General Aspects of Digestion

The primary function of the digestive system

= to transfer nutrients, water, and electrolytes from the food we eat into the body’s
internal environment.

Ingested food is essential as an

= energy source, or fuel, from which the cells can generate ATP to carry out their
particular energy-dependent activities,

There are four basic digestive processes:

motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption.

MOTILITY
The term motility refers to the muscular contractions that mix and move forward the
contents of the digestive tract.
Tone = constant low level of contraction provided by phasic smooth muscle
Function of tone = maintaining a steady pressure on the contents of the digestive
tract as well as in preventing its walls from remaining permanently
stretched following distension.
Two kind of motility =
a. propulsive movements
b. mixing movements

Propulsive movements = propel or push the contents forward through the digestive tract,
with the rate of propulsion varying depending on the functions accomplished by the different
regions (gerakan untuk mendorong makanan)
Low rate of propulsion = small intestine
High rate of propulsion = esophagus

Mixing movements has two characteristics

a. by mixing food with the digestive juices
b. facilitate absorption by exposing all parts of the intestinal contents to the absorbing
surfaces of the digestive tract
Contraction of digestive system is mostly done by the smooth muscle, except =
1. the mouth through the early part of the esophagus at the beginning (chewing,
swallowing)
2. the external anal sphincter at the end (defecation)
*involves skeletal muscle = voluntary components
*contraction which is accomplished by smooth muscle = complex involuntary
mechanisms.

SECRETION
Secretion in digestive system consist of two
1. exocrine gland
2. endocrine gland

Exocrine gland
consisted of water, electrolytes, and specific organic constituents important in the digestive
process; electrolyte (Na, Cl, K, Ca)
to secrete exocrine it is required energy, both
a. for active transport of some of the raw materials into the cell (others diffuse in
passively) and,
 b. for synthesis of secretory products by the endoplasmic reticulum.
released into the digestive tract lumen
reabsorbed in one form or another back into the blood after their participation in digestion

by endocrine gland
secreted gastrointestinal hormones into the blood

DIGESTION
The term digestion refers to the biochemical breakdown of the structurally complex
foodstuffs of the diet into smaller, absorbable units by the enzymes produced within the
digestive system.
A. Digestion of carbohydrate
B. Digestion of protein
C. Digestion of fat
fats are in the form of triglycerides (neutral fats)
consisting of a glycerol with three fatty acid molecules attached
during digestion  monoglyceride, a glycerol molecule with one fatty acid
molecule attached
accomplished by enzymatic hydrolysis. (adding H2O at the bond site)

The digestive system consists of the

1. digestive (or gastrointestinal) tract plus
2. the accessory digestive organs (gastro means “stomach”)
1. the salivary glands,
2. the exocrine pancreas, and
3. the biliary system (liver and gallbladder)
the digestive tract is continuous (ie. tube, lumen of straw)
Separation between the content of the digestive tract and part of the body because
1. The pH of the stomach
2. The digestive enzymes
3. Quadrillions of living microorganisms
4. Foodstuffs are complex foreign particles (immune system reaction)

The digestive tract wall has four layers.

has the same general structure throughout most of its length from the esophagus to the anus,
they are (From the innermost layer outward)
1. The mucosa,
2. The submucosa,
3. The muscularis externa, and
4. The serosa

MUCOSA
The primary component of the mucosa is a mucous membrane
mucous membrane = an inner epithelial layer
mucous membrane ~ serves as a protective surface
contains
1. exocrine gland cells for secretion of digestive juices,
2. endocrine gland cells for secretion of blood-borne gastrointestinal hormones, and
3. epithelial cells specialized for absorbing digested nutrients.
lamina propria = thin middle layer of connective tissue
~ houses the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
GALT ~ in the defense against disease-causing intestinal bacteria
muscularis mucosa = sparse layer of smooth muscle

generally highly folded, ridges and valleys

~ greatly increase the surface area available for absorption
High folding = small intestine
Low folding = esophagus

SUBMUCOSA
provides the digestive tract with its distensibility and elasticity
contains the larger blood and lymph vessels
a nerve network known as the submucosal plexus lies within the submucosa (plexus means
“network”).

MUSCULARIS EXTERNA
the major smooth muscle coat of the digestive tube
1. an inner circular layer (encircle the tube.)
2. an outer longitudinal layer (runs longitudinally along the length)
Inner circular layer contractions = decreases the diameter of the lumen, constricting the tube
at the point of contraction.
outer longitudinal layer = shortens the tube
produces the propulsive and mixing movements.
the myenteric plexus

SEROSA
secretes a watery, slippery fluid
~ lubricates and prevents friction between the digestive organs and surrounding viscera
continuous with the mesentery

Regulation of digestive function is complex and synergistic.

Four factors are involved in regulating digestive system function:
1. autonomous smooth muscle function,
2. intrinsic nerve plexuses,
3. extrinsic nerves, and
4. gastrointestinal hormones.

AUTONOMOUS SMOOTH MUSCLE FUNCTION

rhythmic, spontaneous variations in membrane potential. (some specialized smooth muscle
cells)
self-induced electrical activity = slow-wave potentials = basic electrical rhythm (BER)
interstitial cells of Cajal = Musclelike cells = the pacemaker cells that instigate cyclic slow-
wave act.
- lie at the boundary between the longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layers.
- Slow waves are not action potentials and do not directly induce muscle contraction,
only if its peak.
- Slow waves are rhythmic, wavelike fluctuations in membrane potential
- ~ cyclically bring the membrane closer to or farther from threshold potential.
- * underlying mechanism responsible for slow-wave oscillations is uncertain
- * If these waves reach threshold at the peaks of depolarization, a volley of action
potentials is triggered at each peak, resulting in rhythmic cycles of muscle
contraction.
- connected with smooth muscle cells by gap junctions (charge-carrying ions can
flow)
o Electrical activity initiated in a digestive tract pacemaker cell spreads to
the adjacent contractile smooth muscle cells.
o Behaves like a functional syncytium, becoming excited and contracting
- * If threshold is not achieved, the oscillating slow-wave electrical activity continues
to sweep across the muscle sheet without being accompanied by contractile activity.
- threshold is reached depends on the effect of various mechanical, neural, and
hormonal factors
- example = food is present  depolarizing slow-wave peak reaches threshold  AP
and contract
- (vice versa)
The rate (frequency) of self-induced rhythmic digestive contractile activities depends on
the inherent rate established by the involved pacemaker cells.
The intensity (strength) of these contractions depends on
the number of action potentials that occur when the slow-wave potential reaches
threshold, and
how long threshold is sustained.
At threshold =
Voltage-gated Ca2 channels are activated  resulting in Ca2 influx into the smooth
muscle cell
The resultant Ca2 entry has two effects:
1. It is responsible for the rising phase of an action potential,
2. triggers a contractile response
* The greater the number of action potentials, the higher the cytosolic Ca2
concentration  the greater the cross-bridge activity, and the stronger the
contraction
* the cytosolic Ca2 concentration is the key to control the contractile activity.
with the falling phase being brought about as usual by K efflux

INTRINSIC NERVE PLEXUSES

two major networks of nerve fibers
1. the submucosal plexus, and
2. the myenteric plexus
* termed the enteric nervous system
Various types of local neurons
1. sensory neurons (respond to specific local stimuli)
2. neurons innervate the smooth muscle cells (digestive tract motility)
3. neurons innervate the exocrine and endocrine cells (secretion of digestive juices,
and secretion of
gastrointestinal hormones)
4. the output neurons are excitatory = neurons that release acetylcholine = promote
contraction
5. the output neurons are inhibitory = release the neurotransmitters nitric oxide and
vasoactive intestinal peptide = relaxation

EXTRINSIC NERVES
branches of the autonomic nervous system
~ Function = digestive tract motility and secretion either by modifying ongoing activity in
the intrinsic plexuses, altering the level of gastrointestinal hormone secretion, or, in some
instances, acting directly on the smooth muscle and glands.
1. The sympathetic system = “fight-or-flight” situations
2. The parasympathetic nervous system = “restand-digest” situations = general
maintenance types of activities such as digestion
Unique to the parasympathetic nerve supply to the digestive tract =
the postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibers are actually a part of the intrinsic
nerve plex.
vagus nerve, can be discretely activated to modify only digestive activity (act of
anticipation)
* the act of chewing food reflexly increases not only salivary secretion but also stomach,
pancreatic, and liver secretion via vagal reflexes in anticipation of the arrival of food.

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES
within the mucosa of digestive tract
release hormones into the blood to certain areas of the body (e.g neurons in the brain)

Receptor activation alters digestive activity through neural reflexes and

hormonal pathways.
three types of sensory receptors * respond to local changes in the digestive tract
1. chemoreceptors sensitive to chemical components within the
lumen,
2. mechanoreceptors (pressure receptors) sensitive to
stretch or tension within the wall, and
 3. osmoreceptors sensitive to the osmolarity of the luminal contents.
effector cells in the digestive system =
1. smooth muscle cells (for modifying motility),
2. exocrine gland cells (for controlling secretion of digestive juices), and
3. endocrine gland cells (for varying secretion of gastrointestinal hormones)
Receptor activation may bring about two types of neural reflexes
1. short reflexes and
2. long reflexes
Short reflex = autonomic reflexes are located within the wall of the digestive tract
* the intrinsic nerve networks influence local motility or secretion in response to specific
local stimulation
Long reflex = autonomic reflexes involve long pathways between the central nervous system
and digestive system
* Extrinsic autonomic nervous activity can be superimposed on the local controls
gastrointestinal hormones triggered by
1. local changes
2. short reflex
3. long reflex
sensory receptors (within the digestive tract wall) monitor
1. luminal content and
2. wall tension
* the plasma membranes of the digestive system’s effector cells have receptor proteins that
bind with and respond to gastrointestinal hormones, neurotransmitters, and local chemical
mediators.

*regulated by synergistic, interrelated pathways

Clinical notes
Because enamel cannot be regenerated after the tooth has erupted,
any defects (dental caries, or “cavities”) that develop in the enamel =
 must be patched by artificial fillings, or else the surface will continue to erode into the
underlying living pulp.

Malocclusion = abnormal positioning of the teeth

Caused either by
1. overcrowding of teeth
2. one jaw being displaced in relation to the other
can cause,
1. abnormal wearing of affected tooth surfaces
2. cannot accomplish their normal cutting and grinding action adequately.
3. dysfunction and pain of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
corrected by = applying braces, which exert prolonged gentle pressure against the teeth
to move them gradually to the desired position.

Xerostomia = problems associated with diminished salivary secretion

The symptoms could be,
1. difficulty in chewing and swallowing
2. inarticulate speech unless frequent sips of water are taken when talking
3. a rampant increase in dental caries unless special precautions are taken.

SALIVARY SECRETION AND ITS REGULATION

COLON CONTAINS MYRIAD BENEFICIAL BACTERIA

Why is colon?
1. slow colonic movement, bacteria have time to grow and accumulate in the large
intestine.
2. the colon does not secrete antibacterial agents
Facts about colon bacteria
1. About 10 times more bacteria live in the human colon than the human body has
cells.
2. An estimated 500 to 1000 different species of bacteria typically live in the colon.
3. These colonic microorganisms not only are typically harmless, in fact are beneficial.
What’s the benefit of colonic microorganisms?
1. enhance intestinal immunity (competing with potentially pathogenic microbes for
nutrients and
space)
2. promote colonic motility
3. help maintain colonic mucosal integrity
4. make nutritional contributions (bacteria synthesize absorbable vitamin K and raise
colonic acidity, thereby promoting the absorption of calcium, magnesium, and zinc.)
*some of the glucose released during bacterial processing of dietary fiber is absorbed by the
colonic mucosa.

GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES
Three major GIT hormones:
1. gastrin,
2. secretin, and
3. CCK
4. GIP (new member)

GASTRIN
Gastrin secretion is stimulated by = Protein in the stomach
Function =
1. increase secretion of HCl and pepsinogen = initiating digestion of protein
2. enhances gastric motility, stimulates ileal motility, relaxes the ileocecal sphincter,
and induces mass movements in the colon = moving
3. It also is trophic not only to the stomach mucosa but also to the small-intestine
 mucosa
gastrin secretion is inhibited by
1. accumulation of acid in the stomach
2. by the presence in the duodenal lumen of acid

SECRETIN
Secretin secretion is stimulated by =
1. he stomach empties into duodenum
2. presence of acid in the duodenum
Function =
1. inhibits gastric emptying
2. inhibits gastric secretion
3. stimulates the pancreatic duct cells (NaHCO3 secretion)
4. stimulates secretion by the liver of a NaHCO 3-rich bile
5. Secretin and CCK are both trophic to the exocrine pancreas.
*NaHCO3- is emptied into the duodenum to assist in the neutralization process
Neutralization of the acidic chyme in the duodenum =
1. prevent damage to the duodenal walls and
2. provides a suitable environment for the optimal functioning of the pancreatic
digestive enzymes

CCK
CCK is stimulated by =
1. fat and other nutrients enter the duodenum (fat is the most significant signal)
Function =
1. inhibits gastric motility and secretion
2. stimulates the pancreatic acinar cells to increase secretion of pancreatic enzymes
3. causes contraction of the gallbladder and relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi
4. implicated in long-term adaptive changes in the proportion of pancreatic enzymes
produced in response to prolonged changes in diet.
5. plays a key role in satiety, the sensation of having had enough to eat

GIP gastric inhibitory peptide

Term now glucose-dependent insulinotrophic peptide (GIP)
Stimulated by = the presence of a meal, especially glucose
Function
1. stimulates insulin release by the pancreas
*body has to shift its metabolic gears to use and store the newly arriving nutrients

INTESTINAL GASES
= intestinal gases = flatus
1. swallowed air (as much as 500 ml of air may be swallowed during a meal)
2. gas produced by bacterial fermentation in the colon
borborygmi = gas percolating through the luminal contents gives rise to gurgling sounds
Eructation = removes most of the swallowed air from the stomach
Food producing gas = beans

LARGE INTESTINE ABSORBS SALT AND WATER

Why colon absorbs salt and water?
1. luminal surface of the colon is fairly smooth
2. has considerably less absorptive surface area than the small intestine
3. not equipped with extensive specialized transport mechanisms
active absorption = Sodium
passive absorption = Cl-
osmotic absorption = H2O
The fecal material consists of = undigested cellulose, bilirubin, bacteria, and small amounts of
salt.
* the digestive tract is not a major excretory passageway for eliminating wastes from the
body.
* The main waste product excreted in the feces is bilirubin
* Bacteria account for nearly one third the dry weight of feces.

LARGE INTESTINE SECRETION

Secretion = alkaline (NaHCO3) mucus solution
Function =
1. to protect the large-intestine mucosa from mechanical and chemical injury.
2. provides lubrication to facilitate passage of the feces (mucus)
3. neutralizes irritating acids produced by local bacterial fermentation (NaHCO3)
Stimulated by = mechanical and chemical stimulation of the colonic mucosa
Mediated by = short reflexes and parasympathetic innervation

HOW TO FORM FECES?

Absorption process in the colon.

What’s CONSTIPATION?
Caused by = too long delayed defecation (more than the usual amount of H2O is absorbed,
dry and hard)
1. ignoring the urge to defecate;
2. decreased colon motility accompanying aging, emotion, or a lowbulk diet;
3. obstruction of fecal movement in the large bowel caused by a local tumor or
colonic spasm;
4. impairment of the defecation reflex, such as through injury of the nerve pathways
involved.
These symptoms =
1. abdominal discomfort,
2. dull headache,
3. loss of appetite sometimes accompanied by nausea, and
4. mental depression.
* these symptoms are not caused by toxins absorbed from the retained fecal material.
* symptoms associated with constipation are caused by prolonged distension of the large
intestine, particularly the rectum

Constipation and appendicitis

Definition of Appendicitis = The inflamed appendix
Pathogenesis of Appendicitis = becomes swollen and filled with pus; the tissue may die
Caused by fecal material becomes lodged in the appendix  Obstruct normal circulation and
mucus secretion in this narrow, blind-ended appendage

HOW FECES ARE ELIMINATED?

By defecation reflex
Caused by = the resultant distension of the rectum  stimulates stretch receptors in the
rectal wall  reflex (defecation reflex) 
1. internal anal sphincter (which is smooth muscle) to relax and the rectum and
sigmoid colon to contract more vigorously (urge to defecate)
2. external anal sphincter (which is skeletal muscle) is also relaxed (voluntary
control)
*defecation can be delayed over the time, until the next mass movement propel
more feces into rectum
Defecation is assisted by (usually) voluntary straining movements (yang membuat
mengejan)
~ simultaneous contraction of the abdominal muscles and
~ a forcible expiration against a closed glottis
 * This maneuver greatly increases intra-abdominal pressure, which helps expel
the feces.

MASS MOVEMENT in the lumen of Colon

FACTS:
1. Contraction of ascending and transverse colon = Three to four times a day,
2. The name of massive and simultaneous contraction = mass movements
3. Function of mass movement is to drive the colonic contents into the distal part of the
large intestine
4. gastrocolic reflex = by gastrin and extrinsic autonomic nerves from stomach to
colon
a. triggered by food enters the stomach
b. caused mass movements
5. *example of gastrocolic reflex = after the first meal  urge to defecate

CONTRACTION BY HAUSTRA?
Taeniae coli = The outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer; three separate, conspicuous,
longitudinal bands of muscle
Haustra = active material of a full skirt is gathered at the narrower waistband
haustral contractions =

ABSORPTION OF THE NUTRIENT

anything absorbed into the digestive capillaries first must pass through the hepatic
biochemical factory before entering the general circulation.
Because = The venules that leave the small-intestine villi, along with those from the rest of
the digestive tract, empty into the hepatic portal vein, which carries the blood to the liver.
What happens?
1. metabolic processing
2. detoxified by the liver of the harmful substances
After passing through the portal circulation, the venous blood from the digestive system
empties into the vena cava and returns to the heart to be distributed throughout the body,
carrying glucose and amino acids for use by the tissues.

Except the Fat

Because fat cannot penetrate the intestinal capillaries, it is picked up by the central lacteal
and enters the lymphatic system instead;
How fat could gain access to the blood?
From the lymph  thoracic duct  the systemic circulation to the liver and to other tissues
of the body.

When does the live get the chance to digest fat?

After the dilution process of fat by the blood

What’s the advantage of this mechanism?

dilution of fat protects the liver from being inundated with more fat than it can handle at one
time.

What’s diarrhea? The condition which is characterized by passage of a highly fluid fecal
matter, often with increased frequency of defecation.
Sign of diarrhea? loss of fluid and an acid-base imbalance

Why diarrhea is harmful?

Excessive loss of intestinal contents causes
1. dehydration,
2. loss of nutrient material, and
3. metabolic acidosis
What’s the cause of diarrhea?
1. excessive smallintestinal motility by bacterial or viral infection
2. excess osmotically active particles in lactase deficiency
3. Toxins of the bacterium Vibrio cholera promote the secretion of excessive amounts
of fluid by the small-intestine mucosa, resulting in profuse diarrhea.
Absorption of nutrient
Carbohydrate and protein are both absorbed by secondary active transport
and enter the blood.
Transported by = Na-dependent symport

CARBOHYDRATE ABSORPTION
Carbohydrate in small intestine, mainly in the form of disaccharides
1. maltose (the product of polysaccharide digestion),
2. sucrose, and
3. lactose
the absorbable monosaccharide units
1. glucose,
2. galactose, and
3. fructose
Glucose and galactose are both absorbed into the interior of the intestinal cells by
= secondary active transport, in which symport carriers, such as the sodium and
glucose cotransporter (SGLT)
*SGLT is luminal membrane transport for both monosaccharide and Na+:
*depends on the Na concentration gradient
*established by the energy-consuming basolateral Na-K pump
Glucose and galactose are both transported into blood lumen by
= facilitated diffusion (because Glucose (or galactose), having been concentrated in
the cell)
= via GLUT-2 (facilitated diffusion)
* recent evidence suggests that a significant amount of glucose crosses the epithelial barrier
through the leaky tight junctions between the epithelial cells.

Fructose is absorbed into lumen via GLUT-5 (facilitated diffusion)

And entered the blood lumen solely via GLUT-2 (facilitated diffusion)
PROTEIN ABSORPTION
Two kind of protein
1. endogenous protein
2. ingested protein

Berbagai macam endogenous protein yang ada di tubuh berasal dari

1. enzim pencernaan
2. protein yang terdorong dari villi ke lumen (mucosal turnover)
3. protein plasma yang bocor (leak) dari kapiler ke lumen digestive tract
* All endogenous proteins must be digested and absorbed along with the dietary proteins to
prevent depletion of the body’s protein stores

Asam amino yang dikonsumsi digunakan used primarily to synthesize new protein in the
body.
Protein diabsorpsi oleh tubuh dalam dua bentuk
1. asam amino
2. peptide fragment
Protein diabsorpsi oleh symporter; dengan symporter yang unik, berbeda untuk asam amino
satu dengan lainnya
Small peptide fragment diabsorpsi oleh
= another Na-dependent carrier = tertiary active transport
Protein ditransport bersamaan dengan H+
* driven by H moving down its concentration gradient
* the peptide moving against its concentration gradient

Gradien H+ di lumen
The H gradient is established by an antiporter in the luminal membrane
* Na+ moving into the cell down its concentration gradient and,
* H+ moving out of the cell against its concentration gradient.
* The Na concentration gradient that drives the antiporter in turn is established by the
energy-dependent Na-K pump at the basolateral membrane.
The small peptides are broken down into their constituent amino acids
= by the aminopeptidases in the brush-border membrane or by intracellular
peptidases
Digested fat is absorbed passively and enters the lymph.
Mengapa lemak dibedakan dalam proses penyerapan
1. the insolubility of fat in water
Bagaimana pencernaan lemak?
Dicerna menggunakan bile, garam empedu
large droplets are dispersed into a lipid emulsification of small droplets
*fungsinya exposing a much greater surface area of fat for digestion by pancreatic lipase

Bagaimana absorpsi lemak?

Dibantu oleh bile, garam empedu
*these fatty end products by forming micelles

Bagaimana proses absorpsi lemak?

Lemak melalui lipid component of the epithelial cell membranes  interior of the cells
= passive process

Proses apa yang terjadi pada lemak di dalam sel?

the monoglycerides and free fatty acids are resynthesized into triglycerides.
triglycerides conglomerate into droplets
droplets are coated with a layer of lipoprotein
*water soluble
Named = chylomicrons

Bagaimana proses peredaran lemak dalam tubuh?

Chylomicrons dikeluarkan oleh tubuh melalui by exocytosis from the epithelial cells into the
interstitial fluid within the villus.
Chylomicrons go to the central lacteals
* Capillaries have a basement membrane (an outer layer of polysaccharides)
* lymph vessels do not have this barrier.
Bagaimana absorpsi vitamin?
Harus dibedakan Water-soluble vitamins dan fat-soluble vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins = primarily absorbed passively with water
fat-soluble vitamins = carried in the micelles and absorbed passively with the end products
of fat digestion

Bagaimana absorpsi vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 = it must be in combination with gastric intrinsic factor

Menggunakan proses apa absorpsi vitamin B12?

by receptor-mediated endocytosis in the terminal ileum.

Bagaimana absorpsi Elektrolit, Zat Besi, dan Kalsium?

Khas = may not be absorbed completely
Karena = their absorption is subject to regulation, depending on the body’s needs for these
electrolytes.

Bagaimana absorpsi zat besi (iron)? *jika dibutuhkan

Two main steps
(1) absorption of iron from the lumen into small intestine epithelial cells and (actively
transported)
(2) absorption of iron from the epithelial cells into the blood

* women having about four times more activetransport sites for iron than men.
Absorption of iron from the lumen into small intestine

Jenis asupan zat besi dalam tubuh

1. heme iron = is present in meat,
2. inorganic iron = is present in plants
* Dietary heme is absorbed more efficiently than inorganic iron is
Because inorganic iron is mostly in the form of Fe3+ (ferri)
But, Fe2+ (ferro) form is absorbed more easily.

* The presence of other substances in the lumen can either promote or reduce iron
absorption
Zat apa yang meningkatkan absorpsi zat besi?
vitamin C karena meningkatkan reduksi Fe3+  Fe2+

Zat apa yang menurunkan absorpsi zat besi?

Phosphate and oxalate
Karena kedua zat tersebut combine with ingested iron to form insoluble iron salts that
cannot be absorbed

Bagaimana absorpsi zat besi?

Melalui proses separate energy-dependent carriers in the brush border
Menggunakan
1. heme carrier protein 1
2. divalent metal transporter 1

Apa fungsi absorpsi zat besi?

1. Immediately use
2. Not immediately use
Immediately use = absorbed into the blood for delivery to the bone marrow
Not immediately use = irreversibly stored within the small-intestine epithelial cells