is an elborated description of Nana‘s wedding procession in

which all the Brahmins as well as other people such as Sakhubai, Kalubai, and Saibai
are a part. Such a celebration reminds one of the earlier celebration of the
Rangapanchmi cermony. However, this procession has greater social sanction and
validity. Though wedding is a socially sanctioned act, what has gone behind Nana‘s
weeding is not much different from the way he procured Gauri. If the delegation of
power played an important part in acquisition of Gauri, nana gets his seventh bride by
giving three hundred gold coins and ―a great gift of land.‖ Also, like gauri, the bride is
quite young and has just turned fourteen. The role that money and powerplay in both
socially approved and socially dispproved sexuality is quite evident. Here (as was at
the beginning of the play), ghashiram remains a disturbing factor to this decadent
Poona high-class community, and as in the first Act, here too, he is ―left alone on the
stage.‖ But instead of revenging personal insults, he now has to avenge the injury done
to his daughter.

The reversal in ghashiram-Nana relationship is achieved in two successive encounters.

If in the First Act Ghashiram had invaded into the privacy of Nana‘s house as the latter
was attempting to seduce Gauri, he now intrudes into the privacy of Nana and his
newly married wief, and demands to be informed about Gauri. For the first time in the
play, Nana is ―scared‖ of ghashiram. It is Ghashiram‘s anger which makes the reluctant
Nana divulge gauri‘s wherebouts.

12
The second meeting in this Act between ghashiram and Nana takes place after
ghashiram has just seen his daughter‘s body. He is now aware of the real truth about
nana and considers him his ―enemy.‖ But Ghashiram‘s own humanity in this entire
affair is called to question as he is seen digging his daughter‘s grave ―like an animal.‖
In his agonized grief and bestiality, he kills Chandra the mis-wife and wishes to take
vengeance upon Nana for his misdeeds.

Nana, on the other hand, is a shrewd manipulator and uses all his logic and rhetoric to
pacify Ghashiram. As he sees murder in Ghashiram‘s eyes. Nana is frightened, but the
clever politician in him comes to his aid. He beings by demanding observance of
protocol from Ghashiram and asks him to bow before him. As ghashiram bows like ―a
tamed animal,‖ Nana‘s task becomes much easier. Ghashiram‘s obedience has
indicated to Nana that his power still holds sway. He reminds Ghashiram of the favours
done to him by making him the Kotwal of the city. To ghashiram‘s accusations of
killing gauri, Nana resaponds by attributing it to the divine Providence: ―He – The
Omnipotent – makes everything happen . . . We are merely the instruments.‖
Religiosity is once again used to justify Nana‘s sexual exploits as he (Nana) states that
his have only ―held the flute of Load Krishne which made the gopis forget hunger and
thirst.‖

When this does not pacify ghashiram Nana takes the help of the scriptures and uses
citations from the Vedas. Finally Ghashiram‘s anguish is brought under control by
reminding him of the brave responsibility of the Kotwal which been entrusted to him.
The scene concludes with Nana ensuring ghashiram‘s submission in making him bow
once again before leaving.

The public image of te Kotwal, the Nana and of the state apparatus must be preserved.
Therefore, Nana gives Ghashiram free leave to cut off the head of anyone talking
loosely about this affair. The state protection is assured for such acts by Nana. But
even without Nana‘s assurances, Ghashiram‘s grief is strong enough to drive him to
the state of a monster. The violence he indulges in, after this incident, makes him at
once, a horrifyingly tragic and a pathetic figure.

6. This episode begins with the Sutradhar describing that things go on as before.
Ghashiram, however, has turned more violent, making the entire city uneasy. The
kotwal‘s style has ―changed for the worse‖ as he goes about the business of preserving
―reputation‖ and ―authority‖ Once again we sympathze with ghashiram as we are told:
―The way a wounded tiger become addicted to blood, so the Kotwal has come to love
the smell of human blood.‖ The Sutradhar further remarks, ―Satisfaction he‘ll never
find, but nothing else delights his mind.‖

13
Significantly, this section of the play contains the utmost violence, without any of it
actually being dramatized on the stage. Firstly, we are told about the veolent acts of
Ghashiram making everyone insecure in poona. Then we hear ghashiram killing people
off stage. The South indian Brahmins who newly cone to Poona are arrested and
tortured and finally, we violence of the mob against ghashiram.

Against this overwhelming violence of ghashiram is juxtaposed the decadent sexuality

of Nana and the poona Brahmins who find ―the red light district‖ full of ―fun and
games.‖ Significantly, at the beginning of this act (second Act) the prostitutes‘ streets
were seen as being ―desolate,‖ but now, as the personal vendetta of Ghashiram takes
complete control of his actions, the Brahmins once agains become loose. The dramatist
stresses this point by indicating that ―the Bhavannakhani scene is like the earlier obe.‖
In the backdrop of ―moaning, shrieks, hubbub‖ of people, Nana and Gulabi are busy
enjoying their lavani along with other Brahmins.

It was Ghashiram who was introduced to us as an outsider to the poona community in

the first Bavannakhani scene. At the end of the second Bavannakhani scene we see the
South indian Brahmins coming to Poona in search of happuness and fortune. It is to be
noted that both Ghashiram and the South Indian brahmins have similar motives in
coming to Poona. Like Ghashiram these Brahmins too, are the victims of a tragic fate.

The Brahmins, newly come to poona and, unware of Ghashiram‘s ways and whims, are
arrested for stealing fruits from his garden, locked up in the prison cell, and die of
suffocation. The Sutradhar, who has become an important link and actor in this section
of the play information us of the dark deeds done during Ghashiram‘s rule where both
the innocent as well as the guilty are sent to prison, so much so, that there is no place in
the cell for the twenty-two newly arrested Brahmins. These had come to Poona in
search of happiness and fortune, as Ghashiram did. Through their tortutous death, they
become the immediate cause of ghashiram‘s death.

Ghashiram‘s downfall at the end of the play is effected through three stages: the role of
Sardar Phakade, the mob pressure on Nana, and Ghashiram‘s final execution.

The role of Sardar Phakade becomes significant when viwed in the Brahmin-Maratha
rivaly described in Act I of this play. We have seen eariler while brahmins are busy in
merrymaking at Bavannakhani, the marathe-lovers are engaged in illicit relationships
with the brahmin-wives. The Brahmin-Maratha rivalry suggested through this episode
was a historical fact in the Maratha rule during the end of the eighteenth century.
Sardar phakade, we are told, holds a grudge against ghashiram due to this old rivalrys.
In the torture and death of the twenty-two Brahmins, he finds a fit occasion to
manoevrte the Peshwa‘s power against Ghashiram. The Peshwa, prompted by the
Maratha Sardar summons Nana. The equations of the power-game are clear from the
14
fact that through Nana owes his power to the authority deputed in him by the Peshwa,
in reality it is Nana who is shown to be more powerful of the two. The Peshwa,
throughout the play is presented as the symbol of the absolute power which is but a
shadow vis-a-vis the power enjoyed by its actual executors: such as Nana and
ghashiram. It is this superiority of Nana in actual terms which makes him dismiss the
Peshawa‘s summons by merely: ―Tell his Highness we‘ll finish our morning prayers
and come‖.

The power implicit in the mob fury however, is not so easy to brush aside. Therefore,
when the Sutradhar comes and informs Nana that ―angry brahmans have gathered in
front of the place,‖ Nana becomes nervous. He considers the situation serious enough
as to warrant a special prayer to the gods. ―Do a special Puja. Pray to the Gods. Make a
deal with the gods. Promise them anything.‖ Nana‘s shallow respect for religion,
evident earlier in the play, can be once again noticed here. He belives that gods can be
brought by striking a deal as human beings are so often brought by him.

Being a shrewd manipulator, nana uses even this mob fury to his advantage by signing
the order ―to behead Ghashiram Lotwal.‖ When alone on stage, Nana let his cunning
nature be revealed to the audience: ―Use a thron to take out a thron. That‘s great. The
disease has been stopped, any way, he was no use any more.‖ For statesman such as
nana, individuals are mere conveniences to serve short time needs.

The public excution of Ghashiram is not dramatized on stage, but narrated to the
audience by the Suutradhar. The hidden violence, the dramatist appears to suggest is
more dangerous than the manifest one However, the detailed manner in which the
execution is described by the Sutradhar is a device through which the dramatist enlists
out sympathies for ghashiram. His final speech, too serves to achieve this end. ―Hit me.
Beat me. Beat me some more Hit me!‖ It is the death of his daughter which is foremost
on his mind even now: ―I danced on your chests but I wasted the life of my little
daughter. I should be punished for the death of my daughter.‖

Ghashiram is killed for his evil deeds, but the greated evil Nana still lives on and even
finds a justification for ghashiram‘s execution: ―A threat to the city of Poona has been
ended today . . . A disease has been controlled. The demon Ghashya Kotwal, who
plaugued all of us, has met his death. Everything has happehed according to the wishes
of the gods. The mercy of the gods is with us always.‖.

With Ghashiram‘s death, the play comes full circle. The status quo (as it was at the
beginning of the play) is restored as nana Gulabi Nana‘s wives, and Brahmins, all
dance together. Even within the decadence, there is an inverted sense of harmony here,
ghashiram, an outsider, tried to disturb the harmony of this corruptand hypocritical
society. He, in turn, was repeatedly vicitimized and ultimately lead to his final
15
banishment from the world. Itself. After his death, the ruling class is secure in its
unquestioned power and returns to the chants with which the play began.

Thus, through its circular movements, the play exhibits a stagnant world order: an
order where class hierarchies and sexual domination play an important role. At the
center of this circular play, we see two characters: Nana and Ghashiram who are
mainfestations of domination and victimization at various levels.

The play has sic important episodes in the first Act, and an equal number in the second.
In essence and themes, these episodes correspond to each other in many ways. Despite
the episodic natue of the play, it is a well-structured work, which uses various elements
from the conventional Marathi and the western modern theatre.

The movement of this play rests on two central characters: the simpleton Ghashiram
and the wordly-wise Nana phadnavis. A sense of injured leads the former from being a
victim to an avenger and then to his ultimate downfall. The lustful Nana and the
pleasure-loving Brahmins continue to exist as before for, forces symbolized by these
are a constant factor of any decadent, corrupt, and hypocritical society. In Tendulkar‘s
own words, it issues and not individuals which from the central focus of this play:
―Broadly speaking, I had in mind the emergence, the growth and the invitable end
ofthe Ghashiram: also those who create, and help Ghashirams to grow; and the irony of
stoning to death a person pretending that is the end of Ghashirams . . . The decadence
of the class in power (the Brahmins, in incidentally, during the period which I had to
depict) also was incidental, through not accidental.‖

SOME KEY ISSUES IN GHASHIRAM KOTWAL

Historical Play

The Playwright‘s treatment of the class in power namely the Brahmins, in general, and
nana Phadnavis in particular has given rise to a salient controversy, that is whether
Ghashiram kotwal is a historiccal play and whether the tretment of Bramins and nana
Phadnavis in this play can be justified on any account.

To better understand this critical issue, it is important ot make a distinction between

history, fiction and historical writings. Broadly, speaking, history is a statement of
recorded or known facts about a particular period in the time or in human civilization,
to the historian, the facts are of central cocern and leave virtually no scope for his
imagination.

Creative writing on the other hand, including fiction, drama and other froms of
litreature, is a primarily based in the imagination of the writer. Usually, it originates in
16
the artist‘s desire to communicate to his/her readers or audience, the message to be
conveyed and the urgent on the part of the writer to communicate, in turn find
expressions in appropriate narrative or other froms of literature. For instance in the
case of Ghashiram Kotwal the theme was of central importance and the came later.
Expressing this process tendulkar writes, ―Ghashiram started with a theme, then came
the specific ‗story‘ ot incident which was historical and then the search for the form
began.‖

It may sometimes happen that a write may find a historical situation or character as a
fit medium to communicate his theme. But even in such a case, the artist‘s primary
interest lies in his theme and not in a particular historical situation or character. The
historical situation or the character is chosen mainlybecause it provides the artist with
certain literary advantages for his work. The most obvious of such advantages is the
fact that a folk tale, a historical and/or a historical character is usually well-known to
his readers/audience, and therefore, it is easy for him/her to relate to the literary work.
Also, since the historical setting is remote from one‘s contemporary experience, and
yet familiar to one, it provides the writer and the reader with a vantage point from
where it becomes convenient to view and reflect on a contemporary situation or
problem.

Despite such advantages, the facts of a historical setting or character remain of

secondamy importance for a literary writer, because his concern with these facts is
only to the extent these become a fit vehicle for his ideas. Therefore, the historical facts
are processed through the imagination of the writer and given a fictional quality. These
are used in a literary work only in the manner which best suits the writer‘s purposes.
The writer may completely adhere to the facts of history while writing a historical
work, or he may maintain factual accuracy only to a partial degree, or he may even
completely distort facts in order to show a subversion of a historical situation. As a
historical play is distinct from history, is used as a take off point to comment on certain
broader issues. However, if a historical playwright wishes to completely ignore the
known truth about a given historical situation or character, then he may as well create a
new tale. Therefore, one expects that the historical playwright, or any literary writer
using history in his work, would to an extent, maintain the truth and spirit of a given
historical situation or character to some extent, and that is what Tendulkar does in
Ghashiram Kotwal.

The play is set in Maharashtra, more specifically, Poona under the rule of the Peshwa
towards the end of the eighteenth century. The Brahmins and Nana Phadnavis are
shown to be the class in power and Ghashiram Kotwal is the Police officer of the city.
The portrayal of both Ghashiram and Nana (the central characters of this play)
correspond to the facts of history in many respects. For instance, as Veena Dass
17
observes, ―Ghashiram was a North Indian Brahmin, a resident of Aurangabad, who
was appointed as the Police prefect of Poona on 8th February 1777 and continued to
hold officer till his death which took place on 31th August 1791 under violent
circumstances. He had earned Nana‘s confidence by his faithful service during the
critical times that followed the Peshwa Narayan Rao‘s murder. He enjoyed the full
trust of Nana Phadnavis and his administration was notoriously worse than that of his
predecessors. He was the man who had been appointed to watch the movements and
plans of raghunath Rao and his family and he reported to nana whatever suited his
purpose. He had under him a large body of unscrulous spies, everyone possessing
ample means of harassing people in consequence of which the word Ghashiram has
become a permanent synonym for oppression and tyranny.‖

As is clear from the foregoing analysis of the play Ghashiram Kotwal Ghashiram is
presented in much the similar manner in which he is described in the above statement
of Veena Dass. We observe, that both Ghashiram of the play actually existed in history
and was the Kotwal of Poona during Nana Phadnavis‘s rule. Like the Ghashiram of
history, the Ghashiram of the play enjoys the trust and backing of Nana Phadnavis. In
both history and in the play he is used by the Nana to meet his political ends. We
observe that the rule of Ghashiram in the play is cruel and tyrannical like of the
Ghashiram of history. As in history, so in the play the name Ghashiram becomes a
symbol of tyrannical rule. Both the Ghashiram of history and the Ghashiram of the
play died under violent circumstances.

Elsewhere we are told that Ghashiram of history used to procure women for Nana‘s
lustful cravings. This fact too, corresponds to the Ghashiram-Nana arrangment in the
play where Ghashiram trades his own daughter to satisfy Nana‘s physical. Thus, in
essential facts, Tendulkar appears to have adhered on historical facts with regard to the
portrayal of Ghashiram.

The portrayal of Nana Phadnavis however, presents a more complex problem and was
the primary cause of the controversy surrounding the play. In the popular imagination,
Nana Phadnavis is regarded as great statesman and administrator and as a symbol of
Maratha patriotism: ―in his capacity as the deputy of the Peshwas‖ he ―had
successfully deferred the danger of the British rule for thirty years through his
unparalleled statesmanship and political acumen.‖ His portrayal as a pleasure-loving
and self-interested man was bound to be disconcerting for the common audience.

It may be noted however, that Nana‘s lustful cravings for women and his shrewd self-
interested nature are, to an extent, borne out by the recorded historical facts. His lustful
craving for women are manifest in the fact of his having nine wives and two
mistresses. His self-interestedness in political action can be deduced from his
participation in the conspiracy against Raghunath Peshwa.
18
Moreover, as maya pandit points out, both the negative as well as the positive image of
Nana was a construction of historical and literaryscholarship during the colonial and
post-colonial period. In order to impress upon the indians the need for their rule, the
British, after the defeat of the Maratha, tried to project ―an ideology which would
prove the Indians as weak, immoral, degenerate and incapable of just goverment.‖

Many of the Brahmins and non-Brahmin reformists joined the British in this exercise
and wrote works focusing on the weaknesses of the Peshwa rule. Interestingly, of such
writiers was Moroba kanhoba, a pathare prabhu (one of the highest sub-castes among
the Brahmins) who wrote a play titled Ghashiram Kotwal in 1863. Kanhoba‘s
treatment of Ghashiram and Nana is quit similar to the one that we view in Tendulkar‘s
play. In pandit‘s words, ―his dominant aim was demonstrate the lack of governance
and expose the moral depravity of the ruling class, the Brahmins. The central figure
chosen by him to illustrate their depravvity, ignorance and lack of administrative skills
was ghashiram Kotwal, the city magistrate of Poona, appointed by nana Phadnavis.‖
This is exactly the end to which tendular uses these two characters.

The upper-caste Brahmins, in an attempt to counter such an attack tried to

―systematically revive selective images from past history, elaborately built them up as
icons and entrenched them in the social psyche through various cultural practices.
Nana Phadnavis become one such icon.‖ It is this latter image of Nana that remained in
the popular imagination, and it is this than Tendulkar deliberately rejects. However, as
has been argued earlier, he was not first to do so, and that he was basing his portrayal
of both ghashiram and Nana on historical fats to quite an extent.

The dramatist‘s depiction of the Brahmin class in general is also beased on similar
facts and trends. Behind the external pomp and glory of the Peshwa rule lay the
influence of the decadent and corrupt class of Brahmins. It is reflected in the comments
of reformists such as mahatma Phule of the Satya Shodhak Samaj who described the
prevalent practices of the Brahmins by observing, ―they bath, worship, put the chandn
mark on their forehead, with a cap on their head. And seat a whore in their lap.‖ Such
an image of the Pune Brahmins is evoked by the dramatist as we see them chanting
pious ‗mantras‘ and rushing to Gulabi‘s house.

However, as the playwright himself has commented his chief intrest does not rest in the
character of Ghashiram and Nana as individuals, or in the Brahmin class for its own
sake. These are important to him insofar as these represent certain recurrent trends of
the ongoing power-game in politics and society. Let us then, analyse how various
aspects of this power-game are represented through these characters.

Tendulkar‟s concern with Power Politics in ghashiram Kotwal

19
 The playwright‘s central concern with ―the machinations of power in their several
interfaces‖ is evident from his own remarks: ―I was accused of attacking the Brahmins
of those times because the Brahmins were in power. If the Marathas had been in power
or the Chamars or anyone else, my attack would have been aimed at them, it was not
an attack on the Brahmins per se, but on the wielders of power in society.‖ Neela
Bhalla, in her essay ―Ghashiram Kotwal: Text and Sub-text‖ points out how the
dangers of unchecked power were brought home to tendulkar at the time Shiva Sena
was being formed in maharashtra when Tendulkar was Editor of Lok Satta.
Commenting on the incident tendulkar writes, ―The hunting dogs got transformed into
ferocious tigres and the Goverment began to fear them. When I saw this, I felt the
urgent to use this theme in a play and as I traversed backward in history, I noticed that
this was a repetitive pattern — such individuals and parties had been created through
history. Hitler was one such example . . . When I was exploring further and further into
the past, the idea of Ghashiram and folk theater came to my mind.‖

The dramatist‘s concern with the rise and dangers of unchecked power finds
expression at various levels in the play. In its various mainfestations power is seen as
linked to social status, as inherent in wealth and sexuality, as revealed through the
autocrtic of ghashiram Kotwal and lastly, as an integral and motivating force if Nana‘s
Machiavellian politics.

The play opens with an exposition of the power of the most respected class of society:
namely, the Poona Brahmins. Through some Brahmins are introduced to us
individually the emphasis is on their identity as a community. The Brahmins. When
questioned by Sutradhar, appear surprised and confused, as they believe none has the
right to obstruct them by virtue of their being a part of the ruling class. The second
Brahman gives expression to these felling as he remarks, ―Is this the Peshai ot the
Mughal kingdom? Bumps into a Brahman!‖

The decadence of the high moral and secular authoity of the Brahmins is exposed
gradually by the Sutradhar till we are introduced to another motivating factor in the
powr-game, that of sexuality. Before the bavannakhani scene, the religiosity is by the
Brahmins to mask their decadent sexuality. In the scene at Gulabi‘s house, not only are
religiosity and sexuality seen an ―unholy complicity,‖ but we notice that even politics
has also become a victim of the power of sexuality.

Sexuality is used as a significant motivating force in the play and acts as a common
factor to bring both religious and political decadence on a single platform. This
political decadence is manifest in nana‘s endorsement of the merrymaking and
participation in the merrymaking at Gulabi‘s house. Sexuality is again shown as an
important ―strategy‖ of power when hashiram barters his daughter in order to obtain
the Kotwali of Poona. Fool that he is, Ghashiram belives that acquiring the power of
20
the state apparatus would make him invulnerable and his position in society would be
secure. He doesnot relize the fact that the power vested in him is a mere deception the
controls of which would always remain Nana‘s hands.

Nana, in a sense, is the symbol of various mainfestations of power; political,

religious, social and material. In his unparalleled skill to ―play off one party against
another,‖ he exhibits the decadence set in the use of power in the above-mentioned
spheres.

Nana‘s motivating force is self-interestedness. Therefore a venue for ‗kirtan‘ for

him beome a place to find new prey for the satisfaction of sexual desires. And it is for
this satisfaction that he is willing to even compromise the interests of the State in
making Ghashiram the Kotwal of Poona. His shrewd and mainpulative nature come to
the fore when he soliloquises just after signing the order of appointing Ghashiram as
the Kotwal: ―you don‘t know the ays of this Nana. This time, there are two bullets in
this gun. With the first one, we‘ll fell your luscious daughter. But with the second,
we‘ll make the city of Poona dance. ... I have put you on poona‘s back. Why? As a
countercheck to all those conspirators.‖. Thus both personal and political motives are
sought to be fulfilled through the appointment of Ghashiram as Kotwal. Futher, this
action serves as a ―strategy of deputation‖ in the ongoing power-game. Highligting this
aspect nana remarks, ―What‘ll happen is that our misdeeds will be credited to you
account. We do it; out Lotwal pays for it.‖ Thus, ostensibly, ghashiram is invested with
power by Nana. But in reality he is the victim of nana‘s manipulations even knowing
it. An interesting aspect of this power-game is the fact that often the players themselves
are unware of the rules of the game and can therefore be easily taken advantage of.

Little does ghashiram realize his dependency on Nana. Caught up in the brief that
he is actually able to ―straighten out‖ poona. City, he considers himself invincible as he
inflicts atrocities on the Poona Brahmins. His flaw, which leads to his downfall, lies in
the fact of his mistaking the mask of power for Power pursuit.

Nana on the other hand, unable to find ghashiram useful any more, look as for an
opportunity to remove Ghashiram. Prompted by the mob protest against ghashiram‘s
excesses he takes no times in signing the order for Ghashiram‘s execution. In doing so
he quells the impending mob fury against himself. Also by this clever act Nana is able
to defend himself in the eyes of the Peshwa and the Maratha Sardars.

Thus, the victimization of Ghashiram helps nana maintain a fine balance between
the forces that matter in the continuing power-game. However, ghashiram is not just
victiized in the end play; he remains a victims of nana‘s shrewdness even when he is
the Kotwal. There is thus thin dividing line between the wielders of power and the
victims of power.
21
At the end of the play the crowd deceptively believes that the evil ―that plagued‖
Poona is removed in the death of Ghashiram. In reality, this evil lives on and ever
increases in the form of Nana and the socially and morally decadent brahmin
community who go about their business as they did at the beginningof the play. Both
ghashiram and nana act as agents of power of the State in the play. In both cases, self-
interestendness is the driving force. But whereas he former mistakenly belives in the
reality of the power he wields, the latter knows how to maintain power through
constant efforts and maneuvering.

The power of the salient mob displays itself the end of the play, and this is the
power with which even nana finds difficult to deal. When the Sutradhar informs him of
people coming towards his place, Nana becomes ‖confused‖ and tells him to offer
special prayers to the gods. Being a shrewd politician, however, Nana uses his mob
fury to his own advantage, by making it the ostensible cause of Ghashiram‘s removal.

The playwright also demonstrates how decadence in social and cultural morality go
hand-in-hand with the socio-political power. It is a game in which purity of means has
no place and the indiiduals are mere conveniences for the material agents of power.
One segment of society which has been used as a mere convenience in this play is that
of women.

The women in this play are treated as mere objects in the male-dominated power
politics. The voice of protest is denied to them. The women here are either means of
sexual gratification and pleasure and pleasure or useful tools of brgaining in the powe-
games.

Broadly speaking, female character of this play can grouped in two categories: the
socially accepted and the socially marginalized. In the first category can be included
the Brahman-wives and Nans‘s seven wives. Being a part of a socially sanctioned
relationship they have no choice but to submit to men even when men go about
pleasure-sekking with ither women. There is a suggestion of quiet protest on the part of
the Brahman-wives when they have affairs with Maratha Sardars, but a sense of male
superiority is suggested even in this quiet break away from the traditin. Their physical
relationship with maratha Sardars take place in the privacy of their homes whereas the
Brahmins openly go on seeking pleasures in the ―red light district of Bavannakhani.‖

Interestingly, the two women who do have some sway over men are socially rejected.
These are Gulabi and Gauri. Ironically, they are needed and sought after by the so-
called respectable persons who have victimzed them. While Gulabi accepts her
marginalized position, gauri is led to her death. The hypocrisy inherent in the male-
dominated society is unable to face up to its own long realities.

22
Ghashiram Kotwal thus, is a play that qestions contemporary socio-political values
from a historical reference point. It reveals to us the exploitation, the corruption and
hyprocrisy which have become an accepted part of our system. But as Tendulkar has
himself stated, the play presents more problems than solutions: ―As long as you don‘t
know the problem fully, it is easy to find solutions,‖ the playwright asserts.

Songs of Kabir by Rabindranath Tagore

O SERVANT, where dost thou seek Me?

Lo! I am beside thee.

I am neither in temple nor in mosque: I am neither in Kaaba nor in Kailash:

Neither am I in rites and ceremonies, nor in Yoga and renunciation.

If thou art a true seeker, thou shalt at once see Me: thou shalt meet Me in a moment of
time.
23
 Kabîr says, "O Sadhu! God is the breath of all breath."

THE poet Kabîr, a selection from whose songs is here for the first time offered to English
readers, is one of the most interesting personalities in the history of Indian mysticism. Born
in or near Benares, of Mohammedan parents, and probably about the year 1440, be became
in early life a disciple of the celebrated Hindu ascetic Râmânanda. Râmânanda had brought
to Northern India the religious revival which Râmânuja, the great twelfth-century reformer
of Brâhmanism, had initiated in the South. This revival was in part a reaction against the
increasing formalism of the orthodox cult, in part an assertion of the demands of the heart as
against

The intense intellectualism of the Vedânta philosophy, the exaggerated monism which that
philosophy proclaimed. It took in Râmânuja's preaching the form of an ardent personal
devotion to the God Vishnu, as representing the personal aspect of the Divine Nature: that
mystical "religion of love" which everywhere makes its appearance at a certain level of
spiritual culture, and which creeds and philosophies are powerless to kill.

I. 63. avadhû, mâyâ tajî na jây

TELL me, Brother, how can I renounce Maya?

When I gave up the tying of ribbons, still I tied my garment about me:

When I gave up tying my garment, still I covered my body in its folds.

So, when I give up passion, I see that anger remains;

And when I renounce anger, greed is with me still;

And when greed is vanquished, pride and vainglory बढाईखोरपणा remain;

When the mind is detached and casts Maya away, still it clings to the letter.

Kabîr says, "Listen to me, dear Sadhu! the true path is rarely found."

XII

II. 24. hamsâ, kaho purâtan vât

TELL me, O Swan, your ancient tale.

From what land do you come, O Swan? to what shore will you fly?

Where would you take your rest, O Swan, and what do you seek?

24
Even this morning, O Swan, awake, arise, follow me!

There is a land where no doubt nor sorrow have rule: where the terror of Death is no
more. p. 56

There the woods of spring are a-bloom, and the fragrant scent "He is I" is borne on the
wind:

There the bee of the heart is deeply immersed, and desires no other joy.

XXI

II. 33. ghar ghar dîpak barai

LAMPS burn in every house, O blind one! and you cannot see them.

One day your eyes shall suddenly be opened, and you shall see: and the fetters बेड़ी of
death will fall from you.

There is nothing to say or to hear, there is nothing to do: it is he who is living, yet dead,
who shall never die again.

Because he lives in solitude, therefore the Yogi says that his home is far away. p. 71

Your Lord is near: yet you are climbing the palm-tree to seek Him.

The Brâhman priest goes from house to house and initiates people into faith:

Alas! the true fountain of life is beside you., and you have set up a stone to worship.

Kabîr says: "I may never express how sweet my Lord is. Yoga and the telling of beads,
virtue and vice--these are naught to Him."

XXXVIII

I. 50. bhram kâ tâlâ lagâ mahal re

THE lock of error shuts the gate, open it with the key of love: Thus, by opening the
door, thou shalt wake the Beloved. p. 87

Shades of Caste and Class and the Woman in Samskara

Samskara by U R Anantha Murthy is a fine discussion on the caste and class structure
of India. This explore this class and caste structure through various women characters
in the novel. It will decode the various forms of domination and hegemony by
focussing on the women characters of the novel. The various dogmas that are
associated with it are also being narrated. In order to do this various theories of
domination and hegemony are also taken into account. The politics of the Agrahara has
25
been taken into account for this explanation and in doing so the nature and artificiality
of both men and women has been dealt with.

The nature of symbols has always been debated. It has been argued relentlessly
whether they are signifiers or signified, or both. However, this paper is not actually
concerned with their nature but its concern will move in the periphery exploring this
and that of symbols and further it will talk about the nature of symbols on both ways.
This paper will further deconstruct various myths that are associated with the symbols
and it will be discussed in the light of philosophy of domination and internal psycho-
hierarchy. The focus of the paper is to see how caste system in India has nourished
them and what are the reasons that have led this caste system strengthen into enigmatic
class system, if so. The paper will try to narrate this semiotics through women
characters in the novel that will put a line in the definitions of caste and class system in
India.

Samskara by U.R. Anantha Murthy, translated into English from Kannada by A.K.
Ramanujan, is a novel about the people in a Agrahara, mainly of Brahmin caste,
contemplating about the last rites of a dead man of Brahmin caste but who breached his
caste limits during his life time. This is also the subtitle of the novel, Rite for a Dead
Man. This contemplation is the turf of the whole novel which brings in many symbols
of the caste system and class system; these symbols are mainly live in nature consisting
of men and women. The paper will focus on the woman as symbols of various shades
and complexions.

The women in the novel have been stratified finely by the author who displays his
potential in exploring the nature of caste and class system in defining the identity and
multi-fold pressure on them. Some are moulded into the system, some put resistance
and others become the vehicle of it. Of course there is a limit of words both
syntactically and semantically, and a due cognizance of this has been taken in the
novel. That is precisely why every woman character is the symbol not only of past or
present but also of future. She represents her class, caste, nature of deeds which are
defining her present and future. ‗She‘ in the novel presents the whole behind her giving
space to more and more criticism. For this, Arguing more systematically is the need of
the paper which is being totally followed.

Firstly, there is Chandri, a low-caste woman who is lesser than wife of the dead man,
Naranappa. She symbolizes all women of her caste and class. She is the most discussed
character after Naranappa in the novel and also more critical. Since, she is from the
class of prostitutes, thus categorising her as the member of lower caste. Everyone feels
shame on her. She is not only untouchable to Brahmins but even invisible. A look of
her will pollute the Brahmins. Everyone in the Agrahara looks down on her but behind
the veil everyone is mad for her beauty and wants to possess her. Because she belongs
26
to the lower caste, her understanding is permanently under question as if she is an
immature. This is just a wrong belief because in the whole course of the novel she is
the one who presents herself with more mature vision than anyone in the whole
Agrahara, even than the authority, Acharya. But the class and caste structure make her
so much underweight that ―if the Acharya talked to her, he would be polluted; he
would have to bath again before his meal‖ (2). Her low-caste status would pollute the
Brahmins by her presence. This finally makes her so much marginalized that her
existence falls much below the level of human existence. Simultaneously this lowering
is putting Brahmins on higher strata, and this could be argued that her untouchable
categorisation puts a safety valve for the hegemony of Brahmins. After informing all
Brahmins about Naranappa‘s death, she silently waits for their decision for the last
rites which are being lead by Acharya, as he is the one who is well educated as Kashi
and consequently has final authority in every matter because in Agrahara nothing is out
of religion. Though she is of low caste, she is not different from Brahmins‘ wives.
Though they often refer to Chandri as a ―filthy whore‖ (8) and describe her as
―provocative‖ (15), and though they consider her beneath them, she is in many ways
more free than the Brahmin women because she is not tied down to duty of just an
onlooker. The novel wonders, ―How can sin defile a running river?‖ (44) And this is
how Chandri approaches her life. The duties of the Brahmin wives do not apply to her.
Chandri is the perfect woman. If she ―luckily…wasn't wearing too much‖ (25), a man
would be almost expected to have her – ―no one could escape falling for that woman
Chandri‖ (32) – at least according to Naranappa, who encouraged the whole Agrahara
to give in to their desire, like he did with Chandri. A sharp contrast is drawn between
their appearances, objectifying women on both sides, saying that ―these Brahmin
women, before they bear two brats, their eyes sink, cheeks become hollow, breasts sag
and fall – not hers‖ (45). This passage is essentially saying that the Brahmin women
weren't as good as Chandri because she was more beautiful, and ―Naranappa had
guzzled at her body like a ten year old‖ (45), and any other man could do the same.
Chandri in many ways symbolizes domination, free exercise of desire and a kind of
sense which is not only common but more practical according to the nature of world.
She represents a woman who is very much conscious of her identity and for that she
has the capacity to exert it in a way that is not possible for Brahmin wives.

Another woman in the novel is the wife of Putta who represents inter-caste theory in
the novel; though this is not much different from untouchable even they are from Caste
Hindu sect. According to Manu Smriti this inter caste relationship will naturally put the
offenders in untouchable sect. Putta is the product of an inter-caste marriage, naturally
an untouchable. He is part Brahmin, and part lower caste. He mentions occasionally
that he is having problems with his wife, and that the solution to this is just to beat her.
―My wife hasn't learned the lesson, despite the beating‖ (108), he tells Praneshacharya,
27
seeking advice. The only problem with him is that his wife just wants to visit her
parents because she loves them and her husband Putta does not want to bear the
expenses of her journey. This shows that after marriage a woman cannot visit or love
her parents. She has to lose every relationship and make herself only related to
husband. He will decide her feelings and desires even though they are just and
respectable. In Putta‘s wife the domination is only exerted by physical force but she
rebels in the psycho-hierarchy form in her consciousness and this rebellion pushes
Putta to beat her again and again.

There is also a child widow, Lakshmidevamma, who has now become an old and
lonely woman. Although she is a Brahmin he resides on the outskirts of the village.
She represents another direction of the caste -class symbols combine. The passage
describing her ill fate ―married at eight, widowed at ten. Her mother-in-law and father-
in-law had died when she was fifteen. The Agrahara had sneered at her‖ (42) – seems
to imply that the people of the Agrahara believe that she was responsible for the deaths
around her, that she had done something wrong, or that she was cursed somehow. She
lives alone, and became ―all venom‖ (43) when Garuda took everything from her.
Though Praneshacharya talked to Garuda, but nothing was done to return the things
that were taken from Lakshmidevamma. There is clearly a prejudice against her in that
town, and this maybe because she is a widow, or because she is a woman living alone,
or both. She represents the very male form of hierarchy and domination of caste
system where a woman even though belongs to the Brahmin caste cannot have her
share in the village community. She has to live alone and behaves like an untouchable.
The economic angle which is very clear her is that after her father, husband and in laws
and since she does not have any son, her property and belongings will fall into the
hands of others.

The most fatal of all the women characters in the novel is Bhagivathi, the Acharya's
wife, a symbol of Praneshacharya tapas or penance. According to Naranappa ―His wife
was always ill and he didn't know what it was to have pleasure with a woman‖ (24).
Every day he takes care of her with a ―routine that began with the bath at dawn,
twilight prayers, cooking, and medicines for his wife‖ (1) and he cares of her quite
lovingly, "lifting his ailing wife with both hands like a baby" (35) when he has to move
her. Praneshacharya continues this routine even when he is busy with other things in
the Agrahara, but he does not do it purely out of love. Instead he hopes that by caring
for his wife he will attain liberation/Mokasha. ―The Acharya is filled with pleasure and
a sense of worth as sweet as the five-fold nectar of holy days; he is filled with
compassion for his ailing wife. He proudly swells a little at his lot, thinking, ―By
marrying an invalid, I get ripe and ready‖ (2). He does not simply want to take care of
her; he also wants to use his caring for her as a way to practice his penance and tapas.
His first thoughts when he finds she is ill is how he can see if her fever has risen,
28
because she is polluted by her menstrual blood, and he cannot touch her (84), but he
later decides to do so because the Acharya does care for his wife, despite also using her
for his own personal gain to get into heaven. This is again a symbol of woman who,
despite her infertility and physical deformity, is used as a way to reach heaven. This is
learning which Acharya brought from Kashi with him and how he is clear about it
―takes us closer to the Indian idea of the self, and without too much mystification‖
(Naipaul 104). When Lakshmidevamma, Chandri or Putta‘s wife are having different
angles of domination and psycho-hierarchy, this Bhagivathi is used when she just
represents a bodiless woman. This domination is so much ridden that you can find
everyone to exert it and when there is the question of the last rites of a man, you will
find every way of being blocked by it. Going further with women they are representing
various dimensions of it through different identities and features. But it remains where
it is. Thinking of breaching it will bring examples of Goddess of destruction, Kali or in
the way of it you will have examples of Menaka.

Finally, we have in the novel the Brahmin wives, such as Anasuya and Sitadevi,
who represent Brahmin women and women in general. Every women of the novel is
the comprehensive symbol of the women who come into the same category as they are
symbols of. Murthy in the novel has made each woman character as a universal
symbol. These Brahmin women unlike Chandri do not have any desire or will but they
are not on the side of Chandri, Lakshmidevamma or Putta‘s wife or even Bhagivathi
because they consider themselves much luckier in comparison to them. They are as flat
characters as possible but on the other hand Chandri is as round as possible. ―The test
of a round character is whether it is capable of surprising the readers in a convincing
way. A round character must have the incalculability of life within the pages of a
book‖ (Forster 69). In actual terms they are slaves of domination. If we talk of the free
will or desire they are not better than Chandri but even below her they also do not
have any say in any decision nor they are allowed to do anything in this regard. Taking
this as a reservation they even go on to criticise Chandri as mentioned above. In this
regard Chandri is more free in comparison to them, who exercises her free will with
regards food and fasting which eventually makes her more healthy and beautiful. With
total control over this these Brahmins have made themselves a curse like just a step
away from Bhagivathi. Next is their greed for the gold of Chandri, telling that they do
not know Lakshmidevamma. These Brahmin women seem to be a part of this
domination and psycho-hierarchy as anyone is. This whole phenomenon is saying that
individual efforts can only bring curse.

There should be an institutional effort to bring change which could only be brought
up by individuals alone if they come together and share their rationale for this.
Rejecting all this even Acharya put his feet into the shoes of Naranappa. This is also an

29
 example of rebelliousness but to make life less complicated Murthy come with it so
that domination in any way could be cursed.

The solution to the orthodoxy of Brahminism and its resultant casteism thus
basically involves giving up all kinds of rituals and practices traditionally associated
with Brahminism. Praneshacharya, after a disappointment with Brahminism, does what
Naranappa did for years; wanders through forests and lonely roads, sleeps with the
prostitute Chandri, thinks of sleeping with another, visits fairs and cockfights, and eats
in a temple in an unclean condition. Despite all these, a sad realization haunts him: ―he
may have rejected Brahminhood, but Brahminhood never left him‖. As a matter of
fact, Praneshacharya makes this statement about Naranappa. Nevertheless, very soon
he finds himself trapped in this truth. It goes without saying that this realization is not
just of Praneshacharya but also that of the author (Jalki 191).

Samskara by

U.R.Ananthamurthy

The complete review's Review:

Samskara is set in Durvasapura, an agrahara, a closed-off brahmin community that lives

according to tightly -- and ultimately suffocatingly -- restrict rules and norms, the weight of
tradition now crushing a community that is unable to adapt.
The story begins with the death of Naranappa. Long a thorn in the side of the
community, as he had undermined the local ways every which way possible, he nevertheless
had not been excommunicated and was still technically one of their own. In death this
became a problem that previously they managed to sidestep: hard caste rules mean that only
a brahmin can handle the body, and the appropriate rites can only be performed by a relative
or, if need be, another brahmin. However, given who Naranappa was -- "a smear on the good
name of the agrahara" --, no one wants to associate themselves with performing the vital rites
for him.

Matters are further complicated by Naranappa's concubine Chandri throwing her gold
jewelry into the ring, as it were, offering it to anyone willing to perform the rites. The two
thousand rupees worth of gold is a fortune to the villagers, and obviously a great temptation -
- yet no one wants to be seen as having been bought off, so in fact Chandri's offer makes it
even more difficult for anyone to step forward.

There is also considerable urgency to resolving this problem. Not only does a corpse not
fare well in this climate, but caste rules are firm:

According to ancient custom, until the body is properly removed there can be no worship, no
bathing, no prayers, no food, nothing.

30
 Indeed, as soon as village guru Praneshacharya learns of Naranappa's death he madly
rushes to the others in the village to make sure they don't take even a bite of food. So:

Alive, Naranappa was an enemy; dead, a preventer of meals; as a corpse, a problem, a

nuisance.

The community looks to Praneshacharya -- not yet forty, but the most learned and
devoted brahmin, and treated like the local wise old man -- to find a solution, trusting him to
get this important matter right (and reminding him: "The brahminism of your entire sect is in
your hands. Your burden is great."). Praneshacharya consults the religious books, but is
paralyzed by the issues. He carries his own burden, too: his wife of twenty years is an
invalid, and so in some respects he has not been able to live the life expected of him, either --
no sex, no family beyond the ill wife -- and clearly the rigid rules of this community leave
him feeling boxed in.

As he eventually recognizes:

But, my dilemma, my decision, my problem wasn't just mine, it included the entire agrahara.
This is the root of the difficulty, the anxiety, the double-bind of dharma. When the question
of Naranappa's death-rites came up, I didn't try to solve it for myself. I depended on God, on
the old Law Books. Isn't this precisely why we have created the Books ? Because there's this
deep relation between our decisions and the whole community. In every act we involve our
forefathers, our gurus, our gods, our fellow humans. Hence this conflict.

It is Chandri who takes matters into her own hands again in dealing with what becomes
of Naranappa. Praneshacharya's inability to make a decision is, in a way, ultimately freeing:
he has failed, but Chandri's solution is presumably the best outcome for this bad situation.
And Praneshacharya also moves further from the constricting bonds of the community --
finding release with Chandri, and then going on what amounts, in a way, to a pilgrimage,
facing a world in which he encounters much that goes against what the small community
permits, even as he debates what path to choose.

Naranappa had once told Praneshacharya: "Your text and rites don't work any more",
and his death seems emphatic proof of that. And, as others note:

'If you really look -- how many real brahmins are there in this kali age, Manjayya ?'

'I agree, I agree, Acharya-re. The times are rotten, it's true.'

And even Praneshacharya, the embodiment of a 'real brahmin', ultimately fails to fully
live up to the exacting standards of caste.

The rot is evident throughout Samskara, too, beyond just the moral rot, with the
decomposing body and the rats and cockroaches. Death is pervasive, too, and as the plague

31
sweeps through the area Naranappa is not the only one to die, with others, outside the
community and within it, also succumbing.

Praneshacharya, long devoted entirely to the cause and tradition, is forced (and/or
allowed) by circumstance to question it, freed, over the course of the story, from several of
his burdens. Tellingly, however, Ananthamurthy does not offer a resolution here: Samskara
remains open-ended.

Samskara is an effective tale of a community choked by unsustainable tradition.

Ananthamurthy offers fine portraits of a variety of characters as they struggle between
natural urges and societal expectations, and has crafted an impressive story here.

In Review: Samskara: A Rite for a Dead Man by U.R. Ananthamurthy

Samskara begins with one of the central cleansing and purification rituals in the rites of
Hindu worship. Praneshacharya, the most respected Brahmin in his traditional and
conservative agrahara, begins each day by bathing the sickly and desiccated body of his
infirm wife. Praneschacharya has faithfully carried out this ritual for more than twenty
years. He views sexless marriage as a penance and a sacrifice that will deliver salvation in
this life and in the next. But the death of an impious and sinful Brahmin, Naranappa, in
the agrahara brings Praneshacharya to a spiritual crisis of his own that makes him question
his long-practiced rituals and beliefs. The cleansing ritual that he performs on his wife at the
beginning of the story is the last time that he will perform this expiating routine; this is the
beginning of the end for Praneshacharya‘s spiritual cleanliness and purity.

Samskara—the compulsory rite given to Brahmins at their passing—becomes the central

controversy of the novel. Naranappa has renounced the Brahmin rituals of the agrahara and
has carried out the most outrageous and offensive acts to show his disapproval of his fellow
worshippers and neighbors. He‘s taken up excessive drinking, spent time with Muslims and
ate meat with them, and caught fish from the sacred temple pond. The most impious of his
actions, however, was casting off his lawful wife and his choosing to live with a lower class,
outcast woman named Chandri. Despite his hedonistic behavior, the Brahmins never
excommunicated Naranappa from their small, conservative village.

It is Chandri, Narranappa‘s low-born lover, who delivers the news of his death to
the agrahara. This announcement causes an immediate conflict over the performance of the
death rites for this blasphemous man whom they continued to allow to live among them. The
Brahmins‘ failure to act in the face of Naranappa‘s sacrilege can be viewed as the first of
Ananthamurthy‘s many criticisms of the Brahmins way of life; their laziness or fear or lack
of conviction, or a combination of all three, prevent them from expelling Narranappa from
the agrahara. Now that he has died, none of them want to be responsible for performing the
death rites for his body.

32
The Brahmins‘ inertia during Narranappa‘s life is extended to the event of his death.
Ananthamurthy slowly exposes their sins and shows how the erosion of their core values
begins to disintegrate their traditional community; the rotting of Narranappa‘s body as the
Brahmins argue over ritual and duty mimics the rotting soul of their highly exclusive society.
Praneshacharya addresses his village, thrown into great turmoil:

What‘s the way out now? Can we just fold our arms and stare at a dead body laid out in the
agrahara? According to ancient custom, until the body is properly removed, there can be no
worship, no bathing, no prayers, no food, nothing. And, because he was not
excommunicated, no one but a Brahmin can touch his body.

The stubbornness of wanting to follow sacred law causes Naranappa‘s body to rot, which
makes the agrahara unbearable to the living. Between the horrible stench, the abundance of
rats and appearance of vultures, all members of the community must flee. The Brahmins
place ritual above what is considered a basic human right: the decency of a respectful and
timely burial, regardless of the deceased‘s religion.

When the novel was written in the 1960s, many South Indian Brahim communities criticized
the harsh portrayal of their conservatism in the conflicts over Naranappa‘s death ritual. It is
no wonder that these Brahmins would be upset by this depiction of their religious sect as
ridiculous hypocrites with individual hedonistic obsessions. The Brahmins in the novel at
least feign piety and self-control, while Naranappa openly flaunts his rejection of their strict
practices. For example, Dasacharya is a miserly man who gets all of his food and
nourishment from the meals that Brahmins receive at death ceremonies and anniversaries. He
is distraught not because of the controversy over Naranappa‘s, but because the mourning
period requires strict fasting, and he doesn‘t know when he will have his next meal. Another
Brahmin, Durgbahatta, can‘t stop leering at Chandri, who is rarely seen outside of
Naranappa‘s home. The description of Durgbahatta‘s lust exposes the duplicity of these
supposedly religious men:

For the first time his connoisseur eyes had the chance to appraise this precious object which
did not normally stir out of the house, this choice object that Naranappa had brought from
Kundapura. A real ‗sharp‘ type, exactly as described in Vatsyayana‘s manual of love—look
at her, toes longer than the big toe, just as the Love Manual says. Look at those breasts. In
sex she‘s the type who sucks the male dry. Her eyes, which should be fickle, are not misty
with grief and fear, but she looks good that way.

Ananthamurthy does not hold back in his criticism of the Brahmin way of life; the portrayal
of the Brahmins‘ selfish reactions to Naranappa‘s death—especially of Durgbahatta‘s
longing for this grieving woman—makes their outward show of piety even more perverse
and ridiculous.

In order to entice the Brahmins to bury her lover, Chandri takes off her gold jewelry and
adornments and offers these riches to the men of the village. The lure of gold causes many
of the Brahmins to change their minds about performing the death rituals for Naranappa;
several of them decide that the material gain from the burial is worth putting their
33
Brahminhood in jeopardy. Fighting begins over who will have the right to lay Naranappa‘s
body on the funeral pyre. The exposure of the Brahmins‘ duplicity reads like a tragicomedy
about a family that fights over the earthly possessions of the deceased before the funeral has
taken place.

As a last act of desperation, Praneschacharya decides to go to the temple of Maruti the

Monkey god to ask the deity to help him come to a decision about Naranappa‘s burial.
Praneschacharya performs an elaborate ritual and chants in front of the image of the god in
the hopes of getting some answers. After several hours, he is exhausted, hungry, and
frustrated because the Monkey god has given him no signal. He wanders out of the temple
and into the forest, where he encounters Chandri, herself deep in mourning. They fall into
one other‘s arms and the ensuing sexual encounter becomes the catalyst for
Praneschacharya‘s spiritual crisis:

It was midnight when the Acharya woke up. His head was in Chandri‘s lap. His cheek was
pressed into her low naked belly. Chandri‘s fingers caressed his back, his ears, his head. Asif
he had become a stranger to himself, the Acharya opened his eyes and asked himself: Where
am I? How did I get here? What‘s this dark? Which forest is this? Who is this woman?

Praneschacharya, in his forty years of life, has never experienced intercourse with a woman.
Through the exploration of Chandri‘s supple and healthy body, a new world of flesh and
desire opens before him. His old life begins to feel strange and foreign to him. When he finds
his way back to his wife, he attempts to perform the bathing ritual for her, but for the first
time in their marriage, he sees her as a disgusting, shriveled up invalid; he no longer feels
pulled towards this life of penance that he has forced on himself. The most shocking
realization for Praneschacharya is his deeper understanding of Naranappa‘s decision to live
with Chandri despite incurring the disapproval of the entire agrahara. Praneschacharya
repeatedly states throughout the narrative that he never insisted on Narahappa‘s removal
from their community because he always believed that through example and teaching he
could bring him back into his Brahminhood. Is it ironic that, through Narahappa‘s death, it is
Praneschacharya who is inculcated into the rites of the flesh?

The final part of the book describes Praneschacharya‘s journey on foot through forests and
cities in search of an answer for himself. Should he go back to the agrahara and confess all of
his misdeeds to his fellow Brahmins? Or should he seek out Chandri and fully embrace this
newly discovered world of the flesh? During his journey, he meets a young man named Putta
who becomes Praneschacharya‘s guru about the ways of the world outside of his
conservative agrahara. Putta takes him to a carnival with games and acrobats, a gruesome
cockfight, and finally to visit a local prostitute.

Putta embodies all of the worldly experiences that Praneschacharya has worked so hard in
his life to avoid. Praneschacharya has denied himself pleasure and passion for such a long
time that when he is faced with female flesh, carnivals, and cockfights he is overwhelmed to
the point of inertia—he is paralyzed with indecision. The end of the novel still does not bring
a resolution to Praneschacharya‘s journey. His extreme asceticism has blinded him to the
physical enjoyments of the world outside of his rigid rituals and cleansing baths. What
34
begins as a Samskara for a dead man becomes a Samskara, or a rite of passage, into a wholly
different cycle of life for Praneschacharya.

Ananthamurthy was born in 1932, in a village outside Thirthalli, a town in southwest India.
His childhood, today, is scarcely imaginable. In a 1989 essay, Ananthamurthy described his
village as a medieval colony cut off from scientific progress and governed by priests, a world
where myth ―had an unbroken continuity with reality.‖ It was also surrounded by tigers.

But that image of hermeticism is only partly true: Progress had by then reached the
surrounding towns. The net result was a sort of time warp. In the morning, Ananthamurthy
would hear the local priests debate whether the earth orbited the sun. In high school, he was
lectured by a science teacher who ―argued that the Bhagavadgita was after all fiction.‖
Walking home, he stopped to listen to the only man who owned a radio discuss Bertrand
Russell and George Bernard Shaw. ―Within a single day,‖ he wrote, ―I traversed several
centuries. The linear time of the West co-existed in India—the ancient, the primitive, the
medieval, and the modern—often in a single consciousness.‖
Ananthamurthy‘s hybrid existence led to an early self-reckoning. Looking at his society
through enlightened eyes, he saw a local Brahminism that had grown decadent, hypocritical,
and backward-looking—one that was now frankly unfeasible for the modern world.

Books eased his disillusionment, or rather eased him into it. Though remote from urban
centers, the Thirthalli of Ananthamurthy‘s childhood ―was very literary.‖ And wrestling with
questions of faith and rationalism, of roots and progress, he found guidance in socially
engaged novelists like Shivarama Karanth and poets like Kuvempu and D.R. Bendre. These
writers held heretical opinions—Karanth, for example, had written about ―untouchables‖ and
even married outside his caste—but were still respected by conservatives and priests. They
comprised a sort of parallel social order, one that could criticize society from within. For
Ananthamurthy, they offered a model ―of belonging to a community with which I could
quarrel as if it were a quarrel with myself.‖

After completing high school, Ananthamurthy earned a BA and an MA in English literature

at the University of Mysore. Then he moved to the University of Birmingham for further
study. It was there, halfway across the world, that the idea for his first novel occurred to him.
The spark of inspiration was Ingmar Bergman‘s The Seventh Seal. The film‘s medieval
setting took Ananthamurthy back to his own village. He imagined its hero‘s Christian
spiritual crisis as a Brahmin‘s loss of faith, which was really a stand-in for his own. Decades
later, he would describe Samskara: A Rite for a Dead Man, which was reissued by NYRB
Classics this January, as an attempt to reconcile his ―upbringing in a Brahmin family‖ with
his education, ―which set me on a journey away from my roots.‖

Originally published in Kannada in 1965, Samskara provoked controversy and became

a success when its English translation was serialized in The Illustrated Weekly of India a
decade later. Certain Brahmin communities felt that Ananthamurthy‘s depiction of them was
treacherously negative. For V.S. Naipaul, their outrage, though a ―political simplification,‖
proved the novel‘s acuity. Indeed, he thought that Ananthamurthy had captured a national
zeitgeist: Samskara, he wrote, ―takes us closer to the Indian idea of the self.‖ But Naipaul‘s
35
claim is itself a political simplification. India is a country of diverse religions and ways of
being; it makes little sense to speak of a national ―self.‖ (Though if there were such a thing,
Naipaul would have best defined it.) A better explanation for Samskara‘s appeal is perhaps
found in history.

In the preface to Temptations of the West (2006), his collection of reporting from South and
Central Asia, Pankaj Mishra observed that Western ideologies confronted the region with a
single challenge: ―modernize or perish.‖ For people ―with traditions extending back several
millennia,‖ Mishra found, this process of ―remaking life and society in all their aspects
(social, economic, existential) frequently collapsed in violence.‖ Newspapers have
familiarized us with the collective violence he‘s referring to: the massacre of Muslims in
Gujarat, the Taliban, 9/11, Nepali Maoism. What‘s harder to grasp, and perhaps more
important, are the mutinies that rage within common people caught between cultures. Two
such mutinies lie at the heart of Samskara. With equal sympathy and ruthlessness,
Ananthamurthy gives them shape.

The novelist U.R. Ananthamurthy saw Brahmin culture as backward-looking and unfeasible
for the modern world.

Samskara opens with a ritual of cleaning. ―He bathed Bhagirathi‘s body, a dried-up wasted
pea-pod, and wrapped a fresh sari around it; then he offered food and flowers to the gods as
he did every day, put flowers in her hair, and gave her holy water.‖

―He‖ is Praneshacharya, the head priest of an agrahara, a Brahmin village. Bhagirathi is his
wife. That first sentence, so devastating in its rejection of eros, would suggest that the couple
is very aged; in fact, they haven‘t reached 40. Bhagirathi was born physically disabled; their
20-year marriage has been more of a doctor-patient relationship than a pact between lovers.

We must admit, however, that a certain form of love, or at least affection, is suggested by the
diligence with which Praneshacharya beautifies his wife ―every day.‖ And once we learn of
his renown—that as a ―Crest-Jewel of Vedic Learning,‖ he was considered the village‘s most
eligible bachelor—we might even come to respect, within the context of patriarchy, his
devoted concern for his wife.

But there‘s a problem with Praneshacharya‘s concern: It‘s fundamentally self-serving. He

didn‘t marry Bhagirathi in spite of her condition; he married her precisely because of it. It
was a calculated act of penance, a sort of glorious abstinence. Rejecting the beautiful wife
promised to him by his Brahmin birth is a means for Praneshacharya of hastening his own
salvation. ―By marrying an invalid,‖ he thinks to himself, ―I get ripe and ready.‖

Praneshacharya‘s greedy abstinence reflects a larger societal tendency. By incentivizing

belief, the members of his agrahara have wrung it of all spiritual meaning. They follow the
dictates of religion with hairsplitting accuracy. (And these dictates govern everything from
the private practices of eating and sex to the public laws of commerce and inheritance.) But
instead of creating a just society, this only breeds twisted forms of pettiness and greed. Every
man desires one thing: to be recognized as the purest Brahmin. And every woman wants to
be that purest Brahmin‘s wife. (Notably, though, Bhagirathi‘s perspective is entirely absent
36
from the book.) A society this shallow and self-indulgent offers little resistance to modernity:
It has no scientific development, no serious economic opportunities, is brutally unequal (the
caste system is entrenched) and organized around fear. Once the outside world breaches its
seclusion, you suspect it will collapse.

The outside world arrives in the form of Naranappa, a rogue Brahmin who escapes the
agrahara and encounters the Indian National Congress. (No date is specified, but contextual
hints place Samskara in the 1930s or ‘40s.) Naranappa returns to the village as an obsessive
heathen. We learn through a flashback that he has systematically violated every Brahmin
law: He abandoned his wife and took up with a Dalit prostitute; he invited Muslims to the
agrahara; he fished in holy waters, gave alcohol to a relative‘s son, ate meat… the list goes
on.

As in Bergman‘s early works, Samskara‘s characters have an allegorical bent. In fact, they
fall into pairs. Naranappa, with his heretic hedonism, is the anti-Brahmin; the learned and
kind Praneshacharya, despite his marital hypocrisy, represents the best of Brahminism. Who
will prevail when the two clash? We can‘t know, because Ananthamurthy kills Naranappa on
the second page—a startling death that accomplishes many things.

On the simplest level, it sets Samskara‘s plot in its cyclical motion. No one can eat until
Naranappa is buried, but his relatives won‘t bury him for fear of inheriting his sins.
Praneshacharya retreats to his books to find an answer. Until he does, or until someone else
can be found to fulfill the rites, the village is suspended in mounting fear and hunger.

The resultant stasis allows Ananthamurthy to present a rich portrait of a society on the verge
of collapse. Naranappa‘s corpse in fact becomes a dark mirror to the agrahara. In its cruelty,
superstition, and ultimate helplessness, the village‘s collective response nicely sums up its
social state:

Not a human soul there felt a pang at Naranappa‘s death, not even the women and children.
Still in everyone‘s heart an obscure fear, an unclean anxiety. Alive, Naranappa was an
enemy; dead, a preventer of meals; as a corpse, a problem, a nuisance.

This section of Samskara is a priceless historical record. As Naranappa‘s corpse rots, the
narrative circles around the local community, from one consciousness to the next, presenting
worldviews now entirely forgotten and, to younger generations, never known.
Ananthamurthy‘s technique is essentially cinematic: In a series of brief sections, he swivels
among the villagers, entering their minds in the close third person, creating a mosaic or a
social panorama of individual portraits. It‘s a bravura performance, reminiscent of Gabriel
García Márquez‘s Chronicle of a Death Foretold, though Ananthamurthy‘s task was perhaps
harder given his novel‘s almost premodern setting.

Indeed, modern readers will find it especially thrilling to encounter greedy women and
craven men who inhabit a cyclical time untouched by the march of progress. Perhaps
relatedly, one is struck by their tremendous lack of ambition. These villagers have almost no
curiosity about the outside world, which for them is a source of impurity, not enlightenment.
If anything, their greatest desire is to return to an earlier equilibrium.
37
As Ananthamurthy sketches his portraits, strange events pile up. Dead rats appear in houses.
Vultures descend on roofs. People fall sick and suddenly die. And here Naranappa‘s corpse
reveals its third function: Before his death, he traveled to a nearby town, where he caught the
bubonic plague. Unchecked, the disease now spreads across the agrahara. In a cruel irony,
the villagers interpret the resultant deaths as a spiritual plague.

Their misunderstanding reveals religion‘s practical irrelevance. And a similar lesson is being
learned by Praneshacharya. After a two-day starved vigil, he secludes himself in a temple,
swearing to leave only when he receives a sign from God. He meditates all day, but no sign
is forthcoming. He emerges exhausted, despairing, full of doubt. Returning home to provide
his wife medicine, he meets Chadri, Naranappa‘s ―untouchable‖ Dalit lover. She is attracted
to his goodness. They stumble into having sex.

Like Naranappa‘s death, this bizarre sex scene is crucial. It forces Praneshacharya out of his
agrahara: Soon after the coupling, he learns of his wife‘s death from the plague; dazed, he
wanders into the forest with no plan. It also represents Praneshacharya‘s ejection from—or is
it a rejection of?—Brahminism: He feels transformed by sex, and the transformation
overturns the Brahmin principles he‘s adhered to all his life. Taken together, these changes
symbolize a belated victory for Naranappa: Praneshacharya has succumbed to the
temptations and turned heathen.

Subsequent events are rather surprising. You would expect the impulsive sex scene to fill
Praneshacharya with painful guilt or fervid curiosity. Instead, as Naipaul has observed, he‘s
overcome by ―a sudden neurotic uncertainty about his nature.‖ The uncertainty arises from a
question of free will: The coupling was impulsive, perhaps the only impulsive act of
Praneshacharya‘s life. But since it was purely impulsive, is he really accountable for it? If so,
how is he to account for all the instincts he has suppressed all these years?

38
 'The Bus' by Arun Kolatkar: Summary and Analysis
Summary:

'The Bus' by Arun Kolatkar is the opening poem of the thirty-one section of his
collection of poems 'Jejuri.' It describes the bumpy journey from the starting point to
its destination which is the temple of Khandoba. It is a State Transfort bus the windows
of which are screened by the tarpaulin with which the bus has been covred to keep the
possible rainfall , and also to keep off the cold wind which keeps blowing throughout
the journey. It is a night journey which the bus has undertaken ; and after several
hours of the arduous journey the passengers start waiting eagerly for daybreak.

The bus is full of the pilgrims who are bound for the temple of Khandoba where they
want to offer worship; and the passengers might have included a few tourists who
merely want to satisfy their curiosity about what kind of a temple it is and in what
surroundings the temple stands. One of the passengers sits opposite an old man
wearing glasses; and this passenger , while looking at the old man, sees his reflection in
both the glasses of the spectacles which the old man is wearing. This passenger can feel
the onward movement of the bus. The old man wears on his forehead a mark indicating
his Hindu faith and even the high caste to which he belongs. Among the passengers is
the protagonist or the persona who speaks in the poem, describing his experiences and
his reactions to what he sees at Jejuri.

In due course, the sun appears on the horizon , and quietly moves upwards in the sky.
The sun's rays, filtering through the gaps in the tarpaulin , fall upon the old man's
glasses. Then a ray of the sun falls upon the bus-driver's night cheek. The bus seems to
have changed its direction. It has been un uncomfortable journey; but, when the
destination is reached , the passengers get down from the bus which had held them
tightly in its grip.

Analysis:

The Bus is a purely descriptive poem which does not give us much of information
about the purpose of the journey, apart from telling us that it is going to Jejuri and that
it is a night journey , with a cold wind blowing all the way. There are a few humorous
touches in this poem as, for instance, the protagonist finding two reflections of himself
in the two glasses of the spectacles which the old man sitting opposite him is wearing.
We also learn that it is a bumpy ride at the end of which the passengers get off the bus
without anybody stepping inside the old man's head; and this is another touch of
humour.
39
Arun Kolatkar (b. 1938) was educated in Mumbai where he works as a graphic artist.
A winner of Commonwealth Poetry Prize, Kolatkar has contributed to 'Kavi', 'Opinion
Literary Review', 'New Writing in India' and 'The Shell and the Rain'. He is a bilingual
poet and has translated the Marathi poets, especially Tukaram, into English. His long
poem, 'The Boatride' was published in the magazine, 'Damn You'. Jejuri appeared in
1976. Jejuri, Kolatkar's most controversial book, is commonly viewed as a quest poem:
a presentation of an encounter between modern consciousness and ancient religious
tradition.

3.1 Introduction

Arun Kolatkar, who is a bilingual poet. In Jejuri he writes about his various
observations about the things he comes across in his visit to Jejuri.

3.2 Background of Jejuri poems

Jejuri is a village situated about 30 miles (48 km) from the city of Pune in the state of
Maharashtra. At Jejuri there is a holy shrine of Khandoba to which hundreds of
thousands of pilgrims from all sections of the Hindu community particularly from
Maharashtra and North Maharashtra visit all through the year. Khandoba gradually
evolved from his status of a folk God and has been accepted as a family God by
Brahmins as well as non - Brahmins in Maharashtra. Khandoba is accepted as a
protector God. It is believed that he can bestow wealth, health and children on his
devotees. Like all protector Gods, Khandoba must be propitiated by making suitable
offerings to him in his shrine at Jejuri.

3.3 Theme of Jejuri poems

Jejuri poems oscillate between faith and skepticism. In his plat and colloquial tone,
Kolatkar ironically treats the parallel scenario reinforcing it with concrete imagery.
Kolatkar's use of concrete imagery, subtle irony and symbolism reinforces the central
theme of alienation and perception.

40
3.4 Summary of the selected poem

Paraphrase of 'The Door'

The poem is in three line stanzas and is a description of sundry objects that catch
the narrator's attention. The object is seen on two levels: mundane and the sacred,
religious. The narrator sees a plain, old dangling door, hanging on the hinge but
describes it in terms of 'a prophet half brought down / from the cross' and 'a dangling
martyr'. Thus the dilapidated condition of the door, perhaps suggests from the
narrator's point of view, the decay of religion and religious practices. It is significant
that the door should make the narrator think of Christ and crucifixion.

The use of word 'medieval' situates Jejuri historically and suggests that what was
sturdy and functional in the medieval age is now just a Arun Kolatkar - Jejuri / 39
broken down, decaying pathetic object. The wood grain stands out because of the
constant exposure to the sun, cold and dust. The narrator suggests that the door
remembers the days when the tradition was alive. The poem evokes irreversible decay,
degeneracy and squalidness of the place. "The pair of shorts / left to dry upon its
shoulders" is certainly no reason why the heavy door should not walk out. The image,
thus, arouses the feeling that the dysfunctional objects continue their meaningless
existence of irrelevance because they just cannot be anything else.

3.4.2 Paraphrase of 'The Butterfly'

'The Butterfly' is a lovely lyric consisting of four stanzas of three lines each and a single
line. The butterfly symbolizes life, sheer existence and joy of existence, something that
can be accepted for what it is without a legend or myth to explain it. The two halves of
the wings open and close quickly in a second.Arun Kolatkar - Jejuri / 40

Also the body of the butterfly is whole and not broken like the hinge of the door
in the poem 'The Door'. When a butterfly is pinned down, it is dead, a thing of the past
like the many things in Jejuri. The word 'present' is used in two senses: the present
time and a gift from life. The poet feels the lively butterfly takes under its wings the
wretchedness of the sterile and dead hills. The butterfly is of the same color as of
turmeric powder and celebrates life. Its quick movement is suggested by O (opens). The
butterfly is gone even before the narrator can say - "opens". 'Just a pinch of yellow' is
an expression that occurs repeatedly in the Khandoba legends. 'Chimutbhar bhandar'
works like a magic. The narrator wants to suggest that the 'tiny butterfly' is itself 'a
magic'.

41
3.4.3 Paraphrase of 'Between Jejuri and the Railway Station'

The title of this poem is significant. The narrator is, as it were, poised between two
worlds: the world of Jejuri and the world represented by the railway station; that
world from which the narrator came and to which he must return after his brief visit to
bewildering Jejuri.

The text of this poem is so arranged as to make its impact on the reader by its physical
appearance. If we simply look at the graphic shape of the poem, we feel that we are
looking at one of those figures one finds in a Rorschach test or at the figure of an hour
glass with its two compartments brought together by 'The end' (line 15). In the second
part of the poem this order is broken down. That the narrator at that moment belongs
neither to Jejuri nor to the railway station is suggested by the 'up and down'
movements of the cocks and hens. Like 'The Butterfly', this poem is again a celebration
of life in contradiction with the arid, stagnant hoary tradition ridden Jejuri and equally
mechanical and in a sense 'in - human' paraphernalia at the railway station. The
narrator is aware that as he stands, 'still like a needle in a trance / like a needle that
struck a perfect balance', he must look silly to those who belong comfortably and
securely to either of the worlds. Words like 'little' or 'huddled' show the smallness or
diminutive status of the temple down. Once again we note that in Jejuri the sacred and
the profane exist side by side. The narrator sardonically notes that the house next to the
priest's houses belongs to 'the temple dancer', a euphemism for a prostitute. The
narrator, perhaps, wants to suggest also that the priests (supposedly connected with
sacred duties) and 'the temple dancers' function in tendem to 'soak' the pilgrims. Note
the reticence of the priest's son. Obviously the presence of the temple dancer's house is
an irritant to him for it could also be a standing temptation for him - note that he
'hopes' he will never step inside her house.

The narrator is obviously struck by the coexistence of the ancient as well as

Indian names - Gorakshanath and Mhalasakant - and the modern or English words -
'hair cutting saloon, 'café' etc. The reader will note that this feature in a colonized
country has always attracted the writers in these countries who write in English for an
English reading audience and who because of their western education and
urbanization, find the coexistence of something deeply native with an English
complement rather comic and sometimes ludicrous. We find a similar juxtaposition
when the narrator carries a coconut in his hand, given to him after he performed the
pooja - and the priest's visiting card in his pocket. The poem presents the two scales or
pans i. e. Jejuri and the railway station. The repetition of the words 'like a needle' Arun
Kolatkar - Jejuri / 42 suggests the narrator's desperate attempt to find an exact verbal
equivalence for the nearly incommunicable experience he is going through. The phrase
42
'harvest dance' evokes associations with fertility rites and hence celebrates the
continuance of life. 'Craziest' is probably used in two senses: maddening, not making
any sense and yet unlike the maddening crazy experience of Jejuri, this celebration of
life makes a strange sense or it could be strange and unusual for an urbanite spectator
who can never hope to see it in a city. The stillness of the narrator is the sanity of one
who belongs neither to Jejuri nor to the railway station but to Chaitanya (life).

3.5 Conclusion

This chapter deals with Jejuri, which is a bunch of short poems and tells about the
narrator's journey to a place of folk worship, covered in a single revolution of the sun.
The place, the time and the narrator provide unity of a sort to the collection. The
juxtaposition and the contrastive placing of the human, the natural and the animal, the
graphic portraits of fellow - travelers and their experiences, the priest and his son, the
beggar woman, Vaghya and Murali and their songs introduced for local color and the
site of ruin that is Jejuri itself – all these contribute to a skillful patterning of details
that claims to have a poetic logic of its own.

The next chapter deals with Indian English Poetess, Kamala Das with reference to the
selected poems from her poetry collection The Old Playhouse and other poems.

3.6 Summary

The recurring theme in Jejuri is Time. The entire sequence is framed between sun - rise
and sun - set, the sun appearing in the poem from time to time as a significant central
symbol. The other important theme is the very existence of life and the variety of forms
it has. Jejuri celebrates life in all its varieties and the reverent openness to life in its
livingness is one of the most endearing qualities of the poem. The poet presents through
a special kind of consciousness of microcosm reflecting in some significant way the
macrocosm of the universe. He also puts forth man's quest for his identity in this vast
universe. Infact his journey to Jejuri is his journey towards eternity. The poems
prescribed although represents three different themes, the common link between them
is that they are the poet's account of experience at Jejuri.

Introduction
Indian English Poetry is remarkable in the sense that it gives us the perspectives
of various cultural aspects of our country. It has stood out both during pre-
independence period as well as post-independence period. Arun Kolatkar, a Marathi
poet from Kolhapur has been a leading literary voice of his generation. His poetry has
now obtained the canonical status in the Indian English poetry.

43
 The selected poems of Arun Kolatkar are chosen from his first poetry collection,
entitled Jejuri. It is a collection of thirty one poems and is the first poetry book to win
the Commonwealth Prize. Jejuri is a place of pilgrimage near Pune, Maharashtra.
Jejuri is known for the temple of Lord Khandoba located on a hill. Kandhoba, the local
God of the temple especially worshipped by a community called the Dhangar
community. The Dhangars are associated with cattle herding and fall under the
economically backward classes. Khandoba is a manifestation of Lord Shiva who is
worshipped in Maharashtra. As the Maratha community is associated with the fighters
in the Kshtriya clan, Lord Khandoba is the God of sword fighting. He is a warrior,
riding a horse with a sword as his weapon. The selected poems describe to us a journey
to the temple of Khandoba.

However, with a closer reading and analysis of the poems we can see that
Kolatkar is satirical about several elements of the pilgrimage and religion. He throws
light on those areas of our society where religion has become a business. His poems also
focus on people for whom religion is the way to earn easy and fast money. Because of
whom religion is getting isolated to rich and poor is losing its chance to have at least a
single sight of the God. Kolatkar time and again brings the idea that “the physical idol
can be created, but God cannot be created.” Religion is more of a business than a
spiritual experience. The temple heads decide who will be closer to God depending on
the offerings made. This pilgrimage to Jejuri is a prominent example of
commercialization of religion.

The concern of the poet is this issues of commercialization of religion in our

society. A pilgrimage to Jejuri is a local Maharashtrian event which is very
representative in nature. It may occur in any part of the country. As a reader we can
come to a conclusion that Kolatkar does not believe in idol worship. He is against any
kind of superstition and hence we can see this collection of poetry as a satire on religion
and the hypocrisy in the temple. The voidness in the rituals and pretentious beliefs are
targeted through these poems. Although, the poet seems to believe in the concept of
God and the sanctity associated with it. He makes a note of his observations throughout
this journey. It is an indirect attack on the society and its actions. He attacks the
commercialization of religion and the superstitions.

The Bus

The theme of this poem is common among the Indian Poetry, pilgrimage. The bus
shows us the cross section of the society. All people belonging to different strata of the
society are travelling together for religious purposes. Among them is the protagonist
Manohar, who apparently is a man with modern thought and skepticism. The bus is a
44
regular state transport and not a high tech modernized one. The simplicity is
highlighted where the windows are covered with tarpaulin. The covered windows
obstruct the outer view and symbolizes to a blinder; it stops the people from
questioning about the faults in religious practices. On the other hand, Manohar is
trying to look outside the window to look for the signs of daybreak. But the tarpaulin
has covered the window completely not letting even sun rays enter inside. This shows
the receptivity of the narrow minded people in the bus. Darkness is very prevalent in
the scene. The positivity only comes in when we see the head lights of the bus. They help
to replace the darkness with light, which is nothing but spirituality. Spirituality helps
us to move from darkness to light like this journey which is reaching a religious spot.
Manohar has different intentions to visit Jejuri. He is going with an open mind to
observe the traditions beyond the ritualistic approach. Towards the end, when the
bumpy ride has ended, the people are still coming there with their biases towards each
other. “You don‟t step inside the old man‟s head” portrays the aspect of alienation in a
religious place.

The Priest

This poem clearly stands out for its direct attack on the religious heads of the temple
community. It takes a satirical tone displaying the ugly image of how religion has
become a business. Kolatkar throws light on the dishonorable practices of the priest.
The offerings get more importance, than the faith. And while the devotees are making
offerings, the priest awaits as to see how much he can get out of it.

The priest is dependent on this faith of the people for his living. Hence, he is
waiting eagerly for the bus. He is standing outside the temple under the hot sun looking
for the bus. He is thinking about how much he can earn this day and whether or not
he‟ll get a puran poli in his plate. Puran poli is a sweet dish cooked during auspicious
times in Maharashtrian homes. It is an expensive dish and hence is seldom cooked.

The priest also indulges in unhealthy bad habits like chewing a betel leaf. He is
turning it over and over as though he is chanting a mantra. Priests are supposed to be
holy people who have to chant mantras, but here the scene is otherwise. He is perhaps
praying for the bus to arrive soon.

His foul materialism is mirrored time and gain in the poem. The source of his
greed is dishonesty. But now he has been doing it for so long that he doesn‟t seem to feel
guilty at all. A priest vows that he will be away from all the worldly pleasures. But this
priest is engrossed in counting the offerings. There is no simplicity in his thinking and
living, the cat grin on his face symbolizes that.

45
 Heart of Ruin

The poem Heart of Ruin depicts the state of the Maruti temple‟s architecture. It is in
utmost despair as the temple community has completely neglected it. The original
structure of the temple is no longer intact and the roof has come down too. The roof is
touching the idol‟s head and still no one cares about repairing it. The poet points out to
a very beautiful natural element of survival. The animals have taken shelter in the
temple ruins. Here we get to know that not only the ceiling, but the flooring too is
completely damaged. The young puppies are playing over it. We realize that nothing is
left in the temple. Neither can one see the idol of God properly, nor can he or she enter
the temple. But it has become a spot of the animls. Although the poet takes us through a
rough description of the image of the temple, the ending is optimistic. Now he says, the
temple isn‟t a place of worship, but is a „house of god‟. Every creature is welcome in the
house of god as it will provide them with shelter. Very interestingly, Kolatkar has used
the word „god‟ in lower case throughout. The implication is that Kolatkar doesn‟t
believe in idol worship and false beliefs.

An old woman

This poem opens us to another perspective of this pilgrimage i.e. of the old woman. We
see multiple meanings as the perspectives change. Poverty is the cancer our country is
suffering it. No places have escaped poverty. The old woman is poor, vulnerable,
hungry and alone. She has no one but herself and in order to survive, she has to indulge
into begging. This is the real sight of every religious spot, especially temples. She
attempts to be a local guide to the pilgrims in return of a fifty paisa coin. But the
pilgrims have already gone around and seen the shrine, still she clings on to their shirt
sleeve begging for money.

What is the livelihood of such poor and old homeless people. The poet compares
her to the wretched hills and asks what can she do alone in this condition. The person
onto whom she clinged realizes his fault. Kolatkar brings out the purposelessness of the
shrine through the figure of the old woman. If the protagonist makes offerings to this
old woman in place of the priest, it would have been so much better. The old woman
LEAVES near the temple, but the temple community doesn‟t take care of her looking
at her condition. Everyone is greedy and that results in suffering. Her eyes reflect the
sky of inner-consciousness. They give a glimpse of the vast potential of the life. The
realization is such a shattering experience that everything else seems futile.

46
 The Blue Horse

„The Blue Horse‟ presents the spectacle of a group of singers singing in a keyless
passion in praise of Khandoba‟s horse at the house of priest. The group of singers is led
by a “The toothless singer” who: Opens her mouth. Shorts the circuits in her haywire
throat.” But the poet‟s reaction to the whole thing is only predictable. It strikes him as
a “bit of sacred cabaret act.” This poem describes a religious ceremony which the priest
has arranged at his house for the convenience of protagonist. Of course the priest must
have been paid enough money as his fee for thus obliging the protagonist. You turn to
the priest who has been good enough to arrange that bit of sacred cabaret act at his
own house. Kolatkar‟s utter contempt of the priest is obvious. The singers sing of a
Blue Horse on which Khandoba had ridden away after killing the demons and after
having murdered his wife. But the picture on the wall of the priest‟s house shows a
white horse. The protagonist asks priest for the explanation. “The singers sang of a
blue horse. How is it then, that the picture on your wall shows a white one?‟ The priest
artificially imparts a bluish hue to the picture on the wall in order to make it look blue.
Once again we see the negligence about the accuracy or the fact. The true history isnot
known by the priest; hence the religion is in darkness. The interruption or queries
doesn‟t affect the priest and the singers. They carry on with their drums to be beaten
with great force.

The Priest‟s Son

In the poem „The Priest‟s Son‟, a young boy is often deputed by his father to take
the tourists to different parts of the temple and explain them the significance of the
various statues and of some of the hills. In this poem, the priest‟s son takes the
protagonist to the different places connected with the various legends about Khandoba
and his deeds. There are five hills, situated close to one another, which are described by
the priest‟s son to the protagonist as being the stone figures of the five demons whom
Khandoba had killed. these five hills are the five demons that Khandoba killed But,
when asked whether the boy really believes that story, the boy does not reply and
merely looks uncomfortable. He shrugs and, looking away, draws the protagonist‟s
attention to a butterfly in the grass, thus trying to make the protagonist forget the
question which he has asked: he doesn‟t reply but merely looks uncomfortable shrugs
and looks away look there‟s a butterfly there In this poem in fact the priest‟s son,
himself does not believe in the authenticity of the stories about Khandoba. But, just for
the sake of livelihood he has to give credibility to the legends and cannot deny it. Hence,
Jejuri has become a place to earn one‟s livelihood rather a place of devotion. King
Bruce says “Jejuri is, I think, less a poem of skepticism and a poem about a modern

47
wasteland‟s loss of faith than a poem which contrasts deadness of perception within the
ability to see the divine in the natural vitality of life.”

Makarand

In the poem „Makarand‟ the protagonist frankly refuses to join the worship
which the pilgrims have come to offer to the image of God Khandoba. The protagonist
would rather prefer smoking outside than go inside shirtless for the worship. His
objection is not merely to his taking off his shirt but to the worship itself. Not me. But
you go right ahead if that‟s what you want to do. Give me the matchbox before you go,
will you?

„Makarand‟ records the rationalistic attitude of a modern young man to God, religion
and pilgrimage. He (protagonist) went to Jejuri in quest of enlightment, a spiritual
fulfillment. Instead of religious sanctity, awe-inspiring mysticism, he finds that there is
only poverty, hunger, aridity, ugliness, decay and dilapidation, ignorance, absurdity
and materialism. It is a critic on Hinduism with spiritual bankruptcy. Kolatkar views
the entire process of religious rites with disgust.

A Scratch

„A Scratch‟, the title itself conveys the idea that, merely by scratching a stone at Jejuri,
a pilgrim would come across or discover a legend which proves the sanctity of temple of
god Khandoba.

It is very difficult to decide at Jejuri what is god and what is stone. The dividing line
between a god and a stone at jejuri is very difficult to determine because any stone,
which a pilgrim picks up, may prove to be the image of god; and the next stone which
one picks up, may turn out to be god‟s cousin. what is god and what is stone the
dividing line if it exits is very thin at Jejuri and every other stone is god or his cousin
Any stone which the pilgrim picks up, either from the dirty, loose earth or from the
hard rock would find the stone to be sacred stone and a personification of some god.
There is one huge rock, of the size of a bedroom. This portion of the rock is
Khandoba‟s wife who had been turned into a stone figure by Khandoba when he had
struck her down with his sword in a state of fury. The crack, which runs across that
portion of the rock, is the scar of the wound which the wife had received from her
husband‟s sword which had a broad blade. The rock bears witness to Khandoba‟s
murder of his wife in a fit of anger. that giant hunk of rock the size of a bedroom is
Khandoba‟s wife turned to stone the crack that runs right across is the scar from his
broadsword once in a fit of rage. Kolatkar here ridicules the blind faith of the

48
Maharashtrian pilgrims who visit Jejuri to offer worship to Khandoba. There is no
limit to the number of stone images of the gods whom the pilgrims can worship.

song for a Murli

Look the moon has come down to graze along the hill top you dare not ride off
with it, don‟t you see khandoba‟s brand on it‟s flank you horse thief look that‟s his
name tattooed just below the left collar bone keep your hands off khandoba‟s woman
you old lecher let‟s see the color of your money first

In „A Song for a Murli‟ deals with the female devotee, sings songs praising
Khandoba. The institution of a Murli, corresponding to the „Devadasi‟ elsewhere in
India naturally deteriorates to prostitution. keep your hands off Khandoba‟s woman
you old lecher let‟s see the colour of your money first. The cupboard in a sarcastic
manner shows how the gods are preserved according to their status. We can see how
stone gods are neglected and bronze gods get fare treatment. But the gold gods as they
are made up of precious metals are locked up for safety. Kolatkar‟s Jejuri offers a rich
description of India and a town Jejuri which is a spiritual quest. It is an effort to find
the divine trace in a degenerate world. With irony as a weapon Jejuri is the work with
a unique and visionary voice.

Chaitanya

The small poem „Chaitanya‟ contains an important message which is conveyed

through one vivid image, that of Chaitanya7 spitting out the seeds of the grapes that he
has eaten. Chaitanya did not like the stone images of Gods lying neglected – even
without flowers in Jejuri.

This poem shows that Chaitanya liked the stones of Jejuri because “they are sweet as
grapes” and he transformed these stones into Gods.„Sweet as grapes Are the stones of
Jejuri‟, He popped a stone in his mouth and spat out gods. The image seems to be
blasphemous, but what it implies is the god-making ability of Chaitanya. He had the
capacity to turn stones into gods. Eating and spitting out both suggest a supernatural, if
irreverent, attitude to this otherwise miraculous transfiguration. The implication, of
course, is that the belief in gods is absurd.

49
 Historical Review of Indian Writing in translation –

the spread of English language and democratic values in Post-Independence India

Colonial period

With the consolidation of the activities of the East India Company in eighteenth
century, began the efforts of teaching English in the South Asian subcontinent. As far
back as 1759, Christian missionaries entered India and the 1787 despatch welcomed
the efforts of Rev. Swartz to establish schools for the teaching of English. Another
significant effort was the publication of the first book, ‗The Tutor‘, to teach English to
the non-Europeans by author John Miller in 1797. This book was published in
Serampore in Bengal. Thus the socio- historical stage for the role of English in
education was set by the end of the 18th century.

T.B. Macaulay, in the Minutes of 1835, for the first time, formally introduced the
teaching of English in the South Asian subcontinent. In his Minutes he mentioned the
importance and usefulness of the education that would be given to the natives through
the medium of English. There were primarily two objectives of such education. The
first was to create through this education a class of natives who, despite their blood and
colour, would be English in culture and be able to ―interpret‖ between the rulers and
the subjects:‖…a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we
govern – a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, in
opinion, in morals and in intellect‖ (quoted in Macaulay 1835, quoted in Thirumalai,
2003)2. The second was to create a ―demand‖ for the European institutions. Although
both the objectives were designed to serve the interest of the Masters, not of the
subjects, but it provided the framework of formal English education to India which to a
large extent is followed even today..

Thus by the middle of the nineteenth century the aims and objectives of teaching
English were very clearly laid out For the remaining period of colonial rule there were
a few landmarks in the development of English such as:

The establishment of universities in Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai in 1857 and in

Dhaka in 1920

Selective education and training in administration, imparted through English, the

Indian University Act (1904)
50
The Resolution on Educational Policy (1913).

For the entire period of British rule four broad developments with regard to English
education took place:

1600 -1800: During the early years the variety of English used was imitative and
formal. It was the language of the rulers and the elite class.

1850 -1947: During the later years more varieties (from very high to very low)
appeared. Indian intellectuals and freedom fighters effectively used English as tool to
for political awakening and resurgence.

Interaction with vernacular languages: As the use of English penetrated the different
sections of the educated Indians, a new variety of English emerged. This variety of
English had a very distinct Indian flavour and a number of words of vernacular origin
were absorbed in English, e.g., Brahmin. Coolie, jungle, and so on.

Methodology: Language studies were based on literature and grammar and the means
of studies was the grammar-translation method. The spoken component of the
language was not practised. The emphasis was given on correctness and complete
sentence construction.

English also played a critical role in India‘s struggle for independence as it became the
language of political awakening and resurgence. Even Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-
1948), although a strong advocator of use of national language, used English language
effectively to put forth his message to the British Government .

Post colonial period

Post independence, the perception of English as having an alien power base changed.
Kachru notes that ―English now has national and international functions that are both
distinct and complementary. English has thus acquired a new power base and a new
elitism‖ (Kachru 1986, p. 12 as cited in Baldridge, 2002).3 For most part of the
twentieth century, it remained a language used by a select few. English primarily
remained the language of law and administration.

The Present State

Twentieth century witnessed great advancements in science and technology and this
enabled many new ways of sharing information and doing business. India‘s
international commercial activities led to the need for acquiring proficiency in English
as an international language. Now, English was not just the language of the
administrators and policy makers but also became the language of the business and
professional class.

51
In India, the English speaking population is only about 3-4%, but with India‘s massive
population, India is among the top three countries in the world with the highest number
of English speakers. In terms of numbers of English speakers, the Indian subcontinent
ranks third in the world, after the USA and UK. Most English speakers in India are
second language speakers, in 1971, it was estimated that the rate of bilingualism in
India was 13% and 99% of English speakers are second-language speakers (Mahapatra
1990: 7 cited in Hohenthal , 2003).4 Spolsky points out that English is the most widely
spoken second language, followed by Hindi. English is more useful as a ―lingua
franca‖; the usefulness of Hindi as a lingua franca is regionally limited (Spolsky 1978:
42 cited in Hohenthal , 2003)5. The small segment of the English speaking population
controls domains that have professional prestige (Kachru 1986a: 8 cited in Hohenthal ,
2003)). It is this small segment of Indian population that heads India‘s economic,
industrial, professional, political, and social progress. Most interactions in the above
spheres of life take place in English.

In the linguistically plural settings of India, English often acts as the link -language
among people of different dialect. For many educated Indians English is virtually the
first language. Thus in the present context English is playing a vital role in bringing
together people from different regional languages for a closer exchange of social,
educational and administrative network of India . It provides a linguistic tool for the
administrative cohesiveness of a country (Kachru 1986a: 8).

English is used in both public and personal domains and its functions ―extend far
beyond those normally associated with an outside language, including the instrumental,
the regulative, the interpersonal and the innovative, self-expressive function‖
(Hohenthal citing Kachru 1986a: 37, 2003))6. As pointed out before, the role of
English is not replacive: it overlaps with local languages in certain domains (Kandiah
citing Sridhar, 1985;Shridhar and Shridhar, 1986; 1991: 273)7.

English language in Indian Education System

English is taught as a second language at every stage of education in all states of India
and has been accepted as the main medium of instruction in higher education. English
is also the state language of two states in eastern India, Meghalaya and Nagaland.

In India, English has become an integral part of the curriculum almost at all levels of
education. However there are various social, political and cultural factors that affect
the position of English in different boards, universities and other institutions. Even the
curriculum offered and evaluation tools employed are very diverse across the country.
The model of English offered to the learners lacks uniformity and it is this question
that continues to challenge the policy makers and education planners. While most
52
States accord English the position of second language, some others treat is as the third
language; the regional language and the national language getting precedence. as in
other linguistically and culturally pluralistic societies, the position of English is
determined by various political, cultural and social considerations. Kachru (1986b:20
cited in Hohenthal , 2003)8 sees primarily three questions which continue to be
discussed. The first question concerns the position of English in early and in higher
education. The second question is concerned with the roles of the regional language,
Hindi and English. The third question deals with the model of English presented to
Indian learners, and how that presentation can be made uniformly and effectively. The
Government of India has primarily been concerned with the first two questions, which
are directly related to language planning at both the national and state levels. There are,
as yet, no acceptable answers to any of these questions (Kachru 1986b:20 cited in
Hohenthal , 2003).9

Partition Litarature

India suffered the stigma of slavery under British forabout three centuries. When
it got freedom, it was alsonot without paying the high cost in the form of parti-tion.
This historical event is significant in the worldhistory not only as a political occurrence
which gavebirth to two nations but as a most treacherous occasionfor thousand of the
men who lost their lives, hundredsof women who were raped & treated most
ruthlesslyand for countless number of children who found them-selves orphaned &
coerced to live the life of beggars.This most lethal incident in the history of India left
anindelible mark on the psyche of every Indian & par-ticularly on those Indians who
have been the victim of this most dreadful will of God. Indian writers couldnot remain
untouched from this shocking affair andused the medium of creative writing especially
novelsto lay bare the brutality, inhumanity & genocide of worst type.The foremost
attempt in this direction is taken by

Khushwant Singh in his novel

Train to Pakistan

inwhich he depicted the trauma of the victims of parti-tion. As he himself belongs to

the community whoremained the victim of this cruel fate, He could easilyunderstand
the pain of the people who fell prey to thisplot. Not only he participated as a villager in
the eventsof Mano Majra, an imaginative peaceful abode of com-munal harmony but
he narrated the whole tragedy asa detached observer also. He neither blamed
Hindu,Muslims & even the evil Britishers but emphasizedthat in this tragic incident not
only a country wasdivided but even the heart & the soul of the people gotalienated. It is
a agonizing tale of the people who gotcaught in the tempest of partition. The

Rape by
53
RajGill

holds political leadership responsible for the over-all drama of partition & its
devastating effects. He doesnot limit himself only up to the political consequencesbut
also demoralizing & inhuman impacts of this mostlethal occasion. Here rape of Leila a
muslim girl by thefather of the lover (Dalipjit)of the girl is an example of most
monstrous & unethical consequence of displace-ment & bitterness caused by partition.
But a ray of hope is shown by the depiction of humanity of Dalipjitwhich ultimately
prevails in the novel.

Manohar Malgaonkar in A Bend in the Ganges

portrays an altogether different version of thestory from a new perspective. He brings

in the lime-light the conspiracy of the britishers in inciting thereligious hostilities
between Hindus & Muslims. Hisstress is on the core policy of the English of Divide
&Rule in fostering the colonial design & leading Indiato the bloodshed of partition. He
goes on probing thepolitical, diplomatic & circumstantial causes whichmade the
partition a reality that ultimately proved tobe a huge hurdle in the development of
sovereign In-dia.

The Ashes and Petals by H. S. Gill

throws lighton the aftermaths of partition which shook not onlyIndia but the whole
world. It vividly draws a picture of communal riots , the brutal murders, rapes &
maddance of violence around Punjab & Meerut in the landof Gandhi. It acquires a
political form in displayingthe inefficiency and mismanagement in controllingand
suppressing the riots which very few historicalnovelists hinted at. It delineates very
clearly the mas-sacre of passengers of train coming & going to Paki-stan, their pain,
agony and trauma. It tells the sametale of petty politicians who exploited the tragic
occur-rence for their own profit without caring about theharm which they are causing
to their country by their

shameful acts. Ultimately it doesn‘t end on the note of pessimism rather have a lesson
of didacticism &hopefor the new generations in any situation of the life of the nation.

The Shadow Lines by Amitav Ghosh

focuses moreon the repercussion of this fateful destiny of India ,itsvictims ,its ugliness
& its brutality more than anything

else.It doesn‘t give more space to the causes of the

54
conspiracy hatched by the britishers which broughtabout this horrible happening that
changed the courseof the future events of India.There is apolitical re-membrance which
are quite coloured with imagina-tion with a post modern style of narration. The

Azadi by Chaman Nahal

has been eulogized for its realisticas well as comprehensive portrayal of the tragedy

and

who opposed theidea of the partition were relegated to isolation anddesolation. It

presents the remarks of common peopleon the nature of the political situation and the
role of politics in their lives which coerced them to accept theinevitable. The novel also
conveys the message of theurgency of reconciliation and the expectations withthe
younger generation to move ahead while erasingthe disasters of the partition from their
mind.

The Sunlight on a Broken Column by Attia Hussain

,(a Muslim writer) covers a period of twenty years start-ing from the early thirties
when both the Hindus andthe Muslims took active part in the struggle for inde-
pendence as great patriots. In the novel the turbulentdrama of partition and its
aftermath is observed andnarrated by young Laila who was nourished at a timewhen
the Hindus and the Muslims lived in harmony

and used to share each other‘s pain. The novel is surely

an artistic display of the emotional drama which theMuslims had to suffer.The novel

Twice Born TwiceDead by K.S. Duggal

discovers that there used to beperfect harmony & calm among the two major com-
munities Muslims and the Hindus of Dhamyal but theanti-social elements entered
int -ings of their
community in Bihar. Though the novelisttried to make one particular community
responsiblefor the communal uneasiness yet it succeeds in cover-ing the sudden
dislocation of life and loss of harmoni-
partition.

Waiting for the Mahatma by R. K. Narayan

Dealt with a unique aspect of the fall-out of the partitionwherein it is stressed that
making of a country is notas important as that of the making of humanity. Whileon
15th of August, 1947 the country was celebratingits tryst with destiny but on the other

55
 side a pall of gloom prevailed in the riot hit areas. In these areas thechildren were
orphaned and needed immediateattention.The theme of partition occupies a momen-
tous place in Indian English Novels. These novelshave served more than the history
books in decipher-ing the plight of the people who became victims of thisghastly
incident of Indian history. The novelists feelthat politics was responsible for human
carnage fromall sides and any particular side could not be heldresponsible. Their
approach in the novels has remainedobjective in the sense that all have tried to
exposehuman nature and its capability of carrying out crueltyand barbarism on its own
creed.

The emergence of regional and translated literatures in India

Indian English Literature is the work of Indian-origin poets and writers writing in English,
and living anywhere around the globe. They usually have similar mindsets, especially when
writing about, or referring to India. Meenakshi Mukherjee has said that it is born out of
Indian and English parentage–thus twice- born1. Another writer, Maria Tymoczko, thinks
that it is born out of one culture and expressed in another 2. Their opinions carry the idea of
translation, but it may be said that there is exactly no question of translation as such, because
when the creation is one‘s own and not an independent version or expression of another‘s
creative production, albeit in a language not one‘s own, the creative product is a trans-
lingual/cultural endeavor. When an Indian writes his Indian experience in a foreign language
it can be said to be a trans-cultural creative process. The history of this expanding literature
has covered more than 200 years.
The Birth and Growth of Indian English Literature
Cavelly Venkata Boriah‘s Accounts of the Jains (1809) was the first Indian book written in
English. Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) was the first bilingual Indian writer to use
English in translating Katha, Kena and other Upanishads. Some of his works date to 1816.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-1831), a Eurasian of the Hindu College, Calcutta, first
published his poetry book titled Poems in 1827. Michael Madhusudan Dutt first published
two books of poems in English in 1849. Taru Dutt (1856-77), a young female genius, living
only till the age of 21, wrote poems and prose. Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950) wrote volumes of
poetry and prose including the epic Savitri, the largest in the English language. Sarojini
Naidu (1879-1949), the freedom fighter was a fine poet in English.
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee‘s (1838-94) Rajmohan‘s Wife was the first Indian novel in
English (1864). Indian English novels began to be regularly published from the 1930s,
beginning with the trio; Mulk Raj Anand, R.K.Narayan and Raja Rao. Manjeri Isvaran
(1910-66) published the first collection of short stories in 1944.
Famous books were written in English to reach larger audiences that included the English
rulers, by freedom fighters like Sri Aurobindo, Dadabhai Naoroji, Mohan or Mahadev
Govind Ranade, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, C.S.Ranga Iyer, Surendranath Banerjee, Lala Lajpat
Rai, Jawaharlal Nehru, M. N. Roy, Subhas Chandra Bose, M.K.Gandhi and B.R.Ambedkar.
Nirad C. Chaudhuri, settled in England, became a great English writer. Nobel Laureate
Rabindranath Tagore profusely translated his own works and wrote directly in English too.
Status of English in India

56
In spite of the development of regional literature, Indians have adopted English as a needed
lingua franca and acquired a love for its literature. It is not mother tongue to any, but it
integrates Indians through regional literature translated and written in English. In competitive
examinations it is the only common language. Number of people speaking English in India
outnumber those in the whole of Western Europe except U.K. In 2006, English as a medium
of education ranked fourth but by 2007 it went to second place and is rising further. In three
states and four union territories of India, English is the official language.
The Progress
Indians write for a number of international journals. Large numbers of such journals are
being published in India. There are groups of Indian origin writers who thrive in foreign
lands. Some Indian magazines, e-zines and publications shine abroad.
Although it is mainly diasporic writers who have made Indian English writing global, and
have translated works into many other languages, there are many others ignored by the
media, the government and other establishments. Diasporic writers have mostly been
awarded internationally as they are ―The mirror images that make the liberal West feel
comfortable with itself, because it feels that in gazing on them . . . is reading and
championing the Other‖, as Tabish Khaire3 has opined. Politics of the publishing world have
perhaps influenced many writers to write on select topics and develop certain perspectives.
Indian Regional Literature
The age-old cultural language of India was Sanskrit and Persian during the Mughal rule.
Though Sanskrit is present in most Indian languages, the regional languages have spread far
in 29 states and seven union territories. Regional languages are rich in producing great
literature, beginning with creators like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore,
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Munshi Premchand, Subramanian Bharati, Saadat Hasan
Manto, and others. Indian literature in Indian regional languages like Bengali, Hindi, Tamil,
Kannada, Malayalam and others have ever been progressing. Translations between languages
continue to be carried in magazines and books, in Indian literature published by Sahitya
Akademi, Pratibha India and other periodicals, and in books published by National Book
Trust. Regional writers‘ conferences and meetings help development of such literature. The
government and other bodies regularly encourage such works through awards.
Conclusion
Everyone has opined that the mother tongue is the best medium of expression in literature. In
that sense, and out of love and patriotism, the survival and growth of Indian regional
literature seems sure. The prosperity of Indian English literature too seems assured by choice
and adaptation, surviving in the international field with many of its practitioners living
scattered in the globe.

Translation essentially entails a word or a sentence being interpreted from one language into
another language, which is further governed by the parameters of popularity and
understanding. In high-flying and enriched terms of literary works and literature and artistic
personas, translation does not only state that they follow a strict sense of interpreting one
word or sentence into another language. Translation for authors and writers denote the
exceedingly efficient penmanship of a literary body of work, which can be communicated in
a written version, from its original language into a secondary or primary one. For instance, in
the Indian context, with Hindi being regarded as the official language, several of the English
or regional literary works have been translated into Hindi by various esteemed writers.
57
Indeed, translation works in Indian literature belongs to an entirely separate genre,
magnifying the forms of literature since the ancient Indian context. Although it may be a
common comprehension that translation works of Indian literature is comparatively a recent
historical happening, i.e. since the times of British Raj, yet, it is thoroughly an acknowledged
factor that Indian works of translation have been an integral part of Indian literature prior to
the times of Christ.

Translation works in Indian literature is also a domain that has been mostly associated with
the interpretation of English works into other regional and vernacular languages. The arrival
of British Empire and the historic reign of the Raj were the primary beginners, who had
introduced the concept of teaching and imparting English and its literary body of works, into
the Indian indigenous languages. Hence, it is an apprehensible matter that teaching in itself is
an act of translation. Teaching of Western literature in non-Western cultures necessitates
translation of not just the words on page but also the whole culture, literary tradition and its
aesthetics. The Indian society represents a multilingual and hierarchical paradigm, with
colonial history and facing severe problems like poverty, illiteracy and population explosion
to name a few. Translation is not just 'mechanical transfer' of propositional content from a
text in one language to another, but is rather a complex compounding of 'interpretive
expertise' and ingenious accomplishments. Translation is not only the art of decrypting a text
which is a critical natural process, but also an art of encrypting a text in another language
which requires creative capacity.

Thus, the translator is not just a 'labourer' as is most commonly comprehended, but is
actually an individual with bilingual literary and linguistic proficiency. Translation is also a
way of establishing connections; it indeed connects and bridges not only two languages and
cultures, but also spanning space and time. This capacity of translation to bridge connections
possesses quite substantial entailments for literary studies in multilingual multiethnic
societies like India. As such, translation works in Indian literature and its commendable
authors have taken up the task of ameliorating the countrywide societal framework since its
inception and the years to arrive.

The elapsing moments of significant change in the Indian history and civilisation of any
individual can be witnessed in the portrayal and characterisation by heightened activity in the
field of translation and its works in Indian literature. The European Renaissance, for
instance, was made possible through the massive translation by the extremely gifted Indian
'natives, who had been quite enlightened in the English language during British Indian times.
In the case of India, though there exists no consensus about the originary moment of Indian
Renaissance - but indeed, there did exist this scenario, though much different from its
European counterpart. The Indian renaissance had taken place simultaneously in different
languages and literatures of India and in different times; there exists no discrepancy about
the fact that there was a kind of mass general awakening throughout India in the 19th century
and that was made achievable through widespread and all-encompassing translation of
European and mainly English works in different languages, not only of literature but also of
social sciences, philosophy, ethics and morality etc. Hence, translation works in Indian
literature does bear its special meaning, with exhilarating regards to the advent and
involvement of Britishers and natives in the literary domain.
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Translation works in Indian literature however do carry a special meaning for the people of
north-east India, because in specific literatures of the north east, the originary moment of
literature is the redefining moment of translation too. For instance, in the case of Mizo
(referring to Mizoram and its language and consequent literary measures) it did not own a
script before the European missionaries had formulated a script to translate evangelical
literature into Mizo language. Raymond Schwab (1984) in his book, The Oriental
Renaissance, has explored and demonstrated how a new kind of awareness and
enlightenment had taken place and inquisitiveness about the Orient was set ablaze in the
West through the translation of Persian texts from Sadi, Rumi, Omar Khayyam and others on
the one hand and Vedic and Sanskrit texts from India on the other. Indeed, this does call for
an applause and apprehension of the history of translation works in India and its intimate
connection with the circumstances of Indian literature.
East-West Encounters
Influence of western culture on Indian Society

Introduction
Indian Culture, which is one of the oldest & richest cultures in the world with
varied languages, customs, beliefs, ideas, taboos, codes, instructions, works of art,
architecture, rituals, ceremonies etc. India‘s cultural history of several thousands
years old and it shows a continuity and subtle change with strong thread of
continuity, epitomised in the assimilative power of culture and unique display of
‗unity in diversity‘. With the conquest of European powers and subsequent British
rule in India has had a profound effect of western culture on Indian society. Western
culture has made its presence in various forms.
Westernization is defined as incorporation of the norms, values and culture of the
west into our culture. It has greatly affected our traditions, customs, our family and
our respect and love for others. The concept of joint families is fastly decreasing
everyone wants to remain aloof from others and has given rise to single families.
Marriages are fast breaking down & our tolerance and patience has given the
answer.
Sociological definition of westernization
M.N.Srinivas defines westernization as ―the changes brought about in Indian
society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, the term subsuming
changes occuing at different levels say technology, institutions, ideology and
values‖.
Various impacts of western culture on Indian society
 There were different kinds of westernization. one kind refers to emergence of a
westernized sub-cultural pattern through a minority sections of Indians who first
came in contact with western culture.
 This included the sub-culture of Indian intellectuals who not only adopted many
cognitive patterns, or ways of thinking , life styles, but also supported its expansion.
59
 This impact of Westernization was mainly in urban areas. But some villages are
more westernized than urban areas.
Westernisation vs Modernisation
 Westernization is not the same as modernization. Modernization refers to changes
in culture under the impact of technology, communications etc. And all western
countries are not modern.
 Indeed Japan has become modernized but by retaining its own culture. But,
in India modernisation has been generally through Westernization.
Characteristics of Westernization
1. Morally neutral. Many good things and bad things have come from the West.
2. Westernization is a wide , complex and multi-level concept. It includes all changes
consequent upon Western technology and Science. It is complex since it has had a
varying impact on different sections
3. It was not consciously integrated into India but has come through mostly through
direct contact.
Consequences of western culture on Indian society
1. Affected caste, joint family,marriage and other social structures.
2. Introduced new institutions like press, christian missionaries etc.
3. Modern values like humanism, egalitarianism, secularism have entered Indian
value systems. Our criminal law has been reformed. Evil customs like sati ended
, Untouchability abolished.
4. Concept of welfare state was introduced and thus Governmental activities on
welfare measures have expanded.
5. Far reaching reforms in Hindu society through social reform movements like the
Brahmo samaj etc. under inspiration from the Western educated middle class in
India.
6. Many political and cultural movements emerged like movement for eradication
of caste
7. Spread of mass education. Emergence of a educated middle class as the vanguard of
the freedom movement.
Agents of Westernization
1. British rule – The establishment of British rule brought about deep and far reaching
changes in the economic, political, educational and cultural spheres in India. It
offered some new avenues of social mobility to the scheduled castes, e.g., new
economic opportunities, education, westernisation, conversion to Christianity and
politicisation.
2. Indians employed in government offices or converts to Christianity.
3. Those educated in modern schools and colleges. Some of them launched great
movements like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Tagore, Sir Syed Ahmad etc.
4. Those who went to England for study or medical treatment.
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5. Those who lived in port towns.
6. The tolerant spirit of Indians was largely responsible for the spread of
Westernisation.
7. There was no whole sale but only selective Westernisation. Old styles continued
side by side. There was also a movement to preserve Indian values.(eg. The Arya
Samaj)
Influence of western culture on Indian society
Influence of western culture on Caste
1. We find that the traditional social organisation exemplified by the caste system has
undergone several changes yet continues to exist in Indian society performing some
old and some new functions.
2. During the last few decades, as a result of the forces of modernisation, the ideology
of caste has become less pervasive in an individual‘s day to day life.
3. Caste rituals have become increasingly a personal affair, rather than public due to
changed circumstances of living, forces of industrialisation, and urbanisation. Place
of residence and food habits are influenced more by an individual‘s workplace and
occupation than by his or her caste or religion.
4. Industrialisation and factory system broke down caste barriers to a large extent.
5. Urbanisation made many castes live together.
6. Transport broke down caste restrictions.
Impact of English education
1. Changes in dress and food habits
2. Supply of water through pipes – you cannot ask the caste of the person who sends
water down the pipes.
3. Impact on untouchability
Impact on women
1. Educational advance of women
2. Entry of women into all occupations
3. Social reformers also helped liberation of women
4. Discarding pardah.
Impact on social structure
1. Career open to talent and no longer based on caste
2. Money and wealth regarded important
3. Decline of rituals
Impact on marriage
1. Marriage came to be regarded a contract and not entirely a sacrament
Influence on culture
1. English words came to be used commonly – Daddy, mummy, cutting the
cake culture; contrast the Indian custom of lighting a lamp with the western
habit of blowing out the candle light.
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 2. Western gadgets freely used ; Television, washing machine etc
Impact of western literature on Indian literature, religion
1. Art – cinema, western dance, musical instruments, modern art
2. Religion – decline of superstition, ritualism
3. Rise is scientific belief
Influence of western culture on Tribes
1. The Westernisation of tribals had begun during the Bristish colonial rule when they
first came in contact with them.
2. Not all tribes were subjected to the efforts of modernisation. There were many
which continued to survive in their traditional modes till India‘s Independence.
3. The fate of traditional material culture and styles of tribes were to be ‗preserved‘ as
museum specimens.
4. Attempts were made to synthesise the customary and the modern laws. In all these
efforts, the focus was on modernising the tribals.
 Changes in style of life
The changes in the style of life have followed two trends. They are
Changes in relation to the political system
1. The political system, which developed during the British rule, gave increasing
opportunities for political articulation to the people of India, especially those who
acquired western education.
2. This facility was taken advantage of by the backward classes. The advent of
Independence and the introduction of adult franchise and more recently Panchayati
Raj institutions have increased the access to power, especially political power, to
the backward classes.
3. Such access led to a shift from Sanskritisation to competition for positions of higher
bureaucratic and political power.
Social Mobility through Westernisation
The upwardly mobile untouchable castes adopted the life-style implied in
Westernisation. This was facilitated by the prevalence of various non-Sanskritic
traditions among them—such as, eating meat and drinking alcohol.

Voices and views from the margin

Today, when globalisation seems to have taken over every form of art and culture
everywhere in the world, there's still one form of writing that thrives on being different,
driving home the idea that every country, and every local community within that country, has
different cultures and different histories. These marginalised cultures which flourishes away
from the mainstream, were called subaltern' by Italian Marxist thinker Antonio Gramsci.
writings from the subalterns will be the focus of attention at a two-day national seminar on

62
Indian Writing in English (IWE) and in English Translation organised by the Department of
English, University of Pune (UoP).
"By focusing on subaltern expressions in Indian writing in English, the seminar not only
makes a case for subaltern literature and its rise in the second half of the 20th century, but
also emphasises how this enables turning away from white western supremacy in literature
towards embracing the new subaltern voices that have recently emerged," says professor B S
Korde, head of the department of English UoP.

Usually, mainstream literature has a pre-existing, pre-compiled traditional literary history in

the form of major written and oral traditions from ancient times, and latter-day writers,
artists, and critics depend on these forms.

"However, if you talk about tribal literature, folk literature, Dalit literature or Dalit women
literature, which form the major part of subaltern literature, these literatures need to create
their own philosophical base. Nothing is given' to these literatures," says professor G Manoja
from Andhra Pradesh, one of the participants of the seminar.

Thus, subaltern literature, unlike Marxist literature, does not talk about the class struggle
between the rich and the poor, but the struggle between castes, seen from the point of view
of the lower caste, the have-nots, the minority, the marginal, the subaltern. "The entire
ideology of subaltern literature revolves around this," says Rahul Pungaliya, lecturer of
English at the Abasaheb Garware College. Initially, subaltern literature concentrated on the
study of peasant and tribal insurgency in South Asia. "Their main argument was that
colonial, nationalist and Marxist historiography of this region had ignored the importance of
such insurgencies," Pungaliya adds.

In recent times, during discussions about Indian society and history, the idea of subaltern has
been represented in a more modern form. But, whether subaltern literature should be created
by those belonging to the oppressed backward communities or whether it should be about
them, is the question that needs to be addressed first.

Says Pungaliya, "Authentic subaltern literature will be written by those who have suffered
the marginalisation. It can be studied by all but created only by the subaltern class itself." He
substantiated the argument by citing a few examples from Indian Writing in English. "If you
look at Mulk Raj Anand's novel Coolie' or Raja Rao's writings, it is about the suffering of the
Dalit and the downtrodden, penned by the upper caste writer. That's why it lacks perspicacity
63
and authenticity. There is a charitable attitude towards the suffering of the oppressed class,
instead of pain and anger, which you find in regional Dalit literature."

"Like the pulsating, robust and yet angst-driven African-American literature in the US, Dalit
writing is characterised by a new level of subaltern pride, militancy, creativity and above all,
the use of the pen as a weapon," says Arpita Mukhopadhyay, a participant from Kolkata. On
her paper in the seminar, Mukhopadhyay is going to stress on social exclusion as reflected in
Dalit woman writing.

This Dalit literature, which looks at history and current events from a Dalit point of view, has
come to occupy a niche in the body of Indian literary expression, says Anil Adagale, a
lecturer of English at the Symbiosis College of Arts and Commerce.

Similarly, tribal literature has also chipped in to lend a new subaltern perspective to
literature. Explaining its contribution in subaltern literature, Pungaliya says, "If we consider
poetry of adivasi poet Waharu Sonawane or the prose of adivasi novelist Anjubai Gavit, they
have used for the first time tribal languages creating alternative to the standard Marathi.
Even though their work is yet to be translated into English, they still prove to be radically
new voice in literature."

However, despite all this progress in subaltern literature, it still continues to face challenges
from different quarters.

For R Raj Rao, professor at the department of English, UoP, this form of literature does not
often find space in the academic syllabus. "While we at the university are making an effort to
bring about an awareness and promote it, I do not see this happening as much across the
country. Academically, the challenge is to compete for space in the syllabus with English
literature. I think the challenge is to create awareness. Organising seminars and workshops
will definitely help. I also feel there is resistance among the faculties in the English
departments too. Professors do not want to teach what is new mainly because they do not
have the material or whatever reason it might be."

Korde added, "Writers in subaltern literature of any form are often criticised. A lot of writers
have been discouraged for such writing in the past. But I believe, criticism should be taken in
the right spirit and in no way should it oppress the writer and their thoughts. Writers should
only take encouragement from the criticism and with a tough mind, should move on."
The Subaltern Identity and Literature: The Poetry of Indian Dalits

64
 The Subaltern Identity and Literature: The Poetry of Indian Dalits

Abstract

Literature is the product of the intersection of various socio-economic factors that are
external, with the internal psychological ones. The site of that intersection is the mind of the
human being: an entity that is identified as the subject, and happens to be the point of origin
of all creative products, including literature. Literature has the power to perform the
revolutionary and reactionary functions. This fact makes it a very potent tool: a tool that has
been conspicuously utilized since the Reformation. The present paper is an attempt to
analyse the poetic output of the minds of the Dalit poets of India.

Strategic essentialism, a very useful and ad hoc ―Spivakean‖ stance, has been adopted
partially in the paper, in order to group similar tendencies together and to draw conclusions
that make understanding these people who have been exploited and discriminated against for
centuries. The themes of dalit potry reflect the hard and harsh realities of the metaphorical
Caliban‘s life. He has learnt the language and power plays of the exploiters. He has mastered
the language of the masters of yesteryears and is now producing from it ―something rich and
strange‖: but this creation is not characterized by any attempt to maintain an aesthetic or
rhetorical stance. It is the committed poetry of the people who need it urgently, because they
have faith in its power to change their state of marginality and voicelessness.

Full Paper

The Subaltern Identity and Literature: The Poetry of Indian Dalits

Many things have changed with the passage of time but the power words have over human
minds remains unaltered and undiminished. Poetry communicates the living, pulsating life-
experiences and aims at bringing about change, especially when it is committed to a cause.
―In a wholly racialized society, there is no escape from racially inflected language, and the
work writers do to unhobble the imagination from the demands of the language is
complicated, interesting and definitive‖ (Paul 60). Aboriginal Australian and Dalit Indian
poets and poems take a stance that is predominantly committed. They are driven by the
dominant current of reactions against an exploitative system. They assert an individual or
caste or racial-ethnic pride same as the various movements of the coloured peoples of the
United States, South Africa or many other parts of the world do. These peoples whose voices
had been suppressed for a long time, and who had been marginalized completely, had a
Blakean choice before them. They can either create their own system or follow that of the
others. Instead of choosing to live as branded ―infra‖ humans in a malevolent and maleficent
system, they opt for liberty(limited initially but finally full) and equality, if not fraternity
with amity, to begin with.

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Only God has the hypothetical power of creating matter ex nihilo. He is the only exception to
the law: ―Nothing will come out of nothing.‖ All human products of imagination are
definitely the outcome of the creative processes of human mind, but that site of creation (the
subject as an entity) is itself the point where various intersecting lines of effect meet. It is a
very interesting thing when two peoples separated by several hundred miles of oceans,
without any definite and prominent socio-cultural exchange, produce literature that has
themes that may be called mirror images, albeit with unique features of their own. This paper
focuses only on the poems of the Indian Dalits in English or translated into it from various
Indian languages.

Officially, India gained independence in 1947, so did the Dalits, in theory. The ground
reality is different. Untouchability was decreed unconstitutional in India on paper but the
people of that caste were never freed of the stigma in practice. They continued being the
unpurchased slaves of the upper castes because of the monolithic social structure of India.
The courses of the history of subjugation and exploitation ran on smoothly as ever. Voices
were raised and action taken against the atrocity. The responding voices are a legion, but
their core concerns are pronounced and clear, as is evident from an analysis of the poetry of
the Indian Dalits. The hitherto dormant volcano of their hearts erupts and the lava of their
anger, discontent, frustration and angst flows out with force as in J. V. Pawar‘s ―Birds in
prison‖:

Shouting slogans to condemn or uphold

a blaze of fire marches forth

And forest fires take birth

in oceans that seek to oppose.

What obstacle shall now withhold

Our turning volcanic vein by vein

digging trenches

every inch of the terrain? (41)

The age old system of oppression and discrimination finds staunch opposition. Those who
had been silenced by the forces beyond their control wrote back. Their poems assert their
identity and the pride they take in it. They also emphasize their right to be treated as equals
to their fellow mortals who claim themselves to be the more equals among the equals. The
dispossessed, those whose dignity was snatched away, reclaim it and don‘t hesitate to snatch
it back from the usurpers even violently, if the occasion demands it. Women, the doubly
dispossessed, the subaltern among the subalterns, the invisible, yet irritatingly present

66
entities of this discourse, have been subjected to the worse kind of oppression. Their voice is
heard amid the tumultuous uproar of multitudinous voices. In fact, it has never been silenced
completely. The Dalit women have never been so effectively silenced as their middle class
counterparts from Hindu upper castes. The oral and performative aspects of their expressions
cannot be discounted as they have had a strong tradition of lavanis and tamashas where they
have presented their thoughts candidly, although they are new to the expression in the form
of printed words.

History is theirs who have the power and means to write it. The marginalized subaltern never
gets the centre stage. Where all action is shown in progress they remain ―invisible‖ as
always. As Fanon or Malcolm X proclaimed, these voices assert that violence must be
employed if needed, against the exploiters whose best interest is in maintaining the status
quo through perpetuation of their hegemony. It is the process of maintaining the hegemony
that has taken a lot of ideological support and practical methods that have congealed into
policies. The Indian Dalit had to face a challenge to his caste identity and responded in
various manners. The extent of hopelessness was compounded by the fact that thay were the
doubly dispossessed and marginalized.

There are differences in the themes and concerns of the poetry of the subaltern of various
times and climes, yet there is a stream of commonality that runs through them. Specificities
notwithstanding, the insults, wounds and scars these peoples share give their voices the same
intensity of pain and poignancy. Internalization of the prejudices of the dominant group and
their assertion and perpetuation by the very people against whom the prejudices were held, is
a common mechanism for survival. It creates a set of alienated people who neither belong to
their people nor are accepted as equal by the others. Racial and social mobilizations are
excruciatingly slow and very unsure processes whose rate or outcome can never be
controlled or predicted with certainty. Moreover, black skin with white mask (or Dalit skin
with upper caste mask) is not a psychologically healthy combination. Neither is it right,
ethico-politically and socially. The subaltern – dispossessed and silenced – belong to one
mass. Their resistance to the phallogocentric social structure and their attempts at critiquing
or deconstructing are very logical ends to the centuries old process of planned
dehumanization. Multiculturalism, postmodern questioning of grand narratives and trends in
upward social mobility have brought about many changes in the mind set of the people. How
deep these changes have percolated and how fundamental in nature they are, has yet to be
seen and tested. In the meanwhile, the longest march for a yet unreached goal must not stop.

The themes of hatred and resistance against the exploiters are very common in their poems.
The voices of the subaltern, freshly raised, rising from the soil, raise disturbing issues. They
prove that the grand narrative of the Enlightenment – the great ideals of ―liberty, equality and
fraternity‖ as the rational end of all social systems and the attainable or desirable state of
existence – is only there to beguile the masses. In reality, for an Indian Dalit, there is neither
67
liberty nor equality, and fraternity is nowhere to be seen. Reason has been proven powerless
in redressing the wrongs perpetrated by an iniquitous system of institutionalized exploitation.
Therefore, the subaltern must catapult themselves to the stage of power play using any
means whatsoever. Their language is charged with the power to burn the social customs and
the desiccated traditions that have given them a life worse than that of animals.

The voices resisting exploitation are fully aware of their own strength and dignity. They take
pride in their being what they are. Their identity and self-image are affirmed in their poems
again and again. Of course, hatred and anger are not the only things present in their poems.
There is love too, as is seen in the following lines about a mother:

On her head, a burden. Her legs a-totter.

Thin, dark of body… my mother.

All day she combs the forest for fire wood

We await her return.

Mother is gone…

Even now my eyes search fro mother. (Nimbalkar 36)

Subjection and subjugation for generations turns an individual‘s existence into an everlasting
hell: a hell that is so unshakably embedded, so deeply programmed into the existence that it
is assimilated and naturalized. Socio-political and psychological repressions of the most
debilitating kind, stretched over centuries, take the form of the hands of unseen fate or karma
for those who are hopelessly trapped in prisons called their own existence. They have been
sentenced to death in life, day after day, every day of their life. A time eventually arrives –
later, if not as soon as it should have come – nearly at the threshold level of tolerance, when
life becomes unbearable and the blood boiling in the veins can simply not be contained any
more. If revolutionary blood bath and anti revolutionary purges don‘t follow, the blood takes
the form of words and flows out as a cry of anger, anguish, anger, resistance, pride and a
series of various human emotions that were repressed till then. The ideological apparatuses
of the modern hegemonic states have tilted the balance of power so much towards the
agencies that run nation states that any challenge seems at lest ineffectual in the last count, if
not practically impossible. The intellectual pessimism arising out of this situation has
generated theories galore. The petits recits (mini narratives) are the one that seem to be valid
in the discourse the present paper is concerned with. The war against the structure that has
successfully interpellated the thinking subject appears to be a contradiction in itself. The
Dalit or the Aborigine is under a lot of socio-economic pressure for assimilation, if possible,
with the dominant culture. The range of choices available to them is broad. They may
identify with the dominant mastering discourse and internalize it to propagate it themselves

68
later. They may remain neutral observers, or they may become active in resistance, raising
their own voices in the public sphere, creating their own mini narratives. A stream of
resistance, strong, conspicuous and continuous, can be seen originating from among the
repressed. The war against an internalized and inherently exploitative system can only be
fought with innovative tools, applying a series of methods available for the purpose. As Gene
Sharpe recommends, the struggle has the best chances to be effective finally if it is peaceful
and democratically committed. He speaks about action against repressive non-democratic
regimes. Both Australia and India are democracies. Therefore, the insistence on peaceful and
democratic methods seems to be more relevant as the pressure it builds will generate voices
– both nationally and internationally – against the institutionalized exploitation and
repression of the subaltern. Literature has always been a part of the move to persuade at the
levels of both the state propaganda and that of the resistance. Although newly acquired as a
weapon and it serves the same age old purpose for the cause of the subaltern whom everyone
else has failed, and gives them hope, not false, but true:

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 JEJURI INTRODUCTION
‗Jejuri‗ written by an eminent Indian poet named Arun Kolatkar is a collection of 31
poems about a place called Jejuri in Maharashtra, near Pune. Kolatkar hasn‘t simply
described the place and but rather has questioned sharply the institution of religion in India
and specifically in Jejuri. All the poems in this collection more or less share this quality.
Kolatkar gives a description of a particular curious object/scene/setting/area withing Jejuri
and through those descriptions raises those questions. All the poems have a tinge on
skepticism-an aspect that attests to the unbeliever in Kolatkar which is clearly seen in the
first poem, ‗The Bus‘ wherein the poet cannot connect with the mind of a religious man in
the bus that takes him to Jejuri. The poem starts the poet‘s journey to this religious place and
immediately sets the tone of skepticism right there that can be seen in all the subsequent
poems as well. This skepticism takes away spirituality of the poet for religious places. The
collection ends with six poems under the title:‘The Railway Station.‘ Kolatkar apparently is
going to take a train to depart from Jejuri and even in the six poems about the railway
station, Kolatkar presents a unique portrait of the mundane aspects of most Indian railway
station and colours them with a new form so that the reader will be able to discern beyond
the obvious. Even in Jejuri‘s railway station, Kolatkar sees signs of religion that pervades the
rest of the town.

The other poems have descriptions of numerous aspects of Jejuri from the most
important to the most trivial. But to each aspect, Kolatkar is able to give a vividness and
novelty that is not usually associated with that particular aspect.

All the poems are written in a simple language, using colloquial and Americanized
words. Hardly any poems are long with the exception of ‗Ajamil and the Tigers‘ which is a
modern form of ballad incorporating certain Indian styles of story narration. Since ‗Jejuri‗ is
a collection of poems that presents the poet‘s journey to Jejuri, it would be advisable to read
all the poems in the collection to get a sense of Kolatkar‘s skepticism and questioning of the
commercialization of religion. It is not at all taxing to read any poems, being mostly short
and straightforward and having none of the subtle messages that poems usually do. Most
poems also are laced with sarcasm. The collection is a fascinating(though one sided) view of
one of the important places of religious worship for any devout Indian Hindu or any other
pilgrim.

What is disappointing is that Kolatkar does not give a broader view of Jejuri. He sees
it through his lens of skepticism and scorn of faith and fails to look at the spirituality of the
place that attracts many devotees there. He imbibes it in all aspects and so the reader looks at
Jejuri only through his perspective and for those who have never been there (like me) will

70
come to believe that is a drab, dingy place with nothing substantial to boast of except some
temple ruins and some stones that people worship.

Aside that aspect, ‗Jejuri‗ is a relatively good collection of poems that is lovely to read
and that transports the reader to this strangely religious place and make them experience
everything in Jejuri in a novel way. A definite must read. Need another boost to pick up this
poetry book? ‗Jejuri‗ won the Commonwealth Poetry Prize‘ in 1977. Now, you must be
thinking that if it won this prestigious prize, there definitely must be something good in this
collection, right? Absolutely, which is why I recommend everyone to read ‗Jejuri‗ to one‘s
heart‘s content.

A LOW TEMPLE

The poem is a personal experience .Two images stand out.The temple is situated in a
low level ,probably in a cave which is unlit and and devotees are shown the deity by the
priest with the light of a matchstick.One by one the Gods come to light is a beautiful visual
exploration of the inner space of the temple as the matchstick‘s flame expands and widens
the visibilty area. As the matchstick gets smaller and smaller the visibility will go on getting
less and less until another stick is lighted up and takes over the darkness.

The second image is the twenty feet high tortoise on which children play .The
significance of the image can be understood only if the religious importance of the tortoise is
understood as a symbol of Lord Vishnu‘s Kurma (tortoise) avatar and children are playing on
the stone image as though it is another plaything .The poet‘s attitude towards the religious
experience is already evident from the flippancy of his disputing the number of arms of the
Mother Goddess and the way the ―sceptic match coughs‖ .Now when he lights the
Charminar cigarette with the same matchstick which had dispelled the darkness of the temple
earlier it is only natural that he will see children playing on the stone tortoise which is
worshipped by people as Vishnu.

Ajamil And Tigers

The poem Ajamil and the Tigers is a political satire by Arun Kolatkar; Ajamil and the
Tigers represent the corrupt politicians and the oppressed subjects. The sheep represent the
mass, the mob; the sheepdog's is the incarnation of the army. It is to be seen how the
commoners, sheep and sheepdog, are annihilated by the rulers, Ajamil. How their sentiments
are overlooked. The poet has beautifully retold the fantastic story of Ajamil, the believed to
be good shepherd, which he possibly heard in Jejuri. When the tigers are captured by the
brave sheepdog, Ajamil lets them lose, despite being warned by the dog. To show his
prominence, he did not listen to the sheepdog and did not even make any eye contact with
him. Rather he offered a gala feast to the tigers and gave them gifts like sheep meat, skin and
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wool. The audacious warriors are paid no heed to and the subjects are sacrificed for Ajamil
wanted to maintain his supremacy.

'Between Jejuri and the Railway Station'

The title of this poem is significant. The narrator is, as it were, poised between two
worlds: the world of Jejuri and the world represented by the railway station; that world from
which the narrator came and to which he must return after his brief visit to bewildering
Jejuri. The text of this poem is so arranged as to make its impact on the reader by its physical
appearance.

If we simply look at the graphic shape of the poem, we feel that we are looking at one
of those figures one finds in a Rorschach test or at the figure of an hour glass with its two
compartments brought together by 'The end' (line 15). In the second part of the poem this
order is broken down. That the narrator at that moment belongs neither to Jejuri nor to the
railway station is suggested by the 'up and down' movements of the cocks and hens. Like
'The Butterfly', this poem is again a celebration of life in contradiction with the arid, stagnant
hoary tradition ridden Jejuri and equally mechanical and in a sense 'in - human' paraphernalia
at the railway station. The narrator is aware that as he stands, 'still like a needle in a trance /
like a needle that struck a perfect balance', he must look silly to those who belong
comfortably and securely to either of the worlds. Words like 'little' or 'huddled' show the
smallness or diminutive status of the temple down. Once again we note that in Jejuri the
sacred and the profane exist side by side.

The narrator sardonically notes that the house next to the priest's houses belongs to 'the
temple dancer', a euphemism for a prostitute. The narrator, perhaps, wants to suggest also
that the priests (supposedly connected with sacred duties) and 'the temple dancers' function
in tendem to 'soak' the pilgrims. Note the reticence of the priest's son. Obviously the
presence of the temple dancer's house is an irritant to him for it could also be a standing
temptation for him - note that he 'hopes' he will never step inside her house. The narrator is
obviously struck by the coexistence of the ancient as well as Indian names - Gorakshanath
and Mhalasakant - and the modern or English words - 'hair cutting saloon, 'café' etc. The
reader will note that this feature in a colonized country has always attracted the writers in
these countries who write in English for an English reading audience and who because of
their western education and urbanization, find the coexistence of something deeply native
with an English complement rather comic and sometimes ludicrous. We find a similar
juxtaposition when the narrator carries a coconut in his hand, given to him after he
performed the pooja - and the priest's visiting card in his pocket. The poem presents the two
scales or pans i. e. Jejuri and the railway station. The repetition of the words 'like a needle'
suggests the narrator's desperate attempt to find an exact verbal equivalence for the nearly
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incommunicable experience he is going through. The phrase 'harvest dance' evokes
associations with fertility rites and hence celebrates the continuance of life. 'Craziest' is
probably used in two senses: maddening, not making any sense and yet unlike the
maddening crazy experience of Jejuri, this celebration of life makes a strange sense or it
could be strange and unusual for an urbanite spectator who can never hope to see it in a city.
The stillness of the narrator is the sanity of one who belongs neither to Jejuri nor to the
railway station but to Chaitanya (life).

Conclusion

Jejuri is a bunch of short poems and tells about the narrator's journey to a place of folk
worship, covered in a single revolution of the sun. The place, the time and the narrator
provide unity of a sort to the collection. The juxtaposition and the contrastive placing of the
human, the natural and the animal, the graphic portraits of fellow - travelers and their
experiences, the priest and his son, the beggar woman, Vaghya and Murali and their songs
introduced for local color and the site of ruin that is Jejuri itself - all these contribute to a
skillful patterning of details that claims to have a poetic logic of its own. The next chapter
deals with Indian English Poetess, Kamala Das with reference to the selected poems from
her poetry collection The Old Playhouse and other poems.

The recurring theme in Jejuri is Time. The entire sequence is framed between sun -
rise and sun - set, the sun appearing in the poem from time to time as a significant central
symbol. The other important theme is the very existence of life and the variety of forms it
has. Jejuri celebrates life in all its varieties and the reverent openness to life in its livingness
is one of the most endearing qualities of the poem. The poet presents through a special kind
of consciousness of microcosm reflecting in some significant way the macrocosm of the
universe. He also puts forth man's quest for his identity in this vast universe. Infact his
journey to Jejuri is his journey towards eternity. The poems prescribed although represents
three different themes, the common link between them is that they are the poet's account of
experience at Jejuri.

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