energies

Article
Seamless Transfer Algorithm of AC Microgrid
Inverter Compensating Load Current for Weak Grid
Jae-Uk Lim, Il-seob Kwon, Hag-Wone Kim * and Kwan-Yuhl Cho
Department of Control and Instrumentation Engineering, Korea University of Transportation,
Chungju (KS001) 27469, Korea; oreh2013@ut.ac.kr (J.-U.L.); kwonis_93@ut.ac.kr (I.-s.K.);
kycho@ut.ac.kr (K.-Y.C.)
* Correspondence: khw@ut.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-10-2296-9173




Received: 17 December 2018; Accepted: 20 February 2019; Published: 22 February 2019


Abstract: In this paper, we propose a voltage control technique for the seamless transfer algorithm
of a microgrid inverter. When the microgrid inverter is switched from grid-connected mode to
standalone operation mode, an output voltage transient may occur, and adversely affect the load.
To solve this, seamless transfer algorithms that complete mode switching within 4 ms have been
studied. However, previous control techniques have very complex structures. In this study, we find
the cause of the voltage transient occurring in the mode conversion, through state average modeling of
the inverter. Subsequently, we propose a feed-forward compensator for seamless transfer. The cause
of the voltage transient is removed by the compensation, and smooth mode switching is achieved.
The proposed controller is verified by Powersim (PSIM) simulations.

Keywords: microgrid; inverter; seamless transfer

1. Introduction
Recently, as global warming and environmental issues intensify, the demand for distributed
power generation based on renewable energy is increasing. However, renewable energy (such as solar
and wind power) has a disadvantage, in that the power generation is concentrated within a limited
period of time, and the output changes according to the external environment. To address this, research
has actively been conducted to link energy storage systems (ESSs) with new and renewable energy.
An ESS is a system that stores electronic energy and supplies it. ESSs can be used with a bidirectional
power transmission to replace the conventional unidirectional power supply for the efficient use
of electric energy. In particular, studies on microgrid systems that can self-supply in the form of
generating and consuming their own power, have been actively conducted [1–7]. Generally, in the case
of areas far from the grid, long-distance transmission lines must be installed in order to deliver electric
power. These weak grids increase the economic burden as a result of power loss and installation costs.
For this reason, diesel generators are often used in island areas to supply power to a load through
their own power generation, but they come with initial installation and ongoing maintenance costs.
Therefore, standalone microgrids are attracting attention as an alternative to the weak grid in remote
areas, such as islands.
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of a microgrid system. When the microgrid operates in the
standalone operation mode, it establishes a small-scale power grid by linking with various renewable
energy sources (based on the energy storage system), and supplies stable electric energy to the demand
load. A number of power conversion systems (PCSs) are needed in microgrid systems in order to
link the renewable energy, grid, battery, and diesel generator. Typical PCS’s include a device to
convert renewable energy to DC, a bidirectional DC–DC converter to charge/discharge the battery,
and a microgrid inverter to convert DC to AC. As the microgrid system has a plurality of power

Energies 2019, 12, 728; doi:10.3390/en12040728 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 728 2 of 15

conversion devices, it is very important to define a communication method between them. Generally,
for module design, each PCS is designed to have a separate controller, and the master controller—the
energy management system (EMS)—communicates with all of the power converters to design the
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15
control. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of communication in a microgrid system [8–10].

Figure 1. Block diagram of microgrid system.

Figure 1 shows a block diagram of a microgrid system. When the microgrid operates in the
standalone operation mode, it establishes a small-scale power grid by linking with various
renewable energy sources (based on the energy storage system), and supplies stable electric energy
to the demand load. A number of power conversion systems (PCSs) are needed in microgrid
systems in order to link the renewable energy, grid, battery, and diesel generator. Typical PCS’s
include a device to convert renewable energy to DC, a bidirectional DC–DC converter to
charge/discharge the battery, and a microgrid inverter to convert DC to AC. As the microgrid
system has a plurality of power conversion devices, it is very important to define a communication
method between them. Generally, for module design, each PCS is designed to have a separate
controller, and the master controller—the energy management system (EMS)—communicates with
all of the power converters to design the control. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of communication
in a microgrid system [8–10]. Figure 1. Block diagram of microgrid system.
Figure 1. Block diagram of microgrid system.

Figure 1 shows a block diagram of a microgrid system. When the microgrid operates in the
standalone operation mode, it establishes a small-scale power grid by linking with various
renewable energy sources (based on the energy storage system), and supplies stable electric energy
to the demand load. A number of power conversion systems (PCSs) are needed in microgrid
systems in order to link the renewable energy, grid, battery, and diesel generator. Typical PCS’s
include a device to convert renewable energy to DC, a bidirectional DC–DC converter to
charge/discharge the battery, and a microgrid inverter to convert DC to AC. As the microgrid
system has a plurality of power conversion devices, it is very important to define a communication
method between them. Generally, for module design, each PCS is designed to have a separate
controller, Figure
and the master controller—the
2. Communication method ofenergy management
microgrid system (EMS)—communicates
system. PCS—power conversion system. with
Figure 2. Communication method of microgrid system. PCS—power conversion
all of the power converters to design the control. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of communication system.
in a microgrid
Microgridsystem [8–10].
inverters connect renewable energy and the grid via DC-to-AC conversion.
Microgridinverter
The microgrid inverters connectinrenewable
operates energy and or
either grid-connected thestandalone
grid via DC-to-AC
mode. Under conversion. The
normal grid
microgrid inverter operates in either grid-connected or standalone mode.
conditions, the microgrid operates in grid-connected mode, and assists in sharing the load. However,Under normal grid
conditions,
when the disturbance
a system microgrid operates in grid-connected
or fault occurs, a static switchmode,opens andandassists in sharingchanges
the microgrid the load.
to
However, when a system disturbance or fault occurs, a static switch opens
standalone operation. In this mode, the microgrid inverter operates as a single voltage source, and the microgrid
changes
and to standalone
independently operation.
supplies stableInelectrical
this mode, the microgrid
energy to the demandinverter operates
load throughasconstant
a single voltage
voltage
source, and independently supplies stable electrical energy to the demand
constant frequency (CVCF) control. The microgrid inverter must always supply stable electrical load through constant
voltageinconstant
energy frequency (CVCF)
both grid-connected control. operation
and standalone The microgridmodes. inverter must always
In particular, supply stable
while switching from
electrical energy in both grid-connected and standalone operation modes.
grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode, the conversion should be performed stably without In particular, while
aswitching
transient from
state.grid-connected mode to
This mode switching stand-alone
technique mode, as
is defined thea conversion shouldand
seamless transfer, be performed
should be
stably without a transient state. This mode switching technique is defined as
completed within 4 ms [11–15]. However, general inverter controllers often produce voltage transientsa seamless transfer,
when the mode is switched. To solve this, research into seamless transfer has been actively conducted.
A seamless transfer
Figure algorithm through
2. Communication methodindirect current
of microgrid control
system. has been
PCS—power studied system.
conversion [10–15]. With it,
the voltage can be controlled through an external current controller. A limit set at the time of mode
conversion can inverters
Microgrid be utilizedconnect
in orderrenewable
to eliminate the voltage
energy and the transient,
grid viathereby
DC-to-ACachieving a seamless
conversion. The
transfer. However,
microgrid inverterasoperates
the indirect
in current control scheme has
either grid-connected or astandalone
structure inmode.
which the current
Under controller
normal grid
is located outside,
conditions, control isoperates
the microgrid very complicated and bandwidth
in grid-connected mode,design is difficult—unlike
and assists in sharing the direct
load.
current control. In addition, research has also been conducted to achieve seamless
However, when a system disturbance or fault occurs, a static switch opens and the microgrid transfer through
changes to standalone operation. In this mode, the microgrid inverter operates as a single voltage
source, and independently supplies stable electrical energy to the demand load through constant
voltage constant frequency (CVCF) control. The microgrid inverter must always supply stable
electrical energy in both grid-connected and standalone operation modes. In particular, while
switching from grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode, the conversion should be performed
Energies 2019, 12, 728 3 of 15
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15

and should be completed within 4 ms [11–15]. However, general inverter controllers often produce
a droop control. Droop control is a method of controlling the frequency and magnitude using active
voltage transients when the mode is switched. To solve this, research into seamless transfer has
power andactively
been reactive power in
conducted. A an inverter
seamless configured
transfer algorithm in parallel [16–20].current
through indirect Usingcontrol
droophas control,
been it is
possible to reactive
studied [10–15].power
With it,sharing
the voltagewithout
can becommunication
controlled through between the distributed
an external generation
current controller. A limitunits.
However, thetime
set at the power distribution
of mode conversion technique usinginthe
can be utilized droop
order control the
to eliminate makes it difficult
voltage transient,tothereby
control the
low-level micro-grids
achieving a seamless under the assumption
transfer. However, as that the output
the indirect currentimpedance of the has
control scheme inverter is inductive,
a structure in
which
and the the current
transient controller
response is located outside,
characteristics control
are poor under is very complicatedof
the conditions and bandwidth
non-linear design
loads, is
because
difficult—unlike
they operate on the basisthe direct current
of linear control.
loads In addition,
[13,14]. research if
Furthermore, has also
the been conducted
effective reactivetopower
achieveof the
systemseamless transfer through
is not properly a droop
calculated, control. power
a reactive Droop control
error and is a voltage
method dropof controlling the frequency
occur. When a microgrid
and magnitude using active power and reactive power in an inverter configured in parallel [16–20].
system operates in standalone mode, it is necessary to further improve the accuracy of the reactive
Using droop control, it is possible to reactive power sharing without communication between the
power sharing, because the inverter operates as a voltage source, and has characteristics that are
distributed generation units. However, the power distribution technique using the droop control
sensitive
makes to it
thedifficult
systemtoenvironment and parameters.
control the low-level micro-grids A study
under wasthe made to design
assumption that athe
feed-forward
output
controller through the modeling of a three-phase inverter and rectifier [21–23].
impedance of the inverter is inductive, and the transient response characteristics are poor under However, the algorithm
the
for seamless
conditions transfer in the grid-connected
of non-linear loads, because system
theywas not considered,
operate on the basis andof thelinear
research was[13,14].
loads conducted
underFurthermore,
simple inverter if theload conditions.
effective reactive power of the system is not properly calculated, a reactive
power
In this error
paper, andwe voltage dropaoccur.
propose When to
technique a microgrid
accomplish system operates
seamless in standalone
transfer by themode, it is
feed-forward
necessary to further improve the accuracy of the reactive power
compensation of the load current, based on a direct current control technique. The controller sharing, because the inverter
of theoperates
inverter as isa voltage
designed,source,
andand thehas characteristics
transient that are sensitive
phenomenon is analyzedto thethrough
system environment
a state average
and parameters. A study was made to design a feed-forward controller through the modeling of a
model. Subsequently, a feed-forward compensator is designed to remove the cause of the transient
three-phase inverter and rectifier [21–23]. However, the algorithm for seamless transfer in the
phenomenon, and produce a controller that can perform smooth conversions during mode switching.
grid-connected system was not considered, and the research was conducted under simple inverter
The proposed controller is verified using Powersim (PSIM) simulation software.
load conditions.
In this paper, we propose a technique to accomplish seamless transfer by the feed-forward
2. Microgrid Inverter Controller Design for Seamless Transfer
compensation of the load current, based on a direct current control technique. The controller of the
inverter is designed, and the transient phenomenon is analyzed through a state average model.
2.1. Grid-Connected Inverter Modeling of Microgrid
Subsequently, a feed-forward compensator is designed to remove the cause of the transient
phenomenon,
Figure 3 shows and
theproduce a acontroller
circuit of that grid-connected
bidirectional can perform smooth conversions
inverter during
that is part mode
of a microgrid
switching. The proposed controller is verified using Powersim (PSIM) simulation software.
system. This microgrid inverter consists of six insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switches and
an inductor-capacitor filter (LC filter). In grid-connected mode, the inverter operates as a current
2. Microgrid Inverter Controller Design for Seamless Transfer
source, and the current flows to the load and grid through the current control. In standalone mode,
the inverter operates asInverter
2.1. Grid-Connected a voltage source,
Modeling and supplies power independently to the demand load.
of Microgrid

Figure 3. Alternating current (AC) microgrid inverter circuit.

Figure 3. Alternating current (AC) microgrid inverter circuit.

To design the controller, the state average models for the inductor and capacitor of the inverter
Figure 3 shows the circuit of a bidirectional grid-connected inverter that is part of a microgrid
should be calculated.
system. This microgrid inverter consists of six insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switches and
di
Vabc = L abc + VC.abc (1)
dt
V V
i abc = C C.abc + C.abc (2)
dt R
Energies 2019, 12, 728 4 of 15

where, Vabc is the phase voltage of the inverter side, VC.abc is the filter capacitor voltage, L didtabc is the
inductor voltage, i abc is the inductor current, C VC.abc
dt is the capacitor current, and
VC.abc
R is the load
current. For an easy analysis, the turn ratio of the transformer is assumed as the ideal transformer
with a 1: 1 turn ratio, and the load is assumed to be the only resistor load. Equations (1) and (2) are
the state average models for the inductors and capacitors of the typical three-phase inverters. The AC
three-phase system cannot use proportional-integral (PI) controllers. Therefore, to design the controller,
the voltage and current of the abc axis are converted to the dq axis.

sin θ − 32 π sin θ + 23 π



sin θ
2
cos θ − 32 π cos θ + 23 π 



T (θ ) =  cos θ (3)
3

√1 √1 √1
2 2 2

di abc


T (θ ) = T (θ ) −Vcabc + T (θ ) VAabc (4)
dt
dVcabc

T (θ ) = T (θ )(i abc ) + T (θ ) VCabc (5)
dt
where, T (θ ) is the transformation matrix of the abc frame to dq frame. Equation (3) is a transformation
matrix for transforming the abc axis into the dq axis. By applying this transformation matrix in
Equations (4) and (5), the state average models for the dq axis of the inverter can be calculated.
Where ω is the grid frequency in radians, and VAd q is the phase voltage in the dq frame, VCdq is the
capacitor voltage in the dq frame, and idq is the inductor current in the dq frame.

did
       
dt
" # id "
1
# VAd "
1
# VCd
0 ω L 0 L 0
= + − (6)
       
1 1
−ω 0 0 0
    
diq L L
iq VAq VCq
dt

dVC d
       
dt
" # VC d "
1
# id "
1
# VCd
0 ω C 0 CR 0
= + − (7)
       
1 1
−ω 0 0 0
    
dVC q C CR
VC q iq VCq
dt

Equations (6) and (7) are the state average model for the dq axis of the voltage and current,
respectively, of the inverter. There is a cross-coupling term in the dq axis of the voltage and current.
As this cross-coupling term complicates the controller design, it is removed by the feed-forward
compensation, as shown in Figure 4.
 
didq  
dt
"
−1
# i L,dq "
VDC
#
 
= 0 L L
 
+ Ddq, f b (8)
  
1 −1
0

dVC
 
dq C RC VCdq
dt

where, Ddq, f b is the feed-forward component in the inverter controller. Finally, the three-phase inverter
model can be expressed as Equation (8). The three-phase inverter is a buck-based topology, which is
identical to the voltage and current controller models in a buck converter. When the inverter operates
in grid-connected mode, the voltage is synchronized with the grid voltage, and the controller is
configured—as shown in Figure 4—to perform only the current control without the voltage control.
When the inverter operates in standalone mode, both the voltage and current must be controlled,
because the system is disconnected from the grid, and the voltage needs to be supplied to the demand
load. Figure 5 shows the inverter controller in standalone mode. An external voltage controller controls
the load voltage, and an internal current controller controls the current.
Energies 2019, 12, 728 5 of 15
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 4. Microgrid inverter current controller. 5 of 15

𝑑𝑖
−1 𝑖
⎛ 𝑑𝑡 ⎞ 0 , 𝑉
𝐿
⎜ ⎟= 1 −1
+ 𝐿 𝐷 , (8)
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 0
𝐶 𝑅𝐶
⎝ 𝑑𝑡 ⎠
where, 𝐷 , is the feed-forward component in the inverter controller. Finally, the three-phase
inverter model can be expressed as Equation (8). The three-phase inverter is a buck-based topology,
which is identical to the voltage and current controller models in a buck converter. When the
inverter operates in grid-connected mode, the voltage is synchronized with the grid voltage, and
the controller is configured—as shown in Figure 4—to perform only the current control without the
voltage control. When the inverter operates in standalone mode, both the voltage and current must
be controlled, because the system is disconnected from the grid, and the voltage needs to be
supplied to the demand load. Figure 5 shows the inverter controller in standalone mode. An
external voltage controller controls the load voltage, and an internal current controller controls the
current. Figure 4. Microgrid
Figure 4. Microgrid inverter
inverter current
current controller.
controller.

𝑑𝑖
−1 𝑖
⎛ 𝑑𝑡 ⎞ 0 , 𝑉
𝐿
⎜ ⎟= 1 −1
+ 𝐿 𝐷 , (8)
𝑑𝑉 𝑉 0
𝐶 𝑅𝐶
⎝ 𝑑𝑡 ⎠
where, 𝐷 , is the feed-forward component in the inverter controller. Finally, the three-phase
inverter model can be expressed as Equation (8). The three-phase inverter is a buck-based topology,
which is identical to the voltage and current controller models in a buck converter. When the
inverter operates in grid-connected mode, the voltage is synchronized with the grid voltage, and
the controller is configured—as shown in Figure 4—to perform only the current control without the
voltage control. When the inverter operates in standalone mode, both the voltage and current must
be controlled, because the system is disconnected from the grid, and the voltage needs to be
supplied to the demand load. Figure 5 shows the inverter controller in standalone mode. An
external voltage controller Figure 5. Two-loop
controls the loadcontroller
voltage,ofofand
a microgrid inverter.
an internal current controller controls the
Figure 5. Two-loop controller a microgrid inverter.
current.
2.2. Problems with the Mode Conversion of Previous Controllers
2.2.Energies
Problems
2019,with the Mode
12, x FOR Conversion of Previous Controllers
PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
If the controller is designed by modeling the system using Equation (8), the voltage and current
can If controlled
the controllereasilyiswithout
designedanyby modeling the grid-connected
system using Equation (8), the voltage and
A betypical grid-connected inverter problems
controller in
is both
designed as shown inand standalone
Figure mode.
6, to operate Aintypical
both
current can
grid-connected be controlled easily without any problems in both grid-connected and
inverter controller is designed as shown in Figure 6, to operate in both modes.standalone mode.
modes.

Figure 5. Two-loop controller of a microgrid inverter.

2.2. Problems
Figurewith the Modeinverter
6. Microgrid Conversion of Previous
controller Controllers
block diagram of grid-connected and standalone mode.
Figure 6. Microgrid inverter controller block diagram of grid-connected and standalone mode.
If the controller is designed by modeling the system using Equation (8), the voltage and
currentWhen thecontrolled
can be microgrideasily
inverter is operating
without in grid-connected
any problems mode, the current
in both grid-connected command
and standalone is
mode.
received via the EMS master controller. In grid-connected mode, the IGBT switches are controlled
by the current controller, without any voltage control. However, as the load voltage must be
controlled in standalone mode, the microgrid inverter is designed for this role as a two-loop
controller that performs both voltage and current control. The inverter performs in either the
Energies 2019, 12, 728 6 of 15

When the microgrid inverter is operating in grid-connected mode, the current command is
received via the EMS master controller. In grid-connected mode, the IGBT switches are controlled by
the current controller, without any voltage control. However, as the load voltage must be controlled in
standalone mode, the microgrid inverter is designed for this role as a two-loop controller that performs
both voltage and current control. The inverter performs in either the standalone or grid-connected
mode, Figure
according to the EMS
6. Microgrid command.
inverter controller block diagram of grid-connected and standalone mode.
Fault detection or so-called islanding detection is a very critical issue in this application. In this
When
paper, two the
majormicrogrid
faults areinverter is operating
described. First, therein is
grid-connected mode,
a fault in the grid. thefaults
Grid current command
generally can is
be
received via the EMS master controller. In grid-connected mode, the IGBT switches
classified as short-circuit faults and ground faults [24–27]. A short-circuit fault is an accident that are controlled
by the when
occurs currenta certain
controller,
phasewithout any voltage
is connected to anothercontrol.
phase,However,
and a groundas the load
fault is anvoltage
accidentmust be
where
controlled in standalone mode, the microgrid
one or more phases are connected to the ground. inverter is designed for this role as a two-loop
controller
Figurethat performs
7 shows both voltage and
the mode-switching current
sequence control.
of the The inverter
microgrid inverterinperforms
the event in of aeither the
grid fault.
standalone
Microgrid or grid-connected
inverters mode, quickly
should switch according to the
from EMS command.
grid-connected to stand-alone mode when a fault
Fault
occurs detection
in the or so-called
grid. For stable modeislanding detection
switching, is a very to
it is necessary critical
detectissue in this
the fault application.
quickly and toIn this
switch
paper, two Generally,
smoothly. major faults are described.
performing a mode First, there iswithin
switching a fault4 in the grid.the
ms—from Grid faults generally
occurrence can
of a fault, to be
the
classified as short-circuit faults and ground faults [24–27]. A short-circuit fault
completion of switching—is defined as a seamless transfer. However, if the voltage control begins in is an accident that
occurs when mode
stand-alone a certain phaseany
without is connected
additional to another
control phase,
after and a ground
the detection faulta is
of a fault, an accident
voltage where
transient may
one or more
occur, and thephases
load are
mayconnected
be severely to affected.
the ground.

Figure 7. Mode-switching sequence in a microgrid inverter.

Figure 7. Mode-switching sequence in a microgrid inverter.
Figure 8 shows the simulation result of a mode conversion as a result of the occurrence of a system
fault. Here,7itshows
Figure is assumed that the switch connected
the mode-switching sequence of tothe
the microgrid
system turned off because
inverter of a fault—this
in the event of a grid
change
fault. was detected
Microgrid within
inverters 1 ms,switch
should to trigger modefrom
quickly conversion. At this time,
grid-connected the inverter
to stand-alone proceeded
mode when toa
control the voltage in standalone mode. However, a transient occurred in the output voltage
fault occurs in the grid. For stable mode switching, it is necessary to detect the fault quickly and to after the
mode change.
switch smoothly.Secondly, thereperforming
Generally, is a weak-grid fault.switching
a mode A weak-grid fault
within occurs when
4 ms—from thethe grid voltage
occurrence of ais
lowertoorthe
fault, higher than the of
completion rated voltage because
switching—is of grid
defined as adisturbances. The inverter
seamless transfer. senses
However, if athe
fault when
voltage
the grid voltage is unstable below or above the rated-voltage (weak-grid fault), and switches modes
from the grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode.
To solve this problem, indirect current control and droop control techniques have been studied.
However, as the indirect current control scheme has a structure in which the current controller is
located outside, control is very complicated and bandwidth design is difficult—unlike direct current
control. In this paper, we propose a load current compensation technique that can be easily controlled.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15

Energies 2019, 12, 728 7 of 15

control begins in stand-alone mode without any additional control after the detection of a fault, a
voltage transient may occur, and the load may be severely affected.

Figure 8. Simulation result of mode switching using a conventional proportional-integral (PI) controller.
Figure 8. Simulation result of mode switching using a conventional proportional-integral (PI)
2.3. controller.
Proposed Controller Design
As shown
Figure 8inshows
Equation (8), the state
the simulation average
result model
of a mode for the capacitor
conversion as a resultvoltage
of the is expressedofby
occurrence a the
equation
systemoffault.
load Here,
resistance and output
it is assumed that voltage.
the switchWhen the microgrid
connected inverter
to the system mode
turned off is switched,
because of a it is
fault—this
necessary change the
to control wascomponent
detected within 1 ms,
of the to trigger
load that was mode
notconversion.
previouslyAtconsidered.
this time, theAdditionally,
inverter
proceeded to control the voltage in standalone mode. However, a transient
the voltage controller is designed with a low bandwidth so as to reduce disturbance of occurred in the output
the grid
frequency, so that the steady-state is reached with very slow response characteristics. Aswhen
voltage after the mode change. Secondly, there is a weak-grid fault. A weak-grid fault occurs a result
the grid voltage is lower or higher than the rated voltage because of grid disturbances.
of these factors, the output voltage of the microgrid inverter changes when the mode is switched. The inverter
senses a fault when the grid voltage is unstable below or above the rated-voltage (weak-grid fault),
However, if the load current feed-forward compensator is designed to measure the load current
and switches modes from the grid-connected mode to stand-alone mode.
through a sensor, it will be possible to eliminate the transient state that occurs during mode switching.
To solve this problem, indirect current control and droop control techniques have been studied.
Figure 9 shows a block diagram of the proposed seamless transfer controller. A separate load
However, as the indirect current control scheme has a structure in which the current controller is
current feed-forward
located outside, controlcompensator was added to
is very complicated andthebandwidth
existing voltage
design controller output. Therefore,
is difficult—unlike direct
the voltage controller
current control. In controls
this paper,thewecapacitor
propose current of the compensation
a load current inverter, and the currentthat
technique flowing
can betoeasily
the load
is managed by the feed-forward compensator.
controlled.
 
didq    
2.3. Proposed
L Controller Design
" # i
L,dq
" # " # i
L,dq
dt
  0 −1  VDC   0 0 
=  +model for theDcapacitor
dq, f b + voltage1 is expressedby the (9)
 
As
 shown in Equation (8), the
1 state
 average
1 − 0 0
 dV  
Cdq R
equationCof load resistance and output Vvoltage. R VCdq
When the microgrid inverter mode is switched, it is
Cdq
dt
necessary to control the component of the load that was not previously considered. Additionally,
the voltage(9)
Equation controller is designed
represents the statewith a low
average bandwidth
modeling so as to
equation of reduce disturbance
the inverter with theof load
the grid
current
frequency, so that the steady-state is reached with very slow response characteristics. As
feed-forward compensator. The disturbance term relating to the previously problematic load current a result of
these factors, the output voltage of the microgrid inverter changes when the mode
is removed by the feed-forward compensator. Therefore, if feed-forward compensation is applied is switched.
However, if the load current feed-forward compensator is designed to measure the load current
to Equation (8) by measuring the load current through the sensor—as shown in Equation (9)—the
through a sensor, it will be possible to eliminate the transient state that occurs during mode
compensator directly removes the disturbance due to the load. As such, the controller will always be
switching.
able to output a stable voltage.
When the microgrid inverter operates in standalone mode, the voltage of the inverter can be
expressed as a function of the load, as shown in Equation (8). Therefore, when the load fluctuates in
standalone mode, the output voltage fluctuates. However, if the proposed controller is used, a stable
voltage can always be supplied through load current compensation—even if the load fluctuates.
 Figure 9 shows a block diagram of the proposed seamless transfer controller. A separate load
current feed-forward compensator was added to the existing voltage controller output. Therefore,
the voltage controller controls the capacitor current of the inverter, and the current flowing to the
load is2019,
Energies managed
12, 728 by the feed-forward compensator. 8 of 15
𝑑𝑖 PEER REVIEW
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR 8 of 15
𝐿 𝑖 𝑖
⎛ 𝑑𝑡 ⎞ 0 −1 , 0 0 ,
1 𝑉 1
⎜ ⎟ = + 𝐷 , + (9)
𝑑𝑉 1 − 0 0
𝑅 𝑉 𝑅 𝑉
𝐶
⎝ 𝑑𝑡 ⎠
Equation (9) represents the state average modeling equation of the inverter with the load
current feed-forward compensator. The disturbance term relating to the previously problematic
load current is removed by the feed-forward compensator. Therefore, if feed-forward compensation
is applied to Equation (8) by measuring the load current through the sensor—as shown in Equation
(9)—the compensator directly removes the disturbance due to the load. As such, the controller will
always be able to output a stable voltage.
When the microgrid inverter operates in standalone mode, the voltage of the inverter can be
expressed as a function of the
Figure load,
Figure as voltage
shown
9. Proposed
9. Proposed voltagein Equation
controller
controller (8). Therefore,
compensated
compensated loadload when the load fluctuates in
current.
current.
standalone mode, the output voltage fluctuates. However, if the proposed controller is used, a
3. voltageFigure
Simulation
stable can 9always
shows a block diagram of through
be supplied the proposed loadseamless transfer
current controller. A separate load
compensation—even if the load
current feed-forward compensator was added to the existing voltage controller output. Therefore,
fluctuates.
Figurethe
10voltage
showscontroller
the simulation circuit
controls the constructed
capacitor current ofwith PSIM. and
the inverter, ThetheDC inputflowing
current voltage
to is
theconnected
to the grid load
andisload
managed by the
via the feed-forward
inverter. The compensator.
parameters of the inverter are shown in Table 1.
3. Simulation 𝑑𝑖
𝐿 𝑖 𝑖
⎛ 𝑑𝑡 ⎞ 0 −1 , 0 0 ,
𝑉
⎜ ⎟= 1 −1 +
0
𝐷 , +
0
1 (9)
𝑑𝑉 𝑅 𝑉 𝑅 𝑉
𝐶
⎝ 𝑑𝑡 ⎠
Equation (9) represents the state average modeling equation of the inverter with the load
current feed-forward compensator. The disturbance term relating to the previously problematic
load current is removed by the feed-forward compensator. Therefore, if feed-forward compensation
is applied to Equation (8) by measuring the load current through the sensor—as shown in Equation
(9)—the compensator directly removes the disturbance due to the load. As such, the controller will
always be able to output a stable voltage.
When the microgrid inverter operates in standalone mode, the voltage of the inverter can be
expressed as a function of the load, as shown in Equation (8). Therefore, when the load fluctuates in
standalone mode, the output voltage fluctuates. However, if the proposed controller is used, a
stable voltage can Figure be Simulation
always 10.
Figure 10. Simulation circuit using
circuitload
supplied through Powersim
usingcurrent
Powersim (PSIM).
(PSIM).
compensation—even if the load
fluctuates.
Table 1. System parameters.
Figure 10 shows the simulation circuit constructed with PSIM. The DC input voltage is
3. Simulation
connected to the grid and loadParameter
via the inverter. The parametersValue
of the inverter are shown in Table 1.
Rated power 100 kW
Output voltage 380 V
Line frequency 50 Hz
Inverter Three-phase, Three-wire
Load 20 Ω + 3 mH
Filter inductor 700 uH
Output capacitor 100 µF
Voltage controller bandwidth 15 Hz
Current controller bandwidth 1 kHz
Figure 10. Simulation circuit using Powersim (PSIM).

The simulations
Figure 10 were
shows performed
the simulation forcircuit
the constructed
occurrencewithof PSIM.
accidents
The DC in input
both voltage
normal-grid
is and
weak-grid connected to the grid and(low-
system conditions load via
andthehigh-grid
inverter. Thevoltage).
parametersAdditionally,
of the inverter arethe
shown in Table 1.inverter is
microgrid
capable of bi-directional power transfer. When renewable energy is generated, the current flows from
the inverter to the grid. When the state of charge (SOC) of the battery becomes insufficient, the current
enters and charges the battery. In this case, the inverter’s current flows from the grid to the inverter.
Therefore, as the proposed control method has to support the bidirectional operation, a simulation
analysis was performed in both positive and negative current conditions. Figures 11–13 show the
simulation results for mode switching during renewable energy generation, and Figures 14–16 show
the same during battery charging.
from the inverter to the grid. When the state of charge (SOC) of the battery becomes insufficient, the
current enters and charges the battery. In this case, the inverter's current flows from the grid to the
inverter. Therefore, as the proposed control method has to support the bidirectional operation, a
simulation analysis was performed in both positive and negative current conditions. Figures 11–13
show
Energiesthe
2019,simulation
12, 728 results for mode switching during renewable energy generation, and Figures
9 of 15
14–16 show the same during battery charging.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Simulation
Simulationresults of mode
results switching
of mode in the
switching in case
the of a grid
case of afault
gridduring renewable
fault during energy
renewable
generation: (a) using
energy generation: the general
(a) using inverter
the general controller;
inverter (b) (b)
controller; using
usingthetheproposed
proposedload
load current
current
compensation
compensation controller.
controller.

Figure 11 shows the waveforms

waveforms detecteddetected and
and mode-shifted
mode-shifted afterafter 11 ms
ms asas aa result
result of a fault in
the normal
normal system
systemduring
duringrenewable
renewableenergyenergygeneration.
generation.If If
a general
a general controller
controller is used—as
is used—as shown
shownin
Figure
in Figure11a—the
11a—the output voltage
output voltage is transient because
is transient of the
because influence
of the influenceof of
thethe
load
loadwhen
whenthethe
mode
mode is
changed.
is changed. TheThe simulation
simulationresults showed
results showed thatthat
thethe
voltage fluctuation
voltage fluctuation waswas about
about50 50
V. V.
However,
However, if
the proposed
if the proposed controller
controlleris isused—as
used—asshown shownininFigure
Figure11b—the
11b—theload load current
current cancan be feed-forward
compensated to toremove
removethisthis fluctuation.
fluctuation. Therefore,
Therefore, eveneven
when when the mode
the mode is switched,
is switched, a stableavoltage
stable
voltage can always be supplied. In the simulation results for the proposed
can always be supplied. In the simulation results for the proposed controller, the smooth mode controller, the smooth
mode
Energiesswitching
switching2019,was wasPEER
completed
12, xcompleted
FOR without
REVIEW without a voltage
a voltage transient.
transient. 10 of 15

(a) (b)
Figure 12.
12. Simulation results of mode switching in the case
case of
of low-grid
low-grid voltage
voltage during
during renewable
renewable
energy generation: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current
current
compensation controller.
compensation controller.

Figure 12 shows the simulation

simulation results for a transition
transition from aa weak
weak grid
grid condition
condition (low
(low system
system
voltage) to standalone
standalone mode. Figure 12a depicts the case in which the general controller is used.
Figure 12a depicts the case in which the general controller is
After the mode switching command, the output voltage took approximately 5 ms to reach the
steady state, and voltage fluctuation occurred. Figure 12b depicts the case in which the proposed
controller is used. Even under the low-grid voltage condition, the proposed controller compensated
the load current and output stable voltage within 1 ms.
 (a) (b)
Figure 12. Simulation results of mode switching in the case of low-grid voltage during renewable
energy generation: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current
compensation controller.
Energies 2019, 12, 728 10 of 15
Figure 12 shows the simulation results for a transition from a weak grid condition (low system
voltage) to standalone mode. Figure 12a depicts the case in which the general controller is used.
After
After the
themode
modeswitching
switchingcommand,
command, thethe
output voltage
output tooktook
voltage approximately 5 ms 5toms
approximately reach
to the steady
reach the
state, and voltage fluctuation occurred. Figure 12b depicts the case in which the proposed
steady state, and voltage fluctuation occurred. Figure 12b depicts the case in which the proposed controller
is used. Even
controller under
is used. Eventheunder
low-grid
the voltage
low-gridcondition, the proposed
voltage condition, controllercontroller
the proposed compensated the load
compensated
current and output stable voltage within 1 ms.
the load current and output stable voltage within 1 ms.

(a) (b)
Figure 13. Simulation
Figure 13. Simulation results
results of
of mode switching in
mode switching the case
in the case of
of high-grid
high-grid voltage
voltage during
during renewable
renewable
energy generation: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current
energy generation: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current
compensation controller.
controller.

Figure 13 shows the simulation results for a transition from a weak grid condition (high-grid
voltage) to standalone mode. Figure Figure 13a
13a shows
shows aa transient
transient in the output voltage when the mode
was changed and a general controller was used. However,However, when
when the
the proposed
proposed controller
controller was
was used,
used,
the mode was switched as shown in Figure 13b. As shown in Figures 11–13, when the mode was
switched during
duringrenewable
renewableenergy
energygeneration, thethe
generation, transient phenomenon
transient phenomenonwaswas
eliminated by the
eliminated byload
the
load current
current
Energies 2019, 12,feed-forward
feed-forward compensator.
compensator.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

(a) (b)
Figure 14. Simulation
Simulationresults
resultsofofmode
modeswitching
switchingininthe case
the of of
case a grid fault
a grid during
fault battery
during charging:
battery (a)
charging:
using
(a) thethe
using general inverter
general controller;
inverter (b)(b)
controller; using thethe
using proposed
proposedload current
load compensation
current compensationcontroller.
controller.

Figure 14 shows the simulation results of switching from a grid-connected mode to standalone
mode, as a result of a fault in the normal system during battery charging. Figure 14a shows the case
in which a general inverter controller is used, and Figure 14b shows the case in which the proposed
load current compensation controller is used. Both controllers were able to switch to standalone
operation, but in the case of the general controller, the output voltage was transient. Comparatively,
 (a) (b)
Energies 2019, 12, 728 11 of 15
Figure 14. Simulation results of mode switching in the case of a grid fault during battery charging: (a)
using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation controller.
Figure 14 shows the simulation results of switching from a grid-connected mode to standalone
Figure 14 shows the simulation results of switching from a grid-connected mode to standalone
mode, as a result of a fault in the normal system during battery charging. Figure 14a shows the case
mode, as a result of a fault in the normal system during battery charging. Figure 14a shows the case
in which a general inverter controller is used, and Figure 14b shows the case in which the proposed
in which a general inverter controller is used, and Figure 14b shows the case in which the proposed
load current compensation controller is used. Both controllers were able to switch to standalone
load current compensation controller is used. Both controllers were able to switch to standalone
operation, but in the case of the general controller, the output voltage was transient. Comparatively,
operation, but in the case of the general controller, the output voltage was transient. Comparatively,
thethe
proposed
proposed controller was
controller able
was to to
able achieve seamless
achieve seamless transfer—even
transfer—evenif ifthe
theinverter
invertercurrent
currentwas
wasininthe
(-) the
direction—by feed-forward compensation of the load current.
(-) direction—by feed-forward compensation of the load current.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 15.15. Simulation
Simulation results
results of mode
of mode switching
switching in theincase
the of
case of low-grid
low-grid voltagevoltage
duringduring
battery battery
charging:
charging: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation
(a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation controller.
controller.
Figure 15 shows the simulation results of switching from a weak grid condition (low system
voltage)Figure 15 shows mode
to standalone the simulation results of
during battery switching
charging. from the
When a weak
mode grid conditionwas
switching (low system
performed,
thevoltage)
generalto standalone
controller hadmode
a slowduring battery
transition to charging.
the steadyWhen
state, the
as amode
resultswitching was performed,
of the influence of the load
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
the general controller had a slow transition to the steady state, as a result of the
current, as shown in Figure 15a. However, with the proposed load current compensation controller, influence of the
load
a stable current,
output as shown
voltage wasin Figure 15a. However, with the proposed load current compensation
simulation result using theachieved
proposedwithout a voltage
controller. transient.
Even during mode Figure 15b shows
switching, the simulation
the output voltage
controller, a stable output voltage was achieved without a voltage transient. Figure 15b shows the
result using the
remained stable. proposed controller. Even during mode switching, the output voltage remained stable.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 16.16. Simulation
Simulation results
results of mode
of mode switching
switching in theincase
the of
case
lowofgrid
lowvoltage
grid voltage
during during
battery battery
charging:
charging: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation
(a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation controller.
controller.

Figure 16 shows the simulation results of switching from a weak-grid condition (high system
voltage) to standalone mode during battery charging. When mode switching was performed, the
normal controller had a slow transition to the steady state, because of the influence of the load
current. However, the proposed load current compensation controller achieved a stable output
Energies 2019, 12, 728 12 of 15

Figure 16 shows the simulation results of switching from a weak-grid condition (high system
voltage) to standalone mode during battery charging. When mode switching was performed,
the normal controller had a slow transition to the steady state, because of the influence of the load
current. However, the proposed load current compensation controller achieved a stable output voltage
without a voltage transient.
Figure 17 shows the (a)simulation results when the load varies in the weak-grid (b) system. When the
load changes in the weak-grid, the output voltage fluctuates as a result of the influence of the line
Figure 16. Simulation results of mode switching in the case of low grid voltage during battery
impedance. This variation applies a large voltage stress to the load, as overvoltage is observed.
charging: (a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation
It should be disconnected from the grid and operated in stand-alone mode. However, if a general
controller.
controller is used, there is a problem that a transient occurs in the output voltage when the mode is
switched.
FigureFigure 17a shows
16 shows the simulation
the simulation resultsresult of the mode
of switching fromswitching duecondition
a weak-grid to the load(high
variation
systemin
the weak-grid. When the mode is switched using a general controller, a voltage
voltage) to standalone mode during battery charging. When mode switching was performed, the transient of about
100 V occurs.
normal Thishad
controller voltage transient
a slow affects
transition to the
the load adversely.
steady However,
state, because if the
of the proposed
influence of seamless
the load
algorithm
current. is applied,
However, like
the Figure 17b,
proposed it iscurrent
load possible to switch the controller
compensation stand-alone mode and
achieved supplyoutput
a stable stable
electrical power to the load.
voltage without a voltage transient.

(a) (b)
Figure 17. Simulation results of mode switching in case of a load change in a weak-grid condition: (a)
Figure 17. Simulation results of mode switching in case of a load change in a weak-grid condition:
using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation controller.
(a) using the general inverter controller; (b) using the proposed load current compensation controller.

Figure
Figure 1718 shows
shows the
the simulation
simulation results
resultswhen
of thethe load voltage
output varies inandthe current
weak-grid system.toWhen
according load
the
variations, when the inverters operate in standalone mode. Figure 18a shows the case in which the
load changes in the weak-grid, the output voltage fluctuates as a result of the influence of the
line impedance.
general This
controller wasvariation applies
used. When thea load
largefluctuated,
voltage stress
the to the load,
output as overvoltage
voltage fluctuated. isThe observed.
results
It shouldthat
showed be disconnected from the
the output voltage grid andby
fluctuated operated in stand-alone
approximately mode. However,
60 V. However, when theif controller
a general
controller
that compensates the load current was used, as shown in Figure 18b, a stable voltage wasmode
is used, there is a problem that a transient occurs in the output voltage when the alwaysis
switched. Figure 17a shows the simulation result of the mode switching due to the
output—even if the load fluctuated. When the microgrid inverter is in standalone mode, it acts as load variation in
the weak-grid.
a voltage sourceWhen
and isthe mode is for
responsible switched
supplyingusing a general
power controller,
to the demand a voltage
load. Therefore,transient of about
if the proposed
100 V occurs. This voltage transient affects the load adversely. However,
controller is used, it will have robust characteristics against demand load fluctuations.if the proposed seamless
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

algorithm is applied,
Energies 2019, 12, 728 like Figure 17b, it is possible to switch the stand-alone mode and supply stable
13 of 15
electrical power to the load.

(a) (b)

Figure 18.18.Simulation
Figure Simulationresults inin
results standalone
standalonemode
mode with
withload variation:
load (a)(a)
variation: using the
using general
the inverter
general inverter
controller; (b)(b)
controller; using the
using proposed
the proposed load current
load currentcompensation
compensationcontroller.
controller.

4. Conclusions
Figure 18 shows the simulation results of the output voltage and current according to load
variations, when
In this thewe
study, inverters
examined operate in standalone
the seamless mode.
transfer Figure of
algorithm 18a shows the inverter.
a microgrid case in which the
Microgrid
general controller was used. When the load fluctuated, the output voltage fluctuated.
inverters should always supply stable electrical energy to the demand load in both grid-connected The results
showed
and thethat the output
standalone voltage
modes. Ourfluctuated
controllerby approximately
was designed based 60 V.onHowever, when
state average the controller
modeling and on
that compensates the load current was used, as shown in Figure 18b, a stable voltage
the analysis of the voltage transients occurring during mode switching. When a microgrid inverter was always
output—even if the load mode,
operates in standalone fluctuated. When voltage
the output the microgrid inverter
is affected by theis load
in standalone mode, it acts
current. Therefore, when as the
a
voltage source and is responsible for supplying power to the demand load. Therefore,
inverter switches from the grid-connected mode to standalone mode, the output voltage is transient. if the
proposed
To solve controller is used, ita will
this, we proposed haveofrobust
method characteristics
removing against
the disturbance bydemand load fluctuations.
compensating the load current.
Using the proposed method, it was possible both to perform smooth mode switching without voltage
4.transients,
Conclusionsand to remove the output voltage fluctuations caused by the load fluctuations in standalone
mode. Additionally,
In this study, we the proposed
examined thecontrol
seamlessstructure
transfer feed-forward
algorithm ofcompensates
a microgridthe load current
inverter. based
Microgrid
on the direct
inverters shouldcurrent
alwayscontrol
supplytechnique, so that
stable electrical it canto
energy bethe
implemented
demand load more easily
in both than the other
grid-connected
seamless
and transfer control
the standalone modes.methods.
Our controller was designed based on state average modeling and on
the analysis of the voltage transients occurring during mode switching. When a microgrid inverter
Author Contributions: J-U.L. implemented the system and performed the experiments. H-W.K. provided the
operates
idea andinmanaged
standalone mode,K-Y.C.
the paper. the output voltage
and I-s.K. is affected
assisted by the loadand
in idea development current.
paper Therefore,
writing. when the
inverter switches from the grid-connected mode to standalone mode, the output voltage is transient.
Funding: The research was supported by a grant from the Academic Research Program of Korea National
ToUniversity
solve this,ofwe proposed ainmethod
Transportation 2018. Thisof removing the disturbance
work was supported by compensating
by the “Human Resources the load current.
Program in Energy
Using the proposed
Technology” method,
of the Korea Instituteitofwas possible
Energy bothEvaluation
Technology to performand smooth mode switching
Planning (KETEP), without
and granted financial
resources
voltage from the Ministry
transients, of Trade,the
and to remove Industry,
outputand Energy,
voltage Republic of Korea
fluctuations caused(no.
by20164030201100).
the load fluctuations in
standalone
Conflicts ofmode. Additionally,
Interest: the proposed
The authors declare control
no conflict structure feed-forward compensates the load
of interest.
current based on the direct current control technique, so that it can be implemented more easily
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