Electromagnetics

Definition
The Subject(course) focuses on the electromagnetic force and its
consequences. Even though the electromagnetic force operates at
the atomic scale, its effects can be transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic waves that can propagate through both free
space and material media.
Electromagnetics is the study of the effects of electric charges at
rest and in motion.
• Two kinds of charges exists.
positive charges & negative charges.
• The charges are the source of electric field.
• Moving charges produce a current which gives rise to a
magnetic field(Rate of flow of charges called electric current).
In other words:
Electromagnetics is a branch of electrical engineering in which
electric and magnetic phenomena are studied.
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 Applications
• EM principles are applied in disciplines such as:
• Microwaves, antennas, electric machines, satellite
communications, bio-electromagnetics, nuclear
research, fiber optics, electromagnetic
interference, electromechanical energy
conversion, radar, meteorology, remote sensing
and so on.
• EM devices include
• transformers , electric relays, radio, t.v,
telephone, electric motors, transmission lines,
waveguides, antennas, optical fibers, radars,
lasers and so on.
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3
 FIELD
Definition:
• It is a spatial (space)distribution of a quantity
which may or may not be a function of time.
• It is a function that specifies a particular quantity
everywhere in a region
• A time varying electric field is associated with a
magnetic field and vice versa. In other words, time
varying electric and magnetic fields are coupled,
resulting an electromagnetic field.
• Under certain conditions, time-dependent
(varying/changing) electromagnetic fields produce
waves that radiate /Propagate) from the source.
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 Vector Analysis
• Vector analysis provides the mathematical tools
necessary for expressing and using vector quantities
in an efficient and convenient manner.
• Vector Algebra
• Deals with addition, subtraction, and multiplication
of vectors (dot and cross products etc.)
• Vector Calculus
• Deals with differentiation and integration of vectors;
Examples:
• line, surface and volume integrals;
• Differentiation (Del operators 𝛻)
• Examples:
• Gradient of a scalar (𝛻V), divergence of a Vector
(𝛻. 𝐴), & curl of a vector (𝛻 × 𝐴 ). 5
• Vector
• a vector has magnitude and direction
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑎𝐴
• Where 𝐴 = 𝐴
• Unit Vector
• unit vector has a magnitude of one and specified in
a direction.
𝐴 𝐴
• 𝑎𝐴 = or
𝐴 𝐴
• Addition of Vectors

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 Product of Vectors
• Dot (Scalar ) Product
• The dot product of two vectors is a scalar
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝐴𝐵
• Where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the smallest angle between
𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.

• 𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴2
• if angle between two vectors is 90 degree than
the dot product becomes zero.
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• 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 , If angle is 180 degree
• The dot products of the unit vectors with same
subscripts is equal to 1
• 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑧 = 1
• zero with different subscripts
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑥 = 0

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 Cross (vector) Product
• The cross product of two vectors is a third
vector, which is perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors i.e.
• 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛

9
The cross product is not cumulative
𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴 i.e. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = −𝐵 × 𝐴
𝐴 ×𝐴 =0
𝑎𝑥 × 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 × 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧 × 𝑎𝑧 = 0
𝑎𝑥 × 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎𝑧 , 𝑎𝑦 × 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑧 × 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦
The Cross products of two vectors can be determined by
determent
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

𝐴 ×𝐵
= 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝑎𝑦
+ 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 𝑎𝑧 10
 Coordinate Systems
• EM deals with the quantities which are function of
space and time.
• In order to describe the spatial variation of the
quantity in a suitable manner, appropriate
coordinate systems are required.
• Choice of using coordinate system depends on the
nature of the problem (its physical geometry).
• Orthogonal coordinates are those in which
coordinates (variables ) are mutually perpendicular.
• Following coordinate system are mostly used.
• Rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system
• Cylindrical coordinate system
• Spherical coordinate system
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 Rectangular Coordinate System
• A point can be represented in space by variables x, y,
and z as shown in the figure.

• The ranges of coordinate variables x, y, z are

−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑦 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
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 Position Vector
• The position (radius) vector 𝑟𝑝 of point P is defined as
the directed distance from the origin O to P shown in
the figure

• 𝑟𝑝 = 𝑜𝑝 = 𝑥𝑎𝑥 +y𝑎𝑦 +z𝑎𝑧

• It defines position of point p in space

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 Distance Vector
The Distance Vector is the displacement of two vectors as
shown in the figures.

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 Cylindrical Coordinate System
The cylindrical coordinate system is very suitable where
problems having cylindrical symmetry.
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as 𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧
variable.
𝜌(rho) is the radius of the cylinder from the center up to
the body, 𝜙 is the angle measured from the x-axis in the xy-
plane and z (the length or height of the cylinder)is the
same as in rectangular coordinate system.
The ranges of the variables are
0<𝜌<∞
0 < 𝜙 < 2𝜋
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
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A vector 𝐴 in cylindrical coordinate system is written as
(𝐴𝜌 , 𝐴𝜙, 𝐴𝑧 ) or 𝐴 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝜙 +𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧

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17
 Spherical Coordinate System
• The spherical coordinate system used where problem has
spherical symmetry.
• Fig shows a spherical coordinate system where a point P
is represented by its coordinates 𝑟, 𝜃 and 𝜙
• 𝑟 is the radius from the origin to the point p,
• 𝜃 is the angle b/w the z-axis and the position vector p;
• 𝜙 is measured from x-axis as shown in the figure

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The ranges of the variables are:
0≤𝑟<∞
0≤𝜃<𝜋
0 ≤ 𝜙 < 2𝜋
A vector 𝐴 in Spherical coordinate system is written as :
(𝐴𝑟 , 𝐴𝜃, 𝐴𝜙 ),
or
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝑎𝜙

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Vector Calculus
Differential Length, Area and Volume
A. Cartesian Coordinates
• Differential Length or displacement
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧

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• Differential normal Area
• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑥
• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑦
• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑧

• The differential surface (area)

element 𝑑𝑠 is defined as
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠𝑎𝑛 ,
where 𝑎𝑛 is the unit vector normal
(perpendicular)to the surface element.

• Differential Volume
• 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
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B. Cylindrical System
Differential displacement :
• 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝜌𝑎𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧

The differential normal area

• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧𝑎𝜌

• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧𝑎𝜙

• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌𝑎𝑧

The differential volume

• 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
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• Spherical Coordinate
Differential displacement
• 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙

The differential normal area

• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟
• = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜃
• = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎𝜙

The differential volume

• 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

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 Line, Surface and Volume Integral
• Line Integral
The line integral is an integral of some functions say 𝐴 along
a path 𝑙.

The Line Integral is the integral of the tangential component

of A along curve 𝑙 .
𝐴. 𝑑𝑙
𝐿
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For a given Vector Field 𝐴 and a curve 𝑙 ,
𝑏
𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑙
𝐿 𝑎
is the line integral of 𝐴 around 𝑙 as shown in the figure. If
the path of integral is a closed curve, then it is written as
𝐴. 𝑑𝑙
𝐿

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• Surface Integral
The surface integral of a vector field is given by:

𝜓= 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐴. 𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑠

𝜓= 𝑠
𝐴. 𝑑𝑆

Where, at any point on S, 𝑎𝑛 is the unit normal to S. See the

figure.

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For a closed surface,
𝜓= 𝐴. 𝑑𝑆
The net outward flux of 𝐴 from S.
A closed path defines an open surface
A closed surface defined a volume.
The Volume integral of the scalar 𝜌𝑣 over the volume is
given as

𝜌 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑣

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 Del operator 𝛻
• The del operator, is a vector differential operator.
• Four types of operators are:
1. The gradient of a scalar V, and written as 𝛻V

2. The Divergence of a vector 𝐴, given by 𝛻. 𝐴

3. The Curl of a vector 𝐴, expressed as 𝛻 × 𝐴

4. The Laplacian of a scalar V written as 𝛻 2 V

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• 𝛻 operator in rectangular Coordinates
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

• 𝛻 operator in Cylindrical Coordinates

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑎𝜙 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

• 𝛻 operator in Spherical Coordinates

𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
𝛻 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙 29
The Gradient of Scalar Field V
• The space rate of change of some scalar field(V) is
called gradient of a scalar field and denoted by 𝛻𝑉
• Mathematical expression is obtained as:
difference in field 𝑑𝑉 between points P1 and P2
shown in the figure.

30
31
 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
• 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
• = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 . 𝑑𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
• Let denote the terms in first parenthesis by 𝐺 , then
• 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐺 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐺𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑇
• Or = 𝐺𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑇
• is maximum when 𝜃 = 0 i.e. when 𝑑𝑙 is in the direction of 𝐺
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
• = =𝐺
𝑑𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑛
𝑑𝑇
• Where is the normal derivative. Thus G has its magnitude
𝑑𝑛
and direction as those of the maximum rate of change T. By
definition, 𝐺 is the gradient of T. We may replace T with V a
scalar quantity in general. Thus
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
grad𝑉 = 𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
32
• In rectangular coordinate system:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• In Cylindrical coordinate system:
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑎𝜙 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
• In spherical coordinate system:
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑎𝜙
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙

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 Divergence of A Vector

• The Divergence of a vector field 𝐴 at a given point is the

net outward flux per unit volume as the volume about the
point tends to zero.
𝐴.𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
𝛻. 𝐴 = lim = + +
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

34
 Divergence Theorem
The divergence theorem states that:
the total outward flux of a vector field 𝐴 through
the closed surface 𝑆 is the same as the volume
integral of the divergence of 𝐴.

𝐴. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝛻. 𝐴 𝑑𝑣

The divergence theorem facilitates to convert a

closed surface integral into an open volume integral
and vice versa.

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 Curl of a vector

• The curl of a vector A is an axial (or

rotational ) vector whose magnitude is
the maximum net circulation of A per
unit area as area tends to zero and
whose direction is the normal direction
of a the area when the area is oriented
so as to make the net circulation
maximum.
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 𝐴.𝑑𝑙
• 𝛻×𝐴= lim 𝑎𝑛
∆𝑠→∞ ∆𝑆
• Where ∆𝑆 is bounded by the curve L and 𝑎𝑛 is the
unit vector normal to the surface ∆𝑆. The direction
is determined by right-hand rule

37
• The curl of vector A is determined from the
figure.
• One easy way to determine from the
determinant:
• Rectangular Coordinate system

𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• 𝛻×𝐴= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥

= − 𝑎𝑥 + − 𝑎𝑦 + − 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
38
• In cylindrical System:

𝑎𝜌 𝜌𝑎𝜙 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• 𝛻×𝐴= 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝜌 𝜌𝐴𝜙 𝐴𝑧
• Spherical System:

𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝜙
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• 𝛻×𝐴= 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝜙

39
 Stokes Theorem
Stokes’s theorem states that the circulation of vector
field A around a (closed) path L is equal to the
surface integral of the curl of A over the open
surface S bounded by L provided that A and 𝛻 × 𝐴
are continuous around S.
Mathematically expressed as;

𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝛻 × 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑆

Stokes theorem relates:

the surface integral of the curl of a vector field to
the line integral of the vector field around the
boundary curve. 40
 Laplacian of a scalar field
• 𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑉 = 𝛻. 𝛻𝑉 = 𝛻 2 V

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

2 2 2
2
𝜕 𝑉 𝜕 𝑉 𝜕 𝑉
𝛻 𝑉= 2+ 2+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

41
 Electrostatic Fields
• Charge
Charge is the fundamental physical quantity
involved in the study of electromagnetic fields.
Charges constitute the source of all
electromagnetic fields.
• The unit of charge is Coulomb (C), a quantity
of charge associated with an electron.
• Electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶.
• Electron has positive charges
• +ve charges are associated with proton in the
nuclei of the atom. 42
 Charge Distribution
• Point Charge Distribution
+Q
• Line Charge Distribution
• 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙
• 𝑄= 𝜌 𝑑𝑙
𝐿 𝑙
• Surface Charge Distribution

• Volume Charge Distribution

43
• The Charge in a region is the sum
of differential contributions:
•𝑄= 𝑙
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝐶
•𝑄= 𝑠
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝐶
•𝑄= 𝑣
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝐶

44
 Electrostatic Fields
Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law states that the force F b/w two point
charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 along the line joining them
1. Directly proportional to the product 𝑄1 𝑄2 of the
charges
2. Inversely proportional to the square of the
distance 𝑅 between them
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹∝ 2
𝑅

𝑘𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
𝑅2 45
 1
𝑘= , is called proportionality constant
4𝜋𝜀0

10−9
𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 ≅ F/m is the permittivity
39𝜋
of free space
Thus;
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

46
 points 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are located as shown in the
figures
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹12 = 2
𝑎𝑅12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
• Where, 𝑅12 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
• and 𝑅 = 𝑅12
𝑅12
𝑎𝑅12 =
𝑅
𝑄1 𝑄2
Or 𝐹12 = 3 𝑅12
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
𝐹12 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 3 47
 Electric Field Intensity
The force per unit charge is called electric field intensity or electric field
strength denoted by 𝐸 is expressed as (see the fig)
𝐹 𝐹 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐸 = lim ⟹ 𝐸 = but 𝐹=
𝑄→0 𝑄 𝑄 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
𝑄 𝑄 𝑟 − 𝑟′
𝐸 = 𝑎 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ 3

For a line charge;

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙 ⟹ 𝑄 = 𝑙 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙
Substituting Q in the above equation;
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝐸 = 2 𝑎𝑅
𝑙 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Like wise for surface and volume distributions;
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝐸 = 2 𝑎𝑅
𝑠 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑅

𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐸 = 2
𝑎𝑅
𝑣 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
48
 Electric Field Intensity due to Line Charge
Consider a line charge with uniform charge density
𝜌𝑙 extended from a point 𝐴 to 𝐵 along the z-axis shown
in the figure.
The charge element 𝑑𝑄 associated with
element 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑧 is expressed by:
• 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑧
𝑧𝐵
• and hence; 𝑄 = 𝑧 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑧
𝐴
• The electric field intensity 𝐸 at an
• arbitrary point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) for a
line charge distribution is found
From the equation shown in fig
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙
• 𝐸= 2 𝑎𝑅 (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
49
• Let us represent the field point by (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and the
source point by (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) with reference to the
figure shown.
• 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑧 ′
• 𝑅 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 − 0, 0, 𝑧 ′
= 𝑥𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎𝑧
• 𝑅 = 𝜌𝑎𝜌 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎𝑧
2
• 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′
2 2

• 𝑅2 = 𝜌2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 2
𝑅
• 𝑎𝑅 =
𝑅
50
• Substituting theses values of in the equation (1), we get
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝜌 + 𝑧−𝑧 ′ 𝑎𝑧
• 𝐸= 𝑑𝑧 ′ (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3
• Referring the figure, the angles: 𝛼, 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 are defined
as;
𝜌
• 𝑅= 𝜌2 + 𝑧− 𝑧 ′ 2 1/2 = = 𝜌 sec 𝛼
cos 𝛼
• 𝜌𝑎𝜌 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼𝑎𝜌
• 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑅 sin 𝛼𝑎𝑧
𝑂𝑇−𝐴𝐵
• = tan 𝛼
𝜌
• 𝑂𝑇 − 𝐴𝐵 = 𝜌 tan 𝛼
• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑧 ′ = 𝑂𝑇 − 𝜌 tan 𝛼
• 𝑑𝑧 ′ = −𝜌 sec 2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
51
• Substituting the values of 𝜌𝑎𝜌 , 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎𝑧 , & 𝑑𝑧 ′ in
eqn (2)
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝜌 + 𝑧−𝑧 ′ 𝑎𝑧
• 𝐸= 𝑑𝑧 ′ (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3
−𝜌𝑙 𝛼2 𝑅 cos 𝛼𝑎𝜌 +sin 𝛼𝑎𝑧 𝜌 sec2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
• 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝛼1 𝑅3
−𝜌𝑙 𝛼2 cos 𝛼𝑎𝜌 +sin 𝛼𝑎𝑧 𝜌 sec2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
• 𝐸= ∵ 𝑅 = 𝜌 sec 𝛼
4𝜋𝜀0 𝛼1 𝜌2 sec2 𝛼
−𝜌𝑙 𝛼2
• 𝐸= 𝛼
cos 𝛼𝑎𝜌 + sin 𝛼𝑎𝑧 𝑑𝛼
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 1
−𝜌𝑙 𝛼2 𝛼2
• 𝐸= sin 𝛼𝑎𝜌 − cos 𝛼𝑎𝑧 𝛼1
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 𝛼1
−𝜌𝑙
• 𝐸= sin𝛼2 − sin𝛼1 𝑎𝜌 − cos𝛼2 − cos𝛼1 𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌
𝜌𝑙
• 𝐸= sin𝛼1 − sin𝛼2 𝑎𝜌 + cos𝛼2 − cos𝛼1 𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 52
 Electric Field for an infinite line of charge
• Referring the figure shown,
• Point B is at (0, 0, ∞) and point A is at 0, 0, −∞ ,
𝜋 𝜋
so that 𝛼1 = and 𝛼2 = − ; the z-component
2 2
vanishes and the equation become:
𝜌𝑙 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
• 𝐸= sin( ) − sin(− ) 𝑎𝜌 + cos(− ) − cos( ) 𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 2 2 2 2

𝜌𝑙 𝜋 𝜋
• 𝐸= sin + sin( ) 𝑎𝜌
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 2 2
𝜌𝑙
• 𝐸= 𝑎𝜌
2𝜋𝜀0 𝜌

53
 Electric Field due to Surface Charge Distribution
• Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the 𝑥𝑦-
plane with uniform charge density 𝜌𝑠 shown in the
figure.
• The elemental charge on the sheet is
• 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
• And the total charge is
• 𝑄= 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
• The electric field 𝐸 at
point 𝑃 0, 0, ℎ by the
elemental surface is found as
54
 𝑑𝑄
• 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑎 (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2 𝑅
• Referring the figure;
• 𝑅 = 𝜌 −𝑎𝜌 + ℎ𝑎𝑧
• 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝜌2 + ℎ2 1/2

𝑅 −𝜌𝑎𝜌 +ℎ𝑎𝑧
• 𝑎𝑅 = =
𝑅 𝜌2 +ℎ2 1/2

• 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌
• Substituting the corresponding terms in eqn. (1)
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌 −𝜌𝑎𝜌 +ℎ𝑎𝑧
• 𝑑𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌2 +ℎ2 3/2
• Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every
element 1, there is a corresponding element 2 whose
contribution along 𝑎𝜌 cancels that of element of 1. Thus 𝐸 has
only z-component. i.e. 𝜌𝑎𝜌 = 0
55
 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌ℎ
• 𝑑𝐸 = 2 2 3/2 𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 +ℎ
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 ∞ ℎ𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙
• 𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜙=0 𝜌=0 𝜌2 +ℎ2 3/2 𝑧
𝜌𝑠 ℎ ∞ 𝜌𝑑𝜌 1
• 𝐸= 2𝜋 0 2 2 3/2 𝑎𝑧 ∎𝜌𝑑𝜌 = 2𝜌𝑑𝜌
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 +ℎ 2
𝜌𝑠 ℎ ∞ 2 2 −3/2 1 2 𝑎
• = 𝜌 + ℎ 𝑑 𝜌 𝑧
2𝜀0 0 2
• Or using the integral identity;
𝑥𝑑𝑥 1
• = −
𝑥 2 +𝑎2 3/2 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 1/2

𝜌𝑠 ℎ 2 2 −1/2 ∞
• 𝐸= 𝜌 +ℎ 𝑎
𝜌=0 𝑧
2𝜀0
𝜌𝑠 ℎ 1
• 𝐸= 𝑎𝑧
2𝜀0 ℎ2 1/2
𝜌𝑠
• 𝐸= 𝑎𝑧
2𝜀0 56
• A circular ring of radius 𝒂 carries a uniform charge
density 𝝆𝑳 𝐶/𝑚 and is placed on the xy-plane with
axis the same as the z-axis.
• Show that
𝜌𝐿 𝑎ℎ
• (a) 𝐸 0, 0, ℎ = 2 2 3 2 𝑎𝑧
2𝜀0 ℎ +𝑎
• (b) What values of ℎ gives the maximum value of
𝐸?
• (c) If the total charge on the ring is Q, find 𝐸
as 𝑎 ⟶ 0.
• Solution:
• Consider the system as shown in the figure.
57
 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙
• 𝐸= 2 𝑎𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
• 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑎𝑑𝜙 , 𝑅 = 𝑎 −𝑎𝜌 + ℎ𝑎𝑧 ,
2 2 1 2 𝑅
• 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑎 +ℎ , 𝑎𝑅 =
𝑅
𝑎𝑅 𝑅
2
= 3
𝑅 𝑅
𝜌𝐿 2𝜋 −𝑎𝑎𝜌 +ℎ𝑎𝑧
• 𝐸= 𝑎𝑑𝜙
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜙=0 𝑎2 +ℎ2 3 2
• By symmetry, the contributions along 𝑎𝜌 add up to
zero. That is for every element 𝑑𝑙 there is a
corresponding element diametrically opposite it that
gives an equal but opposite 𝑑𝐸𝜌 so that the two
contributions cancel each other. 58
 𝜌𝐿 𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑧 2𝜋
• 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 2 3 2 𝜙=0 𝑑𝜙
0 ℎ +𝑎
𝜌𝐿 𝑎ℎ
• 𝐸= 𝑎
2𝜀0 ℎ2 +𝑎2 3 2 𝑧
Hence proved.
•
3 2 3 1 2
𝑑𝐸 𝜌𝐿 𝑎 ℎ2 +𝑎2 1 − ℎ 2ℎ ℎ2 +𝑎2
2
• (𝑏) =
𝑑ℎ 2𝜀0 ℎ2 +𝑎2 3
𝑑𝐸
• For maximum 𝐸 , = 0, ℎ2 + 𝑎 2 1 2
ℎ2 + 𝑎2 − 3ℎ2 = 0
𝑑ℎ
𝑎
• 𝑎2 − 2ℎ2 = 0 , Or ℎ = ± 2
• (c) Since the charge is uniformly distributed, the line charge density is;
𝜌𝐿 𝑎ℎ
• 𝐸 = 2𝜀 2 2 3 2 𝑎𝑧
0 ℎ +𝑎
𝑄
• 𝜌𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑎
𝑄𝑎ℎ
• 𝐸= 𝑎
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜀0 ℎ2 +𝑎2 3 2 𝑧
𝑄ℎ
• 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 2 3 2 𝑎𝑧
0 ℎ +𝑎
• As 𝑎 ⟶ 0
𝑄
• 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎𝑧 ;
0ℎ
𝑄
• In general, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎𝑅
0𝑟

59
 Electric Flux Density
• Electric Flux Intensity 𝐸 is dependent on the medium in which
the charge is placed.
• In general, the flux passing through an area given by:
• 𝜓 = 𝑠 𝐴. 𝑑𝑆

• The vector field 𝐷 is defined as:

• 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸
• The electric flux 𝜓 is defined as
• 𝜓 = 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆
• The vector field 𝐷 is called electric flux density and measured in
coulomb /square meter. 𝐷 is also called electric displacement.

60
 Gauss’s Law
• If a charged metallic sphere is shelled by another metallic sphere
separated by dielectric or vacuum, the charges may be displaced
from inner metal sphere to outer sphere by induction or
conduction with the same amount of charges.
• Thus the Gauss’s law states that “the total Electric Flux 𝜓 through
any closed surface is equal the total charge enclosed by that
surface”.
𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 (1)
From the definition of flux density,
𝜓 = 𝑑 𝜓 = 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑠.
And 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Thus equation (1) becomes
𝐷 . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣

But the Divergence theorem says,

𝐷 . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝛻. 𝐷𝑑𝑣 61
• Comparing two volume integrals;
• 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 𝑑𝑣 ⟹ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 𝑑𝑣
• If integrals are equal then their integrant will also
be equal; therefore,
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 .
• This is first of four Maxwell’s equations.
• The equation states that the volume charge density
is the same as the divergence of the electric flux
density.
• This is the point form of Maxwell’s equation while
the former was the integral form of Maxwell
equation. 62
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Conditions for applying Gauss’s law are:
• The surface is chosen whether 𝐷 is normal or
tangential to the Gaussian surface.
• If 𝐷 is normal,
𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = DdS because 𝐷 is constant on the surface.
• If 𝐷 is tangential:
𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = 0

63
 A. Point Charge
A point charge is located in the origin of the sphere shown in the figure.
It satisfies the symmetry conditions; as the 𝐷 is everywhere normal to
the Surface.
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑟 𝑎𝑟
Applying Gauss’s Law;
𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆

2𝜋 𝜋
= 𝐷𝑟 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
0 0

Where 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟

𝑄 = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑄
Thus 𝐷= 𝑎
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
64
• Example 1. consider a region of space where the
charge density is given by the spherically
1
symmetric distribution 𝜌𝑣 = 𝐶/𝑚2 as shown in
𝑟
the figure. Determine the electric flux density at a
distance r from the origin, and show that the
differential form of gauss’s law is satisfied.
• Solution: since the system is symmetric
• 𝐷 is along the r direction and 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑟 𝑎𝑟
• Applying the Gauss’s law, 𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
• 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑟0 2𝜋 𝜋
1 2
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟02
0 0 0 𝑟
65
 2𝜋 𝜋
• 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑠 = 0 0 𝐷𝑟 𝑎𝑟 . 𝑟02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟
2𝜋 𝜋
• = 𝑟0 𝐷𝑟 0 0 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = 4𝜋𝑟02 𝐷𝑟
2

• Since 𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 ; therefore, equate the two

equations
• 4𝜋𝑟02 𝐷𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟02
1 1
• 𝐷𝑟 = or 𝐷 = 𝑎𝑟
2 2
1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝐷𝑟 )
• 𝛻. 𝐷 =
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟
2 1
1 𝑑(𝑟 2) 1 1
• = = . 𝑟 = = 𝜌𝑣 (𝑟)
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟
• This agree with the originally given charge density.
66
 Infinite Line Charge
The flux Density D is to be determined at point P of the fig shown.
The charge distribution is symmetric(uniform).
D at the surface is constant, i.e.
𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 𝑎𝜌
Apply Gauss’s Law to an arbitrary length 𝑙,
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜓

𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 𝑙 = 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧𝑎𝜌
2𝜋 𝑙
𝜌𝐿 𝑙 = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌2𝜋𝑙
𝜙=0 𝑧=0
𝜌𝐿
𝜌𝐿 𝑙 = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌2𝜋𝑙 ⟹ 𝐷𝜌 =
2𝜋𝜌
On the top and the Bottom of the cylinder, D is tangential, it means
that there is no z-component of field and therefore, 𝐷𝑡 is zero.
Thus:
𝜌𝐿
𝐷= 𝑎
2𝜋𝜌 𝜌
67
 Infinite Sheet of Charge
• Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge
𝜌𝑠 𝐶/𝑚2 lying on the 𝑧 = 0 plane shown in the fig.
• To determine 𝐷 at point P, a rectangular box is
chosen as Gaussian surface.
• As D is normal to the surface
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑧 𝑎𝑧
Applying Gauss’s law
𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑆

𝐷𝑧 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑑𝑆 + 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑆
68
See on the sides of the box,
𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = 0.
𝐷 has no component along 𝑎𝑥 or 𝑎𝑦 direction.
If top and bottom has the area S, then
𝜌𝑠 𝑆 = 𝐷𝑧 (𝑆 + 𝑆)
and thus;
𝜌𝑠
𝐷 = 𝑎𝑧
2
𝜌𝑠
𝐸= 𝑎𝑧
2𝜀0

69
 Uniformly Charged Sphere
Consider a sphere of radius 𝑎 with a uniform charge 𝜌𝑣 𝐶/𝑚3 . We construct a
Gaussian surface shown in dotted Lines to determine 𝐷 everywhere for cases
𝑟 ≤ 𝑎 and r ≥ 𝑎.
Since 𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
For 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎,
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣

2𝜋 𝜋 𝑟
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0

4 3
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟
3

And

𝜓= 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 𝑑𝑆
2𝜋 𝜋
ψ = 𝐷𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜙=0 𝜃=0 70
According to Gauss’s Law; ψ = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 ,
4
𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑟 3
3
𝑟
Thus 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑎𝑟 For 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎,
3

For Gaussian surface: 𝑟 ≥ 𝑎 ;

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
2𝜋 𝜋 𝑎 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
= 𝜌𝑣 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0
𝑟
4
= 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑎3
3
While 𝜓 = 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
But according to Gauss’s Law; 𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
2
4 3
𝐷𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑣 𝜋𝑎
3
𝑎 3
Thus 𝐷 = 2 𝜌𝑣 𝑎𝑟 ; 𝑟≥𝑎
3𝑟
𝑟
𝜌 𝑎 0≤𝑟≤𝑎
3 𝑣 𝑟
In general; 𝐷= 𝑎3
𝜌 𝑎 𝑟≥𝑎
3𝑟 2 𝑣 𝑟
71
 Electric Potential
A point charge Q is moved from point A to point B in an electric
field 𝐸 shown in the figure.
From Coulomb’s Law; 𝐹 = Q𝐸
Work Done in moving the charge:
dW = −𝐹. 𝑑𝑙 = −Q𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝐵
𝑊 = −𝑄 𝐴
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝑊 𝐵
=− 𝐴
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝑄
𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝐴
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝑉𝐴𝐵 is called Potential Difference b/w points A and B.
Where; A is the initial point and B is the final point. (−) sign
shows loss of energy ( the work is being done by the field 𝐸 ).
• If 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is positive, work is being done by external source 72
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is independent of path taken.
• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is measured in Joules/Coulomb or volts.
• If the point charge Q is located in the origin: Then;
𝑄
𝐸= 𝑎
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 𝐴 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
𝑟𝐵
𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − 2
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
𝑟𝐴 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑄 1 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − or 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
We may assume potential at infinity as zero. That is 𝑟𝐴 → 0
Then 𝑟𝐵 → 𝑟. Thus;
𝑄
V=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 73
 Relationship b/w E and V
• The Potential Difference is independent of path taken i.e.
𝑉𝐵𝐴 = −𝑉𝐴𝐵 or 𝑉𝐵𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 0
𝑉𝐵𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0

• Fig. shows that the line integral along a closed path must be
zero.
• This implies that no net work is done in moving a charge
along a closed path in electrostatic field.
Apply Stokes’ theorem
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝛻 × 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝛻 × 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆 = 0 , there fore;
𝛻×𝐸 =0
This is the 2nd equation of Maxwell’s.
• The electrostatic field is conservative. 74
In general 𝑉 = − 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
Taking derivative
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
But 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
compare two expressions for 𝑑𝑉or equate term by term
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
− 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 = − and 𝐸𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Thus
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉
∵ The electric field intensity is the gradient of V. 75
 Electric Dipole
An electric diploe is formed when two point charges of
equal magnitude but opposite sign are separated by a
small distance as shown in the figure
The potential at point 𝑃 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 ;
𝑄 1 1
𝑉= −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑄 𝑟2 −𝑟1
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2

If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑,
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ≅ 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟2 𝑟1 ≅ 𝑟 2
𝑄 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
76
• We may write
• 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 ; where; 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑎𝑧
• Transform 𝑎𝑧 (rectangular Coordinate into Spherical coordinates);
• 𝑎𝑧 = cos 𝜃𝑎𝑟 + sin 𝜃𝑎𝜃
• 𝑑𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃𝑎𝑟 + sin 𝜃𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝑑 . 𝑎𝑟
𝑄 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
• Thus the equation of electric potential 𝑉 = is become
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑄𝑑 .𝑎𝑟
• 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
• we define 𝑄𝑑 as 𝑃 of the equation; therefore,
𝑃.𝑎𝑟
• 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

P = 𝑄𝑑 is termed as the electric dipole moment.

If the center of the dipole is located not in the origin;

𝑃. 𝑟 −𝑟 ′
𝑉(𝑟) =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 −𝑟 ′ 3
𝑟 −𝑟 ′
Where 𝑎𝑟 =
𝑟 −𝑟 ′ 77
The electric field is obtained from the dipole as:
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
The electric potential in 𝜙 direction does not change
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟2
𝐸= − 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜕𝑟 𝑟3 𝜕𝜃

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸= 3
𝑎𝑟 + 3
𝑎𝜃
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝑃
𝐸= 3
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑎𝑟 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎𝜃
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 78
• An electric flux line is an imaginary path or line
drawn in such a way that its direction at any point
is the direction of the electric field at that point.

• Equipotential Line
• Any surface on which the potential is the same
throughout is known as an equipotential surface.
• The intersection of an equipotential surface and a
plane results in a path or line known as an
equipotential line. 79
• Let place three points charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 and𝑄3 in an
initially empty space shown in the figure
• No work is required to transfer 𝑄1 to 𝑃1 because the
space is initially charge free and there is no electric
𝐵
field (W = −Q 𝐴 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = 0).
• The work done in transferring 𝑄2 from infinity to 𝑃2 is
equal to the product of 𝑄2 and the potential 𝑉21 at 𝑃2
due to 𝑄1 and so on….
𝑊 𝐵
=− 𝐴
𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ⟹ 𝑊 = 𝑄𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝑄 80
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3
= 0 +𝑄2 𝑉21 +𝑄3 (𝑉31 + 𝑉32 )
𝐵
∴ 𝑊 = −𝑄 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
𝐴
• If the charges are in reverse order,
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑊3 +𝑊2 +𝑊1
= 0+𝑄2 𝑉23 +𝑄1 (𝑉12 + 𝑉13 )
Adding the two energies:
2𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉12 + 𝑉13 + 𝑄2 𝑉21 + 𝑉23 + 𝑄3 𝑉31 + 𝑉32

2𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉1 +𝑄2 𝑉2 + 𝑄3 𝑉3
1
• 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉1 +𝑄2 𝑉2 + 𝑄3 𝑉3
2
• In general;
1 𝑛
• 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑘=1 𝑄𝐾 𝑉𝑘
2 81
 Energy due to continuous Charge Distribution
𝑄 1
𝐶= and 𝑊𝐸 = 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑉 2

1
Therefore, 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄𝑉, & 𝑄= 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
2
Thus
1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑉𝑑𝑣
2
Since
𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 -------- Maxell’s First equation
1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝛻. 𝐷 𝑉𝑑𝑣
2 82
 For any Vector 𝐴 and scalar V the identity says;
𝛻. 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐴. 𝛻V + V(𝛻. 𝐴) ⟹ V 𝛻. 𝐴 = 𝛻. 𝑉𝐴 − 𝐴. 𝛻V
replacing the vector 𝐴 by 𝐷 and substituting the values in the energy
equation;
1 1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝛻. 𝑉𝐷 𝑑𝑣 − 𝐷 . 𝛻𝑉 𝑑𝑣
2 2
Applying Divergence Theorem to the first integral term
1 1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑉𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 − 𝐷 . 𝛻𝑉 𝑑𝑣
2 2
• For point Charge,
𝑄 𝑄
• 𝑉= & 𝐷= 𝑎
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
• For dipole,
𝑃.𝑎𝑟 𝑃
• 𝑉= & D= 2 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑟 + sin 𝜃 𝑎𝜃
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 3

• 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎𝑟
83
• As V varies with1/𝑟 and 𝐷 varies with 1/𝑟 2 for point
charge; and
• V varies with 1/𝑟 2 and 𝐷 varies 1/𝑟 3 for dipole,
therefore, the first integral tends to zero when space
become large.

• Thus 𝑉𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 → 0

1 1
𝑊𝐸 = − 𝐷 . 𝛻𝑉 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐷 . 𝐸 𝑑𝑣
2 2

∵ 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉
1 1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝐷 . 𝐸 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 𝑑
2 2
84
Problem 4.5
Determine the total Charge:
(a) On line 0 < 𝑥 < 5 𝑚 if 𝜌𝐿 = 12𝑥 2 𝑚𝐶/𝑚
(b) On the cylinder 𝜌 = 3, 0 < 𝑧 < 4 𝑚 if 𝜌𝑠 = 𝜌𝑧 2 𝑛𝐶/𝑚2
10
(c) Within the sphere 𝑟 = 4 𝑚 if 𝜌𝑣 = 𝐶/𝑚3
𝑟 sin 𝜃
Solution:
5 2
(a) 𝑄= 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑥=0
12𝑥 × 10−3 𝑑𝑥
∵ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=5
−3 𝑥3
• 𝑄 = 12 × 10 = 0.5 𝐶
3 𝑥=0

(b) 𝑄= 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑧 2 × 10−9 𝑑𝑠
• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
2𝜋 4
• 𝑄= 10−9 𝜌2 𝜙=0
𝑑𝜙 𝑧=0
𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

𝑧=4
𝑧3
• 𝑄=9 10−9 2𝜋
3 𝑧=0
85
 −9 64
• 𝑄 = 18𝜋 10 = 1.206 𝜇 𝐶
3
• (c) 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑟
10
• 𝑟 = 4 𝑚 if 𝜌𝑣 = 𝐶/𝑚3
𝑟 sin 𝜃
10
• 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 sin 𝜃
• 10 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋 4 𝜋
• 𝑄 = 10 𝜙=0
𝑑𝜙 𝑟=0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃
𝑟=4
𝑟2
• 𝑄 = 10 × 2𝜋 × 𝜋
2 𝑟=0

2 16
• 𝑄= 20𝜋 = 1579.1367 𝐶
2 86
Problem 4.9
1
• A Circular desk of radius ‘a’ carries charge 𝜌𝑠 = 𝐶/𝑚2 .
𝜌
Calculate the potential 𝑉 at 0, 0, ℎ .
• Solution:
𝑄 𝑠
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
• 𝑉= =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
• 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌
1
• 𝜌𝑠 =
𝜌
• 𝑟 = 𝜌2 + ℎ2 1/2

1 1 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙
• 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑠 𝜌 𝜌2 +ℎ2 1/2

2𝜋 𝜌=𝑎 𝑑𝜌
• 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌=0 𝜌2 +ℎ2 1/2 87
 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑉= = ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 1/2
𝑥 2 +𝑎2 1/2

2𝜋 2 2 1/2 𝜌=𝑎
• 𝑉= ln 𝜌+ 𝜌 +ℎ 𝜌=0
4𝜋𝜀0

1
• 𝑉= ln 𝑎 + 𝑎 2 + ℎ2 1/2
− lnℎ
2𝜀0

1 𝑎+ 𝑎2 +ℎ2
• 𝑉= 𝑙𝑛
2𝜀0 ℎ

88
• Problem 4.16
• Determine the charge density due to each of the
following electric flux densities:
(a) 𝐷 = 8𝑥𝑦𝑎𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 𝑎𝑦 𝐶/𝑚2
(b) 𝐷 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙𝑎𝜌 + 2𝜌 cos 𝜙𝑎𝜙 + 2𝑧 2 𝑎𝑧 𝐶/𝑚2
2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 2
(c) 𝐷 = 3 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎 𝜃 𝐶/𝑚
𝑟 𝑟3
Solution:
𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧
(a) 𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 = + + = 8𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
(b) 𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝐷𝜌 + 𝐷𝜙 + 𝐷𝑧
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 2 1 𝜕 𝜕
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜌 sin𝜙 + 2𝜌cosϕ + 2𝑧 2
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
• 𝜌𝑣 = 2sin 𝜙 − 2sin 𝜙 + 4𝑧 = 4𝑧
89
 1 𝜕 2 1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝐷𝜙
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝑟 𝐷𝑟 + 𝐷𝜃 sin 𝜃 +
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙

1 𝜕 2 2 cos 𝜃 1 𝜕 sin 𝜃 1 𝜕0
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑟 + sin 𝜃 +
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟3 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟3 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙

2 cos 𝜃 𝜕 −1 1 𝜕
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑟 + sin2 𝜃
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 4 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃

2 cos 𝜃 1
• 𝜌𝑣 = − 4 + 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 4 sin 𝜃

2 cos 𝜃 2 cos 𝜃
• 𝜌𝑣 = − 4 + =0
𝑟 𝑟4
90
• Problem 4.24
10
2 𝑚𝐶/𝑚3 , 1<𝑟<4
𝑟
• Let 𝜌𝑣 =
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
(a) Find the net flux crossing surface 𝑟 = 2𝑚 and 𝑟 = 6𝑚
(b) Determine 𝐷 at 𝑟 = 1 𝑚 and 𝑟 = 5 𝑚
• Solution
(a) 𝑟 = 2𝑚
10
• 𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 =
𝑣 𝑣
× 10−3 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟
𝑟2
2 2𝜋 𝜋
• 𝜓 = 10 𝑟=0 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 𝑚𝐶
• 𝜓 = 10 2 2𝜋 2 = 80𝜋 𝑚𝐶
• 𝜓 = 251.33 𝑚𝐶
• 𝑟 = 6𝑚
• But charges are up to 𝑟 = 4𝑚
4 2𝜋 𝜋
• 𝜓 = 10 𝑟=0 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 𝑚𝐶
• 𝜓 = 10 4 2𝜋 2 = 160𝜋 𝑚 𝐶 91
(b) 𝑟 = 1
1 2𝜋 𝜋
• 𝜓 = 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 10 𝑟=0 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟 𝑚𝐶
• 𝜓 = 10 1 2𝜋 2 = 40𝜋 𝑚 𝐶
2𝜋 𝜋 2
• 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑠
𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
𝑟 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
• 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐷𝑟
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 40𝜋
• 𝐷𝑟 = = = 10𝑚 𝐶/𝑚2
4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋(1)
• 𝑟 = 5 but charges up to 𝑟 = 4
4 2𝜋 𝜋
• 𝜓 = 10 𝑟=0 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑟
• 𝜓 = 10 4 2𝜋 2 = 160𝜋 𝑚 𝐶
2𝜋 𝜋
• 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑠
𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
• 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐷𝑟
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 160𝜋
• 𝐷𝑟 = = = 1.6𝑚 𝐶/𝑚2
4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋(25)

92
• Problem 4.27
• In an electric Field 𝐸 = 20𝑟 sin 𝜃𝑎𝑟 + 10𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑎𝜃 𝑉/𝑚
• Calculate energy expanded in transferring a 10-nC charge
• From 𝐴 5, 300 , 0° 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 5, 900 , 0°
• From 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐶 10, 300 , 0°
• From 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐷 5, 300 , 60°
• From 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐸 10, 900 , 60°
• Solution
• 𝑊 = −𝑄 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
• From A to B, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎𝜃
900
• 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = −𝑄 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 = −100𝑟 2 300
cosθ
2 900
• 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = −100 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜃=300 𝑟=5 = −1250𝑛𝐽
93
• From A to C, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑟
𝑟 2 10
• 𝑊𝐴𝐶 = −𝑄 20𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 = −10 20 sin 𝜃 𝑟=5 𝜃=300
2
1 100−25
• 𝑊𝐴𝐶 = −10 20 = −3750𝑛𝐽
2 2

• From A to D, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙

• 𝑊𝐴𝐷 = −𝑄 0. 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝑎𝜙 = 0

• From A to E,
10 900 600
• 𝑊𝐴𝐸 = −𝑄 𝑟=5
20 sin 𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝜃=300
10𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑟𝑑𝜃 + 𝜙=00
0. 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙

10
𝑟2 900
• = −10 20 sin 𝜃 𝜃=900 2 + 10 𝑟2 𝑟=10 sin 𝜃 𝜃=300
𝑟=5

• 𝑊𝐴𝐸 = −12500 𝑛𝐽
94
• P. 4.31
• In free space, 𝑉 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑧 + 3 Volt. Find
(a) 𝐸 at (3, 4, -6)
(b) The charge within the cube 0 < 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 < 1
• Solution:
• (a)
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• E = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕 2 𝜕 2 𝜕 2
• =− 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 + 3 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 + 3 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 + 3 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• = −2𝑥𝑦 𝑧 + 3 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 + 3 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑎𝑧
• = −2 3 4 −6 + 3 𝑎𝑥 − 32 −6 + 3 𝑎𝑦 − 32 4𝑎𝑧
• E = 72𝑎𝑥 + 27𝑎𝑦 − 36𝑎𝑧 𝑉/𝑚
95
• (b)
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝛻. E
𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜀0 𝛻. E = 𝜀0 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜀0 −2𝑥𝑦 𝑧 + 3 + −𝑥 2 𝑧+3 + −𝑥 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜀0 −2𝑦 𝑧 + 3 = −𝜀0 2𝑦 𝑧 + 3
• 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑣
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = −𝜀0 𝑣 2𝑦 𝑧 + 3 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
1 1 1
• = −𝜀0 0 𝑑𝑥 0 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 0 𝑧 + 3 𝑑𝑧
1
• = −𝜀0 1 1 +3
2
7 7
• = −𝜀0 = −8.854 × 10−12
2 2
• 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = −31𝑝𝐶
96
• Problem 4.39
𝑑
• Point charges 𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑄 are located at 0, , 0 and
𝑑 2
0, − , 0 shown in the figure.
2
(a) Show that at point 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 , where 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑,
𝑄𝑑 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙
• 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
(b) Find the corresponding 𝐸 field
• Solution:
(a)
𝑃.𝑎𝑟
• 𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
• As the dipole is oriented along y-direction;
• 𝑃. 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑟
• Transform 𝑎𝑦 into spherical coordinate system
• 𝑎𝑦 = sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙𝑎𝑟 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜙 𝑎𝜙 97
• 𝑃. 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙𝑎𝑟 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜙 𝑎𝜙 . 𝑎𝑟

• 𝑃. 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙

𝑃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑄𝑑 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙

• 𝑉= = hence proved
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
(b)
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
• 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎 − 𝑎
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜙

𝑄𝑑 𝜕 1 sin 𝜙 𝜕 sin 𝜃 𝜕
• = − 4𝜋𝜀 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝜕𝑟 𝑎𝑟 + sin 𝜃 𝑎𝜃 + 𝑟 3 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝜙
0 𝑟2 𝑟 3 𝜕𝜃

𝑄𝑑 −2 sin 𝜙 1
• =− sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝑟 + cos 𝜃 𝑎𝜃 + cos 𝜙 𝑎𝜙
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3 𝑟3 𝑟3

𝑄𝑑
• 𝐸= 2 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝑟 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝜃 − cos 𝜙 𝑎𝜙
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 98
• Problem 4.43
• If 𝑉 = 𝜌2 𝑧 sin 𝜙 , calculate the energy within the region defined by :
• 1 < 𝜌 < 4 , −2 < 𝑧 < 2 , 0 < 𝜙 < 𝜋/3
• Solution
• For energy calculation we have to first determine 𝐸
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• 𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
• 𝐸=− 𝜌2 𝑧 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝜌 − 𝜌2 𝑧 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝜙 − 𝜌2 𝑧 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
• 𝐸 = −2𝜌𝑧 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝜌 − 𝜌𝑧 cos 𝜙 𝑎𝜙 − 𝜌2 sin 𝜙 𝑎𝑧
1 2
• 𝑊 = 𝜀0 𝑣
𝐸 𝑑𝑣
2
1
• 𝑊= 𝜀0 𝑣 4𝜌2 𝑧 2 sin2 𝜙 + 𝜌2 𝑧 2 cos 2 𝜙 + 𝜌4 sin2 𝜙 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
2

1
• 𝑊 = 2 𝜀0 4𝜌3 𝑧 2 sin2 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌3 𝑧 2 cos2 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌5 sin2 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧

𝜙 sin 2𝜙 𝜙 sin 2𝜙
• sin2 𝜙 𝑑𝜙 = − and cos 2 𝜙 𝑑𝜙 = +
2 4 2 4
99
 𝜋 𝜋
4 2
𝜌4 𝑧3 𝜙 3 sin 2𝜙 3
• 4𝜌3 𝑧 2 sin2 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 44 −
𝜌=1 3 𝑧=−2 2 𝜙=0 4 𝜙=0

2𝜋
23 − −2 3 𝜋 sin
• = 44 − 1 − 3
= 255 5.33 0.526 − 0.2165 = 𝟒𝟏𝟕. 𝟑𝟗𝟓
3 6 4

𝜋 𝜋
4 2
𝜌4 𝑧3 𝜙 3 sin 2𝜙 3
• 𝜌3 𝑧 2 cos2 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = +
4 𝜌=1 3 𝑧=−2 2 𝜙=0 4 𝜙=0

2𝜋
44 −1 23 − −2 3 𝜋 sin 3
• = + = 63.5 5.33 0.526 + 0.2165 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟓
4 3 6 4
𝜋 𝜋
4
𝜌6 2 𝜙 3 sin 2𝜙 3
• 𝜌5 sin2 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑧=−2 −
6 𝜌=1 2 𝜙=0 4 𝜙=0

2𝜋
46 −1 𝜋 sin 3
• = 2 − −2 − = 682.5 4 0.526 − 0.2165 = 𝟗𝟖𝟓. 𝟓𝟑
6 6 4

1
• 𝑊 = 2 𝜀0 417.395 + 250.5 + 985.53 = 826.7125 × 8.854 × 10−12 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗

• 𝑊 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟐 𝒏𝑱
100