CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The research design is the detailed plan of the investigation. Infact, it is the “blue
print” of the detailed procedure of testing the hypothesis and analyzing the obtained
data. The research design may be defined as the sequence of those steps taken ahead
of time to ensure that the relevant data will be collected in a way that permits
objective analysis of the different hypotheses formulated with respect to the research
problems. Thus, the research design helps the researcher in testing the hypothesis by
reaching valid and objective conclusion regarding the relationship between
independent and dependent variables.

In this chapter a description of the sample, its size research tools, administration and
collection of data and statistical techniques used by the researcher for analyzing data,
has been prepared.

Sampling

Sampling is the process by which a relatively small number of individuals or

measures of individuals, objects or events is selected and studied in order to draw
some inferences about the entire population from which it was drawn. It helps to
reduce expenditure, save time and energy permit measurement of greater scope, or
produce precision and accuracy. Sampling procedures provide generalizations on the
basis of a relatively small portion of population.

Population and Sample of the Present Study

A population refers to a group of individuals with at least one common characteristic

which distinguishes that group from other individuals. A study of the entire
population is impossible due to its size, lack of time and resources. Moreover; in most
of cases it is not required. To avoid these problems a smaller portion of the population
is selected as a sample which is studied in detail and conclusions are drawn for the
whole population.

In the present study, the target population was the Senior Secondary Students of

60





Government and Private Schools. According to the survey by the researcher the
population of the Senior Secondary Students of Government and Private Schools was
3305. Table 3.1 shows the population of the senior secondary students of government
and private schools of Aligarh.

The primary purpose of research is to discover principles that have universal

application, but to study a whole population in order to arrive at generalization would
be impracticable. A sample is a small portion of a population selected for observation
and analysis. By observing the characteristics of the sample, one can make certain
inferences about the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. The
sample of the subjects for the present study consisted of 500 students of Government
and Private Senior Secondary schools of Aligarh. There are many government and
private schools in Aligarh city. Obviously the researcher had limitation to collect data
from all schools. Simple random technique was employed for the selection of schools.
Names of the Government and Private schools were written on different separate
chits. Five chits of government schools and also the same for Private schools were
picked up for data collection. The researcher visited those schools for data collection.
Besides many Principals /Head were not willing to cooperate with the researcher and
those schools were dropped. Data was collected from only those schools whose
Principals /Head cooperated with the researcher. The schools which were included in
the present study are shown in the Table 3.2 and Table 3.3.Selection of the students
for data collection was also on purely random basis. Every fifth boy/girl of the same
class was selected for data.

Table 3.1 -Details of the population of male and female students of government and
Private Schools of Aligarh city

Schools Male Female Total

Government Schools 1344 750 2094
Private Schools 743 468 1211
Total 2087 1218 3305

61





Table 3.2-Details of the sample selected from different Government schools of
Aligarh City
Government Schools BOYS Population Government GIRLS Population
Schools
1-SSSC(AMU) Boys 98 1000 SSSC (AMU) 43 425
Girls
2- Naurangi Lal 48 344 Tika Ram Girls 34 325
Rajkye Inter College, Inter College,
Aligarh Aligarh
Total 146 1344 Total 77 750

Table 3.3 -Details of the sample selected from different Private schools of Aligarh
city

Private Schools Boys Population Girls Population

Ayesha Tareen School,Aligarh 46 275 37 166
Aligarh Public School, Aligarh 34 222 32 147
Zakir Hussain School, Aligarh 63 178 18 102
Iqra Public School, Aligarh 26 68 21 53
TOTAL 169 743 108 468

Table -3.4 Total numbers of male and female Students of the sample
Male students Female Students TOTAL

315 185 500

Table -3.5 Table showing Total numbers of government and private school
Students of the sample
Government Schools Students Private Schools Students TOTAL

223 277 500

62






INSTRUMENT/TOOLS USED

For collecting relevant information for the present study, three different research
instruments were used to measure the variables.

1. The Spiritual Intelligence self-report Inventory (SISRI 24) by David. B.King,

2008.
2. Goal Orientation Scale by Christopher Was, 2006.
3. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) by Cloninger et. al 1994.

Details of the Research Instrument Used

The details of the three research tools used by the investigators are as follows:-

1-The Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI 24)

David B.King (2008) constructed this scale and established norms for Spiritual
Intelligence by working on a sample of 619 university undergraduate students (488
Female, 131Male).A four-factor model of spiritual intelligence was first proposed.
Supportive evidence was reviewed for the capacities of critical existential thinking,
personal meaning production, transcendental awareness, and conscious state
expansion. Based on this model, a 24-item self-report measure was developed and
modified across two consecutive studies (N = 619 and N = 304, respectively). The
final version of the scale, the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI-24),
displayed excellent internal reliability and good fit to the proposed model.
Correlational analyses with additional measures of meaning, metapersonal self-
construal, mysticism, religiosity, and social desirability offer support for construct and
criterion-related validity. According to both intelligence criteria and current
psychometric standards, findings validate the proposed model and measure of
spiritual intelligence.

Cronbach’s Alpha Internal consistency estimates of the factor scales range from .78
(Critical Existential Thinking), .78 (Personal Meaning Production), .87
(Transcendental Awareness) and .91 (Conscious State Expansion).

63





Reliability

Cronbach’s alpha reliability of SISRI-24 was also calculated in Indian condition on a

sample of 500 senior secondary students (males 315 & females 185) by the researcher
which was found .786.

Validity

(1) External criterion Validity- Validity for SISRI-24 ROQAN SPIRITUAL

INTELLIGENCE TEST (2010) (Total items 78) by (Prof. Roquiya Zainuddin) was
used as an external criteria. Correlation Coefficient was found .88 on a sample of 200
students.

(2) Dimensions Total Correlation validity -Another validity dimensions with total
correlation was calculated for SISRI-24 Spiritual Intelligence in Indian condition on a
sample of 500 senior secondary students (males 315 & females 185) which is
presented below:

Table - 3.6 Table showing correlations based on scores on dimensions with total
Spiritual Intelligence score
CET PMP TA CSE TOTAL
(SI)
CET 1 .370** .444** .300** .757**
PMP 1 .409** .377** .702**
TA 1 .356** .745**
CSE 1 .64**
TOTAL(SI) 1
** Significant at .01 level

Dimensions of Spiritual Intelligence -Detailed descriptions of the sub- dimensions

are:

1-Critical Existential Thinking (CET) - The first component of Spiritual Intelligence

is referred to as Critical Existential Thinking defined as the capacity to critically
contemplate the nature of existence, reality, the universe ,space, time ,death and other

64





existential or metaphysical issues. Existential word is defined as ‘having to do with
existence’ (Oxford University Press, 2001.p-312) Thus it refers thinking about one’s
existences such as life and death reality, consciousness the universe, time, truth,
justice, evil and other similar issues.

2-Personal Meaning Production (PMP) - It is defined as the ability to construct

personal meaning and purpose in all worldly and mental experiences, including the
capacity to create and master a life purpose. Nasel (2004) would concur, suggesting
that Spiritual Intelligence ‘involves contemplation of the symbolic meaning of
personal events and circumstances, in order to find purpose and meaning in all life
experiences.’

3-Transcendental Awareness (TA) –It refers as the capacity to identify transcendent

dimensions of the self (e.g. a transpersonal or transcendent self, of others, and of the
physical world (e.g., on materialism, holism) during the normal, waking state of
consciousness, accompanied by the capacity to identify their relationship to one’s self
and to the physical. Transcendent is defined as “going beyond normal or physical
human experience” (Oxford University, Press, 2001, p, 972).

4-Conscious State Expansion (CSE) –The final component of Spiritual Intelligence

is conscious state expansion, defined as the ability to enter and exit higher states of
consciousness (e.g. pure consciousness, Cosmic Consciousness, unity, oneness) at
one’s own discretion as in deep contemplation consciousness and state of
consciousness.

Table -3.7Table showing the dimensions along with the item numbers of The
Spiritual Intelligence self-report Inventory (SISRI 24)

S.NO. SUB DIMENSIONS STATEMENT NO. NO.OF ITEMS

1 Critical Existential Thinking 1,3,5,9,13,17,21 7
2 Personal Meaning Production 7,11,15,19,23 5
3 Transcendental Awareness 2,6,10,14,18,20,22 7
4 Conscious State Expansion 4,8,12,16,24 5
TOTAL 24
65






Scoring- David B. King (2008) constructed The Spiritual Intelligence Self-

ReportInventory (SISRI 24)on the basis of likert scale. The positive statements were
given the following weights.

Not at all true Not very true somewhat true Very true Completely
of me of me of me of me true of me
0 1 2 3 4

Negative statements were scored vice-versa. All the statements were positive except
statement no.6 (negative statement). The scoring of the test was done according to the
instructions provided in the respective manual.

2- Goal Orientation Scale-

Goal Orientation Scale was constructed by Christopher Was (2006) on a sample of

322 (156 males and 166 females undergraduate students. Confirmatory factor analysis
was completed using Amos 5 software (Arbuckle, 2005). This allowed for direct
testing of factor loadings of each item in the measure on its predicted subscale or
factor. The significant parameter estimates of the predicted item loadings provided
support for validity of the scales.

Cronbach’s Alpha Internal consistency estimates of the factor scales ranged

fromvalues of .81 for Mastery, .68 for Performance Approach,.64 Performance
Avoidance, and .75 for Work Avoidance.
Reliability - Cronbach’s alpha reliability of Goal Orientation was also calculated in
Indian condition on a sample of 500 senior secondary students (males 315 & females
185) by the researcher which was found.668.

(1) Face validity -To determine the validity of Goal Orientation, it became very
difficult for the researcher to use external criteria method for validity determination.
The author could not find another test of Goal Orientation, therefore; the face validity
of the test was taken into consideration. Five judges, three belonging to psychology
department and two to Education department who were specialized in the field of
66





(2) Educational Psychology judged the validity of items. The appropriateness of the
item
was sorted out on a 5 point scale ranging from very appropriate to very inappropriate.
(Very appropriate, appropriate, doubtful, not appropriate, very inappropriate) .The
items of the test were judged by the experts mostly ranged from very appropriate to
appropriate.
(3) Dimensions Total Correlation validity -Another validity Dimensions with total
correlation was calculated for Goal Orientation in Indian condition on a sample of 500
senior secondary students (males 315 & females 185) which is presented below:

Table -3.8Correlations based on scores on dimensions with total Goal Orientation

score
MAST PAPP PAV WA TOTAL(GO)
MAST 1 .306** .066 .108* .842**
PAPP 1 -.371** -.276** .397**
PAV 1 .442** .381**
WA 1 .400**
TOTAL(GO) 1
**Significant at .01 level
*Significant at.05 level

Dimensions of Goal Orientation -Detailed descriptions of the sub- dimensions are:

1-Mastery (MAST) -Learning goals and task-involved goals have been described as
mastery goal orientation. Students attuned to learning or mastery goal persist longer
on difficult tasks and are more likely to attribute success and failure to internal
controllable causes. Students having learning goals show preference for challenge and
academic risk taking. Mastery leads one to attempt to complete the task in order to
increase knowledge.

2- Performance Approach (PAPP) -Performance goals are based on measuring

competence in comparing to others. They lead students to attempt appearing
competent or to avoid appearing incompetent when compared to others.

67





3- Performance Avoidance Orientation (PAV) - It is grounded in one viewing them-
self as lacking ability and wishing to avoid public demonstrations of achievement that
would confirm their lack of ability.

4- Work -Avoidant Goal orientation (WA) - It also referred to as academic alienation

in which failure is avoided without hard work and achievement is viewed as
completing the task with as little effort as possible. It represents the lack of an
achievement goal in an academic setting.

Table -3.9 Table showing dimensions along with the item numbers of Goal
Orientation
S.NO. SUB DIMENSIONS STATEMENT NO. NO.OF
ITEMS
1 Mastery 1,3,7,8,9,15, 19,20,27,28,30,32,33 13
2 Performance Approach 2,6,12,13,17,25,26,31 8
3 Performance Avoidance 4,11,14,16,18,22,34 7
(Negative statements)
4 Work Avoidance 5,21,23,24,29 5
(Negative statements)
TOTAL 33

Scoring
Christopher Was (2006) constructed Goal Orientation scale. 33 items were based on a
6 point Likert scale. Statements of Mastery and Performance Approach were positive
while statements of Performance Avoidance and Work Avoidance were negative.
Scoring was done according to the nature of the statements. The scoring device was
simple having a numerical weightage from 1 to 6 for positive and the reverse of it for
the negative items.

very untrue mostly somewhat somewhat mostly true very true

untrue untrue true
1 2 3 4 5 6

High scores on both the dimensions (Performance Avoidance & Work Avoidance)
68





show that subjects do not avoid Performance and Work while low scores show that
subjects avoid performance and work.
3-Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI)
Cloninger et.al. (1993) constructed this scale and established norms for Temperament
and Character. In the present study only Character variable was included.
The test retest reliability of the quantitative scores over six months is moderately high
i.e.0.85 for Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Cloninger et.al developed
different versions of the TCI. There are Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire
(TPQ), Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI), Temperament and Character
Structured Interview (TCSI), and Junior Temperament and Character Inventory
(JTCI).

The Total number of items in Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) is 226.
119 Items of Character variable were selected for the present study. Character is
connected to propositional learning.

Cloninger envisages temperament as being connected to the procedural learning

systems of the brain, whereas character is connected to propositional learning. Thus
character is more open to cognitive influence, whereas temperament reflects habit
system.

Reliability- Cronbach’s alpha reliability of Character was also calculated in Indian

condition on a sample of 500 senior secondary students (males 315 & females 185)
by the researcher which was found.766.

Validity

(1) Face Validity- To determine the validity of these tests (Goal Orientation and
Character), it became very difficult for the researcher to use external criteria method
for validity determination. The author could not find another test of Goal Orientation
and Character therefore; the face validity of these tests was taken into consideration.
Five judges, three belonging to psychology department and two to Education
department who were specialized in the field of Educational Psychology judged the
validity of items. The appropriateness of the items was sorted out on a 5 point scale
ranging from very appropriate to very inappropriate. (Very appropriate, appropriate,
69





doubtful, not appropriate, very inappropriate) .The items of the test were judged by
the experts mostly ranged from very appropriate to appropriate.
(2) Dimensions Total Correlation validity- Another validity Dimensions with total
correlation was calculated for Character in Indian condition on a sample of 500 senior
secondary students (males 315 & females 185) which is presented below:

Table -3.10 Table showing correlations based on scores on dimensions with total
Character score
SD COOP ST TOTAL (CH)
SD 1 .357** .034 .687**
COOP 1 .268** .791**
ST 1 .558**
TOTAL(CH) 1
** Significant at.01 level

DIMENSIONS OF CHARACTER

The Character variable has three dimensions. These are:

1-SELF DIRECTEDNESS (SD) - Individuals who are able to adapt their behavior in
accord with individually chosen, voluntary goals. It measures individual self-
acceptance. Subjects scoring high on Self Directedness are autonomous, responsible,
have high self–esteem, good impulse control and set clear goals for themselves.
Subjects scoring low on Self Directedness are irresponsible, purposeless, helpless,
have poor self- acceptance and poor impulse control. From this self concept are
derived feelings of personal integrity, honor, self-esteem, effectiveness, leadership
and hope.

2-COOPERATIVENESS (COOP) - is understanding and respecting the preferences

and needs of others as well as their own. Cooperativeness is related to which a person
identifies himself or herself as an integral part of the society as a whole. People
scoring high on cooperativeness are tolerant, empathic, agreeable, helpful and
compassionate. People scoring low on cooperativeness are intolerant, narcissistic,

70





disagreeable, hostile, revengeful and opportunistic. From this self concept are derived
feelings of community, compassion, and charity.

3- SELF TRANSCENDENCE (ST) - reflects the tendency of identification with

unity of all things and is associated with deficits in transpersonal identification or
conscience. It captures the degree to which an individual feels a part of nature and the
universe at large. Subjects scoring high on self transcendence have aesthetic
sensitivity; purpose spiritual values are self neglecting and have a strong imagination.
Subjects scoring low on self transcendence accept only their own perspective, are
materialistic and not interested in spiritual issues. In addition, they are unstable in
affect and self image. From this self concept are derived feelings of mystical
participation, religious faith and unconditional equanimity and patience.

Table -3.11 Table showing sub-dimensions along with the item numbers of
Character

S.NO. SUB STATEMENT NO. NO.OF

DIMENSIONS ITEMS
1 Self 10,19,32,47,49,69,70,76,90,98, 13
Directedness(SD) 104,106,112
(Positive)
(Negative) 1,6,13,15,17,21,22,31,33,37,42,43, 31
54,55,56,57,58,60,65,75,79,82,85, Total - 44
86,92,93,99,100,110,115,117
2 Cooperativeness 2,7,14,27,34,35,36,40,44,46,48, 21
(COOP) 63,66,68,71,81,84,87,95,101,111
(Positive)
(Negative) 4,9,11,18,24,25,26,30,53,61,72,74,78,80,9 21
1, 94,103,108,113,118,119 Total-42
3 Self 3,5,8,12,16,20,23,28,29,38,39,41,45,50,51, 30
Transcendence 52,59,64,67,77,83,88,89,96,97,102,
(ST) (Positive) 105,107,114,116
(Negative) 62,73,109 3
Total-33
TOTAL 119
71





Scoring
Cloninger et al. (1993) constructed Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI)with
total of 226 items. Only statements of character (119 items) were given to the
students, not the Temperament. The self report questionnaire was paper and pencil
tests in which the students answer true or false to a series of questions about their
likes, dislikes, emotional reactions, Interests, attitudes, goals and values. For positive
statements (64) the score for True is 1 and for False is 0 and for negative statements
(55) score for true is 0 and false is 1. Scoring was done by scoring key available with
manual.

True 1

False 0

DATA COLLECTION

The data were collected from different Government and Private schools of Aligarh. A
set of the above mentioned inventories was distributed among the students by the
researcher in the class. Due to paucity of time it was not possible to collect data from
all sections of a particular senior secondary school. The researcher was present the
whole time in the class during their filling the questionnaires. Students were assured
that information provided by them would be kept confidential and would be used only
for the purpose of research and any queries related to the questionnaire were cleared.
They were also asked to go through the general instructions given on the introductory
page before completing the inventory and not to fill by guess. They took two periods
(around two hours) to fill their inventories.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

All the calculations were done on the computer with the help of a software package
named as Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS) (version 16.0).

The analysis was done in three steps:

x Inter-correlation matrix among the sub dimensions of variables

x Multiple Regression Analyses

72





x Independent samples t-test

Correlation
In education and psychology, correlation is used to know whether there exists any
relationship among the different attributes or abilities of the individual or they are
independent of each other. It is the most common and most useful statistics. A
correlation is a single number that describes the degree of relationship between two
variables. It also reveals how the change in one variable is accompanied by the
change in the other in terms of direction as well as magnitude. Correlation between
variables may be positive, negative or zero.

Pearson Product Moment correlation

The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation is the most widely used
measure of correlation or association. It is named after ‘Karl Pearson’ who developed
the correlation method to do agricultural research. The Product moment part of the
name comes from the way in which it is calculated, by summing up the products of
the deviation of the scores from the mean. The Pearson coefficient of correlation is
denoted by the symbol ‘r’. The formula for computing Pearson coefficient of
correlation is:

x = Deviation of any X-score from the mean in test X

y = Deviation of the corresponding Y-score from the mean in test Y
™xy = Sum of all the products of deviation
ıx = Standard deviation of the distribution of scores in test X
ıy = Standard deviation of the distribution of scores in test Y
N = Total number of scores of frequencies

For objectives from 1 to 3 Pearson Product Moment Correlation was employed to see
the relationship among various sub dimensions of the three variables-Spiritual
Intelligence, Goal orientation and Character.

73
 





Multiple Regression Analysis

Multiple regression is the term used for predicting Ý from two or more independent
variables combined. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to obtain the effect of
the seven dimensions of independent variables on the dependent variable for total
sample as well as on different groups. In multiple regression, the approach is to find a
linear combination of the original predictor variables that best explained the variation
in the criterion measure. The dependent variable for the present study is Spiritual
Intelligence while Goal Orientation and Character constitute the independent
variables.

There are several approaches to regression and analysis. The present study uses the
‘stepwise’ regression analysis method.

x This method first identifies the best predictor from the predictor variables includes in
the regression equation.
x In the second step, the method identifies the second best predictor which has high
validity coeffients but low correlation with the first predictors
x At the third step, next best predictor is identified with higher validity coefficient but
low correlation with both of the existing predictors already selected.
This process continues until further addition of variable makes insignificant
contribution to the prediction power of the predictors. In this approach, it is not
necessary to use all the predictor variables in the regression equation. Only those
predictors are taken which make significant contribution to the prediction process.
The significance of variance explained by using F test.
The formula for working out regression equation is -

= - (X- Mx) + My

= The predicted value of criterion score

r = The coefficient of correlation between the predictor
and criterion variables.
ıy = Standard deviation of the criterion scores
74





ıx = Standard deviation of the predictor scores
x = Individual predictor score
y = Individual criterion score
Mx = Mean of the predictor score
My = Mean of the criterion score

= Regression Coefficient

Analysis of variance
The analysis of variance is an effective way to determine whether the means of more
than two samples are different to attribute to sampling error.
The F-ratio is computed by using the following formula:

Vb
F= -----
Vw
Vb = Variance between groups
Vw = Variance with in group

The critical value of the F – ratio is found in F –Table, which indicates the critical
values necessary to test the null hypothesis at selected levels of significance.

For objectives from 4 to 6 to obtain the effect of predictor variables (Character and
Goal Orientation) on all the sub dimensions of Spiritual Intelligence (Criterion
variable) in terms of accountable variance stepwise multiple regression analyses
method was employed.

t-test

A Mean is probably the most satisfactory measure for characterizing a group, it is

important to determine whether the difference between Means of samples is
significant.

The test of the significance of the difference between two Means is known as a t test.
It is used to compare two Means. As the objectives of the present study demand to

75





compare Means of Spiritual Intelligence ,Goal Orientation and Character between
male and female students, government and private schools.

For these purposes t test has been employed to find out the significance of differences
between male and female students, government and private schools’ students.
Before applying this test the investigator made sure that the data were normally
distributed. The basic statistics like Mean and Standard deviation were computed for
each variable (dimensions wise as well as total). For t test following formula has been
used:

t =
Where-
= Means of the first and second sample
= size of the two samples
= SDs of the first & second sample
For objectives 7 to 12 to find the differences of Means of various sub dimensions of
Spiritual Intelligence, Goal Orientation and Character t test was employed.

76