Fundamentals of Computer Science (ES1112) R19

UNIT-V
Emerging Computer Technologies & Wireless Networks
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Distributed Networking
Distributed ​indicates that the computing resources are spread over more than one computer.This is
usually implemented over a network.Client–server computing is a popular form of distributed
computing. Key terms used in distributed networking are
Distributed Computing: ​It is a branch of computer science that studies distributed systems and uses
them to solve computational programs. A complex task is divided into many smaller tasks, each of
which is solved by one or more computers that are physically distributed within some geographical area.
Distributed System: ​It is a system where computers are spread over a network for communication and
coordination with each other. Distributed systems are widely used because of the following reasons:
• It Enables the data produced by one computer to be processed by another computer
• For complex and time-consuming applications, it is always more efficient to execute the
application using a cluster of low-end computers than using a single computer
• Provides More reliability than a non-distributed system
• It is More scalable and manageable
• It Enables an application hosted and executed on one computer to be accessed by several
computers
The Program that runs on a distributed system is called ​Distributed Program​. Process of writing
Distributed Programs is called​ Distributed Programming​.
Parallel Computing is a tightly coupled system in which all processors access a shared memory to
exchange information between them whereas Distributed Computing is a loosely coupled system in
which each processor has its own private memory.
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Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Computing
P2P network is a type of network where each computer has the same capabilities and responsibilities.
This is in contrast to client-server or master-slave architecture where some computers have higher

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capabilities (called server) than others (clients). P2P networks are simple but give low performance
under heavy loads.
In P2P network, either party can initiate communication. These networks are widely used on the Internet
to share files, printers, and other devices among different users.
To exchange files, users must first download P2P networking program. Then they must enter the address
of the computer to which they want to connect. Once the connection is established, files can be
exchanged between two computers. P2P networks handle the traffic by distributing the load across many
computers.
As resources are distributed across P2P networks, this system provides
➔ Higher storage and access capacity
➔ Improved Reliability
➔ Improved Security

Figure: P2P Network

Categorization of P2P Systems:
A. Degree of Decentralization
• Centralized: A central server that executes vital functions and act as a directory server that
stores information about the computers and resources available in the network
• Pure decentralized: No central server. Autonomous and self-organizing systems as the peer
computers are responsible for the functioning and viability of the network
• Hybrid: ​Combines the advantages of centralized and pure decentralized architectures

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B. Degree of Structure
• Unstructured: Nodes and data are positioned in an ad hoc manner in the network without
certain rules
• Structured: ​Nodes and data are placed in a structured way to enable the peer computers to
efficiently locate data
• Centralized unstructured: ​A central server maintains an index of the resources available in the
network. If the server fails, whole system will stop functioning
• Pure decentralized unstructured: ​No central server and all nodes are directly connected to one
another
• Hybrid unstructured: Maintains computers in a hierarchy. ​Supernodes ​form the highest level
in hierarchy
• Pure decentralized structured: ​Maintains resources in a structured way to allow efficient
retrieval

Applications of Peer-to-Peer Networks

• Enables users to collaborate on certain tasks within groups
• Support file sharing and distributed storage applications
• If a peer computer hosting a resource goes down, then the client requesting that resource must be
switched to another peer computer if the same resource is available with any other peer
• Some mechanism must be implemented to ensure authenticity of content and to verify that a peer
computer does not behave maliciously

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• May degenerate to a client–server network when significant network traffic is routed to a smaller
number of hosts for a scarcer content
• Usually implemented using low-cost hardware. This may lead to system failures
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Grid Computing
● A new technology that coordinates the use of computer resources such as processor capacity,
sensors, software, storage capacity, and data.
● Million computers of different types (laptops desktops, supercomputers, and mobile phones)
from all over the world are connected together to form a single huge super-powerful computer
which is called the grid.
● Grid Computing supports features such as interoperability, security, quality of service,
standardized infrastructure, fault tolerance, scalability and self-organization.
● Grid Computing enables researchers and scientists all over the world to analyze and store
massive amounts of data.
● The grid will be a global network of computers operating as a vast computational resource.
● A grid computing system can be as simple as a collection of simple computers using the same
operating system or as complex as an nter-networked system in which each computer runs on a
different operating system.

Figure: Grid Computing System

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Grid computing can be used for a wide range of applications. For example, a scientist studying proteins
can use it to analyze data; a businessman can use to forecast the future of a particular stock etc.,

Components of Grid Computing

A central server is used to prioritize and schedule tasks across the network, determine resources that
each task will be authorized to access, monitor the system to check that it is not overloaded, and ensure
that the performance of any individual node connected to the network does not drop.
A special grid computing software acts as an interface for the users as well as for the resources the
system will tap into for different applications.
A ​middleware software is used to enable heterogeneous computers to run different applications across
the grid. Without middleware, communication across the system would be impossible.
Major Concern in a Grid Computing is ​Security. ​So, the central server and middleware software work
together to protect the system from malicious hackers.

Applications and Considerations of Grid Computing

Use of Grid Computing for academic and research projects are on a constant rise. Two most popular
applications of Grid Computing are:
1. Search for extra-terrestrial intelligence (SETI) project: This project analyses the data
collected by radio telescopes to search for evidence for intelligent alien communications.
2. Folding project: This project is undertaken to study how proteins take certain shapes (called
folds) and what effects these folds have on the functioning of the proteins.
Major Concern:
Without standardization, it will be very time consuming and difficult for application programmers to
create applications that work on different systems. As of now, many existing grid computing systems
work on proprietary software and tools. However, if every grid system uses a mutually agreed reliable
set of standards, then it will be easier and more efficient for organizations to adopt the grid computing
model. An efficient and effective grid computing system will enable users to complete their goals in
relatively less time.
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Cloud Computing
Cloud: ​The term ​Cloud​ refers to a ​Network​ or ​Internet.​ Cloud is something, which is present at
remote location. Cloud can provide services over public and private networks, i.e., WAN, LAN or VPN
(Virtual Private Network). Applications such as e-mail, web conferencing, customer relationship
management (CRM) execute on cloud.

Cloud Computing​: It refers to ​manipulating, configuring​ and ​accessing​ the hardware and software
resources remotely. It offers online data storage, infrastructure, and application.

Entities in cloud computing includes:

End-users​, who are unaware of the underlying technology
Business management,​ which is responsible for the governance of the data or services in the cloud
Cloud service providers​, who provide a predictable, guaranteed, and secure service to all their
constituents and are responsible for the information technology (IT) assets and maintenance

Characteristics of Cloud Computing Systems

According to NIST, (National Institute of Standards and Technology), there are five essential
characteristics of a cloud computing.

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1. On Demand Self Service: User gets on demand self-services. User can get computer services like
email, applications etc. without interacting with each service provider. Some of the cloud service
providers’ are- Amazon Web Service, Microsoft, IBM, Salesforce.com
2. Broad network access: Cloud services are available over the network and can be accessed through
different clients such as mobile, laptops etc.
3. Resource pooling: Same resources can be used by more than one customer at a same time. For
example- storage, network bandwidth can be used by any number of customers and without knowing the
exact location of that resource.
4. Rapid elasticity:​ Allocation of resources can increase or decrease depending on the user’s demand
5. Measured service: Resources used by the users can be monitored, controlled. This reports is
available for both cloud providers and consumer. On the basis of this measured reports cloud systems
automatically controls and optimizes the resources based on the type of services like Storage,
processing, bandwidth etc.
6. Scalability: The cloud can scale upwards when the user’s demands are high and downwards when
there is little demand.
7. Standardized interfaces: Cloud services support standardized application programming interfaces
(APIs)
8​. ​Billing and service usage metering: ​Users pay only for the resources they had actually used
9. Self-healing: ​Maintain backup of data and applications
10. Multi-tenancy: ​Allows several users to ​share resources without compromising the privacy and
security
11. Virtualized: ​Multiple applications can run on one ​computer or multiple computers can be used to
run one application

Cloud Computing Services

Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS): ​This ​provides access to fundamental resources such as physical
machines, virtual machines, virtual storage, etc. These resources are accessed by the customers as if they
own them. ​IaaS allows the cloud provider to freely locate the infrastructure over the Internet in a
cost-effective manner.

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Characteristics of IaaS service model:

● Virtual machines with pre-installed software.
● Virtual machines with pre-installed operating systems such as Windows, Linux, and Solaris.
● On-demand availability of resources.
● Allows to store copies of particular data at different locations.
● The computing resources can be easily scaled up and down.

Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS): ​This model provides development platform and tools on its own
infrastructure and makes them available to customers over the internet.
Characteristics of PaaS service model:
● PaaS offers browser based development environment. It allows the developer to create database
and edit the application code either via Application Programming Interface or point-and-click
tools.
● PaaS provides built-in security, scalability, and web service interfaces.
● PaaS also provides web services interfaces that allow us to connect the applications outside the
platform.

Software-as–a-Service (SaaS): This model allows providing software application as a service to the
end users. It refers to software that is deployed on a host service and is accessible via Internet.
Characteristics of SaaS service model:
● SaaS makes the software available over the Internet.
● The software applications are maintained by the vendor.
● The license to the software may be subscription based or usage based. And it is billed on
recurring basis.
● SaaS applications are cost-effective since they do not require any maintenance at end user side.
● They are available on demand.
● They can be scaled up or down on demand.
● They are automatically upgraded and updated.
● SaaS offers shared data model. Therefore, multiple users can share single instance of
infrastructure.
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Cloud Deployment Models

Deployment models define the type of access to the cloud, i.e., how the cloud is located? Cloud can have
any of the four types of access: Public, Private, Hybrid, and Community.
Public Cloud
The ​public cloud​ allows systems and services to be easily accessible to the general public for free or
pay-per-use basis. Public cloud may be less secure because of its openness. Google, Amazon, and
Microsoft are renowned public cloud providers.
Private Cloud
The ​private cloud​ allows systems and services to be accessible within an organization. It provides
hosted services to a limited number of people (employees within the organization). It is more secured
because of its private nature.
Community Cloud
The ​community cloud​ allows systems and services to be accessible by a group of organizations.
Infrastructure and costs are shared by the group of organizations.
Hybrid Cloud
The ​hybrid cloud​ is a mixture of public and private cloud, in which the critical activities are performed
using private cloud while the non-critical activities are performed using public cloud.

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Cloud Computing Architecture

The cloud infrastructure is closely related to its architecture & comprises of many cloud component
which is loosely connected. The broad divisions of cloud architecture are:
✔ Front-end (User Interface)
✔ Back-end (Cloud)

The cloud technology architecture consists of front-end platforms called the cloud client which
comprises servers, thin & fat client, tablets & mobile devices. While back end refers to the cloud itself, it
comprises of the resources that are required for cloud computing services. It consists of virtual
machines, servers, data storage, security mechanism etc. It is under provider control. The interaction is
done through middleware or via web-browser. According to Jason Bloomberg, the cloud-oriented
architecture can essentially be the building block of IoT (Internet of Things) in which anything can be
connected to the internet. It is the responsibility of the back-end to provide the security of data for cloud
users along with the traffic control mechanism.

Cloud Computing systems require at least twice the number of storage devices it actually needs to
satisfy users. They store a backup of users’ data (redundant data) so that even if one or more devices
fail, the system can continue to satisfy users with its backup copy.

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The cloud architecture is a combination of both services oriented architecture & event-driven
architecture. Unlike subscription-based models of pricing, payment structure of the cloud enables the
user to subscribe to vendor services & cloud infrastructures and pay on a 'pay-per-use' basis.

Cloud Computing Applications

✔ Cloud Computing offers countless applications ranging from word processing software to
complex customized computer programs designed for a specific application. So, big
organizations need not spend much for buying expensive software. They rather pay a metered
fee.
✔ Users are able to access their applications and data from anywhere and at any time.
✔ Cloud computing offers advanced hardware to the organizations to bring down their costs.
✔ Enables users to utilize the entire network’s processing power.
✔ Scientists and Researchers can perform their complex calculations on the cloud.
✔ Email on the go 
✔ Application Development 
✔ Backup personal Information 
✔ Online storage management 
✔ Extra processing power 

Cloud Computing Concerns

The two main concerns are security and privacy. The possibility of another company gaining access to
their confidential data is a cause of concern for many users. Measures for coping with these issues are:
✔ Authentication: Provides access to data and applications only to those users with correct
username and password.
✔ Authorization:​ Allows each user to access only the data and applications relevant to his/her job.
✔ Detection and forensics: Implements techniques that can easily separate legitimate activities
from illegitimate ones.
✔ Encryption: Confidential data can be stored in an encrypted form so that even if an illegitimate
user gets to access that data, he/she would not be able to interpret its right meaning

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✔ Identity Management: I​ t manages personal identity information to efficiently control access to

computer resources, applications, data and services offered by it.
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Wireless Networks
Introduction
• A computer network that uses radio waves to connect computing devices. It is a cost-effective
means to access the internet. When we access the internet at either hotels, airports, or other
public places, we are doing it through wireless networks.
• Enables users to conveniently access network resources from any location within its coverage
area.
• Users are no longer tied to the desk as in the case of a wired connection.
• Helps users to be more productive as they can work as per their convenience.
• Can be easily installed. They are also inexpensive as no wires are used.
• Wireless networks are more scalable, so new devices can be easily added with the existing
equipment. No additional wiring is required.
• Allows multiple devices to simultaneously use the same wireless connection.
Wireless links can be provided through the following techniques:
1. Terrestrial microwave:
2. Communication satellites
3. Radio technologies and
4. Optical Communication
Properties of each of the wireless technologies includes Performance, Space and Shared Resources.

Wireless Network Operation

Like walkie-talkies, mobile phones, radios and televisions, a wireless network uses radio waves for
two-way communication in the following manner.
• Step 1: A wireless adapter receives the data from the computer and translates it into a radio
signal
• Step 2: The radio signal is then transmitted through an antenna

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• Step 3: A wireless router receives the radio signal and decodes it

• Step 4: The router sends the decoded data to the Internet via a physical, wired connection

At the receiver’s site, the same set of process takes place but in reverse. The router receives the data
from the Internet via a wired connection. It translates the data into radio signals and transmits it to the
computer’s wireless adapter.
A wireless network is often referred to as ​WiFi​, and an area with an accessible wireless network is
called a ​WiFi hotspot

Types of Wireless Networks

• Wireless personal area network (WPAN) ​is created by interconnecting devices within a
relatively small area.
• Wireless local area network (WLAN) ​links two or more devices over a short distance and
connects users to the Internet.
• Wireless mesh network ​is a wireless network of computing devices that are organized in a
mesh topology.
• Wireless metropolitan network (WMAN) ​is a wireless network that connects several WLANs.
• Wireless wide area network (WWAN) ​is ​used to cover large areas (e.g., towns and cities).
Usually, WWAN uses point-to-point microwave links.
• Global area network (GAN) ​uses terrestrial links to support mobile communications across an
arbitrary number of WLANs, satellite coverage areas, and so on.

Security in Wireless Networks

• Use WiFi Protected Access 2 (WPA2). Recommended security standard for WiFi networks. It
uses Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm for encryption and involves signing on
with a password.
• Avoid using routers that support WiFi Protected Setup feature. The WPS feature makes setting
up of the router very easy, giving hackers an easy opportunity to exploit the system.
• Use media access control (MAC) address filtering. To perform filtering based on the MAC

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address.
• Configure router to block requests from remote users, ​restrict the number of devices that can be
connected to the router, and disable remote administration so that network settings are changed
only by computers that are directly plugged into the router.

Limitations of Wireless Networks

• Interference ​which degrades the signal. It can occur either due to other networks or because of
devices that generate radio waves within, or close to, the radio bands used for communication
• Absorption Wireless networks ​suffer due to absorption of electromagnetic waves by some
materials, thereby preventing them from reaching the receiver
• Reflection Materials ​that are either metallic or conductive cause reflection which prevents
signals from being properly received
• Multipath ​fading: Reflection can cause a signal to take different routes before reaching the
receiver
• Hidden node problem: This problem occurs when a computer is visible from a WAP but seems
unavailable to other computers communicating with that WAP
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Bluetooth
Introduction
A wireless technology for exchanging data by using low-power radio communications. It is used to link
phones, PDAs, wireless headsets, computers, and other devices over short distances, typically up to 30
feet (10m). Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz of frequency range and allows devices to communicate at
less than 1 Mbps. Bluetooth networking is slower but also limited in range and supports fewer devices.
Bluetooth is commonly used in following applications:
• Used for transferring data and files between devices.
• Used for controlling hands-free headset from a mobile phone.
• Used to control a bluetooth compatible car stereo systems from a mobile phone.
• Used for enabling wireless communication between computers i/o devices.
• Used in the controls of and communication between devices where infrared is used.

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• Used for advertising products by using Bluetooth enabled hoardings to send advertisements to
other discoverable Bluetooth devices
• Used for transmitting health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phones.
• Used for tracking and identifying the location of objects in Real time location systems (RTLS).

Bluetooth Piconets
• Bluetooth networks support a dynamic topology called a ​piconet or PAN ​which may include two
to eight peer devices that can communicate using protocols
• For example, a smart home may have a stereo, DVD player, television, cordless phone, and
desktop computer. Each of these Bluetooth enabled devices forms its own piconet to
communicate with the main unit and peripherals
• Each piconet contains a single master device and up to seven slave devices
• The master device initiates transmissions, whereas the slave devices are responsible for
responding to the master.
• When two or more piconets overlap with each other, they form a scatternet.
• A Bluetooth device can participate in more than one piconet at the same time. However, at a
particular point of time, it can be active only in one of piconets.

Avoiding Interference in Bluetooth Devices

• Bluetooth uses a technique called ​spread-spectrum frequency hopping, i​ n which a device will use
79 individual, randomly chosen frequencies.
• The device will regularly change from one frequency to another.
• For example, a transmitter can change frequencies 1600 times per second, thereby reducing the
likelihood of two transmitters sending signals on the same frequency at the same time.
• Even if interference takes place, it will last only for a small fraction of a second.

Bluetooth Security
In any wireless network, security is a matter of prime concern. Therefore, devices sending sensitive
information over a wireless connection must take some precautions to ensure that their signals are not

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intercepted by malicious user’s device. Let us consider a common problem that can threaten the security
of data exchanged between two devices:
• An unknown person may send an infected file (virus) to the user’s mobile phone.
• Bluejacking ​is a security threat in which an unknown user sends a business card to other users.
• Bluebugging a​ llows hackers to illegally and remotely access a user’s phone to use its features
such as placing calls and sending text messages. The users are unaware of their phone being used
by another person.
• Car Whisperer ​is a software tool that hackers use to send and receive audio from a
Bluetooth-enabled car stereo.
Bluetooth offers several security modes which include the following:
• Users must maintain a list of trusted devices
• When an unknown bluetooth device tries to connect with the user’s device, the user has to decide
whether to permit connection with that device or ot.
• Bluetooth provides authorization and identification procedures to limit the use of Bluetooth
services to the registered user. It empowers users to decide whether to open a file or accept a data
transfer or not.
• ​ ode so that other devices cannot find it
A user can set his/her device to the ​non-discoverable m
and thus cannot connect with it.

Differences between Bluetooth and Wireless Networks

Many people think that Bluetooth is a good replacement for wireless networks. However, these are two
different technologies and each is specifically meant for a different set of applications. Both
technologies require different wireless connectivity and are not competing with each other. Rather, the
computing industry is working to bring the two technologies together. Some dissimilarities between the
two technologies are given below.

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