ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Chapter 3: Basic Problems of Manipulation 

3.1 Introduction
The problem of kinematics is to describe the motion of the manipulator without consideration of
the forces and torques causing the motion. The kinematic description is therefore a geometric
one. We first consider the forward kinematics: The problem is described as for a given joint
coordinates, find the end effector coordinates and orientation. Then we consider inverse
kinematics: the problem here is to determine the joint variables from the coordinates and
orientations of the end effector.

The forward kinematics problems are easy in serial manipulators which have an open kinematic
chain: Since they use links in series, we apply successive transformation to get the position of the
last link (or the end effector) from the joint variables.

3.2 Kinematic Chains

A manipulator is composed of set of links which are connected together by joints. For simplicity,
we consider the joints to have one DOF (i.e., either revolute or a prismatic joint). Therefore, the
action of each joint can be described by a single real number: the angle of a rotation for revolute,
or the displacement for prismatic joint.

A manipulator with n joints, has n+1 links, since each joint connects two links. We number the
joints from 1 to n, and we number the links from 0 to n, starting from the base. By this
convention, joint i connects link i-1 to link i. We will consider the location of joint i to be fixed
with respect to link i-1. When joint i is actuated, link i moves. Therefore link 0 (the first link) is
fixed and does not move when the joints are actuated. Note that we consider the manipulator in
this case to be stationary and not mobile.

With the ith joint, we associate a joint variable, denoted by qi :

⎧θ i if joint i is revolute ⎫
qi = ⎨ ⎬ (3.1)
⎩di if joint i is prismatic ⎭

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

In order to perform a kinematic analysis, we perform the following steps:

Step 1: Attach a coordinate frame rigidly to each link. It means that when joint i is actuated, link
i and its attached frame {i} experience a resulting motion. Frame {0} which is attached to the
robot base, is referred to as inertial frame. Figure 3.1 shows the idea

Figure 3.1: Coordinate frames attached to elbow manipulator. 

Step 2: Find the homogeneous transformation matrix Ai that gives the position and orientation
of frame {i} with respect to frame {i − 1} . Note that matrix Ai is not constant, but varies as the
configuration of the robot is changed. However, since all joints are either revolute or prismatic,
matrix Ai is a function of only a single joint variable, namely qi .

Ai = Ai (qi ) (3.2)

Step 3: Use successive transformation rule to get the end effector location with respect to inertial
or base frame. In order to do this, remember from Chapter 2 that in order to express the position
and orientation of frame { j} with respect to frame {i} , the transformation matrix is

⎧ ⎫
⎪ Ai +1 Ai + 2 ... Aj −1 Aj if i < j ⎪
⎪ ⎪
jT = ⎨ I j if i = j ⎬
i
(3.3)
⎪ j −1 ⎪
⎪⎩( iT ) if i > j ⎪⎭

We denote the position and orientation of the end effector by its homogeneous transformation
matrix

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

⎡ n0 R 0
o⎤
H =⎢ n
⎥ (3.4)
⎣0 1⎦

Where n0 o is a three vector which gives the coordinate of the origin of the end effector frame with
respect to the base frame, and n0 R is the 3X3 rotation matrix which gives the orientation of the
end effector frame with respect to the base frame. Then the position and orientation of the end
effector in the base frame are given by

H = 0nT = A1 (q1 ) A2 (q2 )... An (qn ) (3.5)

And each homogeneous transformation Ai is in the form of

⎡ i −i1R o⎤
i −1
Ai = ⎢ ⎥
i
(3.6)
⎣0 1 ⎦

Forward kinematic solution is nothing but finding the homogenous transformation of each link
and multiplying them into the right order. However, there is a convention that helps us in setting
the coordinate frames such that no confusion occurs.

3.3 The Denavit-Hartenberg Convention

As we mentioned before, there is a set of conventions that provide systematic procedure for
performing forward kinematic analysis. It is possible to carry forward kinematic analysis without
respecting this convention, but for large link manipulators, the analysis can become too complex
and following the convention simplifies things considerably. The convention used for selection
frames of reference in robotic applications is the Denavit-Hartenberg, or DH convention.

In DH convention, each of the homogeneous transformations is the product of four basic

transformations

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Ai = Rot z ,θi Trans z ,di Trans x ,ai Rot x ,αi

⎡cθi − sθi 0 0⎤⎡ 1 0 0 0 ⎤⎡ 1 0 0 ai ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 0 0⎤
⎢ sθ 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ ⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
cθi 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0 cα i − sα i
=⎢ i
⎢0 0 1 0⎥⎢ 0 0 1 di ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎢ 0 sα i cα i 0⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦
⎡cθi − sθi cα i sθi sα i ai cθ i ⎤
⎢ sθ cθi cα i − cθi sα i ai sθi ⎥⎥
=⎢ i
⎢0 sα i cα i di ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
(3.7)

Where the four quantities of ai , α i , di and θi are given the names link length, link twist, link
offset, and joint angle, and are related to joint and link i. Since we learned before that the
homogenous transformation Ai is only a function of one variable, three of the four parameters
above are constant for a given link, while the fourth parameter, is the joint variable.

A question: From Chapter 2, we learned that an arbitrary homogeneous transformation matrix

can be characterised by six numbers (for example three position and three Euler angles). Then
how come in the DH representation of an arbitrary homogeneous transformation matrix, there are
only four parameters?

Answer: In Step 1 in Section 3.2, we said that we attach a frame to each rigid link. While frame i
is required to rigidly be attached to link i, we are free to choose the origin of the frame. By a
clever choice of origin and the coordinate axes, it is possible to cut down the number of
parameters needed from six to four. Next we are showing you how.

3.3.1 Existence and Uniqueness

Not all arbitrary homogeneous transformation can be built from only four parameters. Basically
two conditions must exist. They are

DH1: The axis xi is perpendicular to the axis z0

DH2: The axis xi intersects the axis z0

These two conditions are shown in Figure 3.2.

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Figure 3.2: Coordinate frames satisfying assumptions of DH1 and DH2. 

Under these conditions, it can be proved that there exist unique numbers θi , ai , di and α i such
that

Ai = Rot z ,θi Trans z ,di Trans x ,ai Rot x ,αi (3.8)

So in summary, each homogeneous transformation matrix satisfying conditions (DH1) and

(DH2), can be expressed as Equation (3.7). Now let’s see what the physical interpretations of
these four quantities are.

Look at Figure 3.2 above. The parameter a is the distance between the axes z0 and zi , and is
measured along the axis xi . The angle α is the angle between the axes z0 and zi , measured in a
plane normal to xi . The positive sense for α is determined from z0 to zi by the right hand rule as
shown in Figure 3.3. The parameter di is the distance from the origin o0 to the intersection of the
xi axis with z0 measured along the z0 axis. Finally, θ is the angle from x0 to xi measured in
plane normal to z0 . We use these physical interpretations in developing the procedure for
assigning coordinate frames that will satisfy both (DH1) and (DH2).

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Figure 3.3: Positive sense for  α i  and  θ i  

3.3.2 Assigning the Coordinate Frames

For a given robot manipulator, we can choose the frames 0, …, n in such a way that the DH1 and
DH2 are satisfied. The procedure is as follows:

Figure 3.4: Denavit‐Hawtenberg frame assignment. 

i. Number links from 0, starting from the fixed link.

ii. Number the joints from 1, so that link i is connected to the link i+1 by joint i+1 and to
link i-1 by joint i .

iii. Set the zeroth coordinate frame such that z0 is aligned with the axis of joint 1. Origin
o0 can be anywhere on the z0 , and x0 and y0 can be in any convenient manner as long as
the resulting frame is right-handed.

iv. For each link, such as i, set the zi −1 and zi such that they coincide with the joint axis
( i and i + 1 ).

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

v. xi will be the common normal of axes zi −1 , zi .

a. If zi −1 , zi are not coplanar, then there exist a unique line segment from zi −1 to zi ,
perpendicular to both. This line segment defines xi and the point where it
intersects zi is the origin oi .

b. If zi −1 is parallel to zi , then there are infinite normals between them. Therefore

we are free to choose an origin oi anywhere along zi as we please, and choose xi
to be either towards zi −1 or opposite.

c. If zi −1 , zi intersect, then xi is normal to the plane of zi −1 , zi . The origin oi can be

the point of intersection, though any place on zi can be chosen. The positive
direction of xi will be arbitrary.

vi. yi is found using yi = zi × xi , right hand rule.

vii. In an n link robot, frame n will be for the end-effector. This is usually called end effector
or tool frame (See Figure 3.5).

a. Origin on is most often placed symmetrically between fingers of the gripper.

b. The three unit vectors in xn , yn and zn directions are labelled n , s and a because
they correspond to the normal direction, sliding direction of the fingers, and
approach direction of the end effector.

c. Note: In most robots, the final joint motion is the rotation of the end effector by
θ n , and the final two joint axes zn −1 and zn coincide. Therefore, the
transformation between the final two coordinate frames is a translation along
zn −1 by a distance d n followed (or preceded) by a rotation of θ n about zn −1 . We
will use this to simplify the computation of the inverse kinematics in next chapter.

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Figure 3.5: Tool frame assignment. 

Example 3.1: Consider the two-link planar arm of Figure 3.6. Drive the tranformation matrices.

Figure 3.6: Two‐link planar manipulator. The z‐axes all point out of the page, and 
are not shown in the figure. 

Example 3.2: Drive the tranformation matrices for a three-link Cylindrical Robot.

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Figure 3.7: Three‐link cylindrical manipulator. 

Example 3.3: Drive the transformation matrices for a Spherical Wrist.

Figure 3.8: The spherical wrist frame assignment. 

Example 3.4: Drive the tranformation matrices for a Cylindrical Manipulator with Spherical
Wrist.

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Figure 3.9: Cylindrical robot with spherical wrist. 

Example 3.5: Drive the transformation matrices for the Stanford Manipulator shown in Figure
3.10.

Figure 3.10: DH coordinate frame assignment for the Stanford manipulator. 

Example 3.6: Drive the transformation matrices for the SCARA Manipulator.

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ENGR 4280U: Robotics and Automation    Payam Rahimi, PhD, PEng 

Figure 3.11: DH coordinate frame assignment for the SCARA manipulator. 

References:
• Introduction to Robotics, Mechanics and Control, 3rd Edition, By John J. Craig, Pearson
Prentice Hall.

• Industrial Robotics, Technologies, Programming, and Application, By M. P. Groover, M.

Weiss, R. Nagel, N. Odrey, McGraw-Hill.

• Robot Analysis and Control, by H. Asada and J. J. Slotine, Wiley.

• Robot Modeling and Control, by M. Spong, S. Hutchinson, M. Vidyasagar, Wiley.

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