Networking

 Data Publication :-
It refers to the exchange of information between two

or, many computers or other communicating devices using a transmission system
which many be a single transmission line or, a complex computer network.
The application using data communication are financial
transaction (E-commerce), Travel reservation etc. Data communication deals with
the transmission of signals reliable & efficient manner. The information used in
data communication may belong to one of following that is analog data & digital
data .
 Element of data communication system :-

The fundamental purpose of a communication system is the
exchange of data between two parts. The key element of data communication
system are follows:-
1. Source:- This device generate the data to be transmitted .
For ex- telephone &Pc's .
2. Transmitter:- Usually, the data generated by a source system are not

transmitted directly in which they were generated rather a transmitter transform
& encodes the information in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signal
that can be transmitted across some of the transmission signal.
For ex- A modem takes a digital stream from an attach

such as PC & transform that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled
by the telephone network.
3. Transmission system:-This can be a single transmission line or, a complex

network connecting source & destination.
4. Receiver: -The receiver accepts the signals from the transmission signals
&converts it into the form that can be handled by the destination device.
For Ex- A modem will accept an analog system, coming

from a network or, transmission line into a digital bit stream.
5. Destination:-It takes the incoming data from the receiver.
 Computer network:-It can be simply define as the inter connection of two or,
more independent computer. Applications of computer networks are found
everywhere. They are used in our home, school, colleges, Railway station, office &
businesses.
 Advantage of using computer network:-
1. Resource sharing:- A network is needed because of the desired to share the
sharable programs, data & equipment available to anyone on the network without
regard to the physical location of the resource and the user . We can also share
processing load on various networked resources.
2. High reliability:-A network may have alternative sources of supply (for Ex-
replicated files, multiplecpu'setc). In case of one resource failure, the others could
be used & the system continues to operate as reduced performance. This is a very
important property for Military, Banking, ATC and Many other application.
3. Cost benefit advantage:-A network may consist of many powerful small

computer's one per user .We can keep the data & application or, one or, more
shared & powerful file server machine. This is called the client server model.
At present many server service have been moved to

internet based resource setup by a third party & shared by many called cloud. It
allows users to use powerful server application & data service without maintaing
server. Such system may billing down the cost server.
4. SCALABILITY:-The ability to increase system performance gradually by

adding more processors (incremental upgrades) is called scalability.
5. Powerful communication medium:-Networks make co-operation among , far-

flung, groups, groups of people, where it previously had been impossible. In the
long run , the use of network to enhance human to human. Communication may
improve important than technical goals such as improved reliability. One of the
most popular application network is the WWW(world wide web) which is an
application of internet.
 Networking:-
 Classification of Network:- There are mainly 3 types of network.
1. LAN 2. WAN 3. MAN
1. LAN (Local Area Network):- It is a group of computer located in the same

room, on the same floor or, in the same building that are connected to from a single
network as to share resources such as disk drive , printers, data, CPU, FAX(Far
Away Xerox)/ modem, applications etc.
It is generally limited to specific geographical
area less than 2km supporting high speed network the most widely used LAN
system is the Ethernet system based on the bus topology.
 Components of LAN:- Generally there are five components of LAN.
1. Network devices:- such as work station , printers , file server which are normally
access by all other computer.
2. Network communicating device:-These are devices such as hubs, routers

,switches etc. that are used for network connectivity.
3. NIC's(Network Interface Cards):- For each network device required to access

the network . It is the interface between the machine and the physical network.
4. Cable:- Cable as a physical transmission medium.
5.Network OS:- Software application required to control the use of network

operation and administration.
 Characteristic of LAN:-
1. It connects computer in a single building, block or, campus that is they work in
a restricted geographical area.
2. LAN’s are private networks, not subjects to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
for the wireless LAN there are additional regulations in several country.
3. It operate at relatively high speed when compare to the typicalWAN (2
Hundreds MB/s).
4. They are different types of media control method in a LAN. The prevent ones
are bus based Ethernet, tokens ring.
 Advantage of LAN:-
1. It allows sharing of expansive resources such as laser printer, software and mass
storage devices among a number of computers.
2. It allows for high speed exchange of essential information.
3. It contributes to increased productivity.
 Dis- advantage:-
Some type of security system must be implemented, if it is important to protect
confidential data. Security may be further low in it is a wireless LAN.
2. MAN(Metropolitan AreaNetwork):- They are large computer network that
expanse a metropolitan area or, campus. Its geographical scope falls between a
WAN and LAN. They tipically used wireless infrastructure or, optical fibre
connections to link their sites.
A MAN is optimise for a larger geographical area than a LAN,
ranging from several blocks or, building to entire cities. It is usually used by many
individual or, organization. It might also be owned & operate as public utility or,
privately owned. It can span up to 50km devices used are modem & wire/ cable.
It provides internet connectivity for LAN in a

metropolitan region & current them to WAN like internet.
 Characteristic of MAN:-
1. It generally covers towns / cities (50km).
2. It is developed in 1980's.
3. Communication medium used for MAN optical fibre cables, However if may
use other media to use.
4. Data rates adequate for distributed computing application.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network ):- It is a network system connecting cities,

countries or, continents. A network that uses routers and public communication
link. The largest and most well known example of a WAN is the internet.
They are used to connect LAN's & other types of

network together, so that users & computer in one location can communicate with
user's& computer in other location. Many WAN's are built for one particular
organisation and are private. They are often built using leased line at each end of the
leased line, router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on
the other. Leased line can be very expansive. Instead of using leased line, WAN's
can also be used around public network or, internet.
 Characteristic of WAN:-
1. It generally covers large distances(states,countries, continents).
2. Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone network which are
connected by routers.
3. Router's forward packages from one to another on a route from the sender to
receiver.
 Networking devices: -There are basic certain devices for creating a network.
1. Network Interface Card(NIC):- It provides the physical connection between

the network and the computer. Most NIC's are internal, with the card fitting into the
expansion slot inside the computer. They are a major factor in determining the
speed and performance of the network.
The most common NIC connection today is Ethernet cards. It

contains connection for twisted pair cables have a RJ-45 connection. The Ethernet
card is sometimes called NAC(Network Adaptor card). Ethernet card is identified
by a unique number called MAC (Media Access Control) address.
2. MODEM (Modulator - Demodulator):- The meaning of modulator is change

the meaning of the word, demodulator is to restore to an original condition. A
modem is a communication device that converts binary signal to analog signal for
transmission telephone lines & converts these analog signals back into binary from
at the receiving end.
 Modems are of two types:-

1. Internal 2. External
Internal modem is a hardware cards and external modem are kept

outside of our computer connected by USB or, serial port. Internal modems are
good for general users. External modems tends to be slidely more expansive than
internal modem. In additional, they can easily be move from one to another
computer. However, they do use one com port.
3. Repeaters:-When a signal travels a network cable (per any other medium of

transmission), they loss strength degrade and become distorted in a process that is
called at termination.
A Repeater is a device that electrically amplifies the signals

proceed& read broadcast it. They are used to the total length of our network cable
exceed the standard sets. for the type of cable being used.
A good example of the use of repeaters could be in a LAN using a

star topology with UTP cabling. If a cable is long enough , the automation be finally
make a signal unrecognizable by the receiver.
4. Bridge:- Like a repeater, a bridge can join several LAN's. However, bridge can
also divide a network to isolate traffic problems.
For ex- If the volume of traffic from one on two computers or a single
department flooding the network with data & slowing down entire operation. A
bridge can isolate those computers or, that department. A bridge is used to connect
to segment. It segment can have several computer attach to it.
5. Hub:-It sends any data packets coming from one to all other ports. It is up to
the receiving computer to decide if the packet is for it tipicallyuse to connect
segment of a LAN, a hub contains multiple ports.
Hubs are tipically used all network where the amount of data going
across the network is never very high it is tipically the least expensive,
leastintelligence&least completed of the hub router & switches . Every computer
connected to the hubs "views" everything that every other computer on the hub
views.
5. Switches :- A switch is a device that can segment a larger LAN to reduce the
traffic load. A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently . It splits
two or, more segments with devices that normally talk with each other.
Conceptually, switching text data from one interface delivers to another interface.
6. Router :-It translate information from one network to another network . It is

similar to an intelligent bridge . It selects the best path to rout a message, based on
the destination address & origin.
The router can direct traffic to prevent head on collision and

is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along shortcuts. Router can even
listen to the entire network to determine which section are busiest. They can redirect
data round those section until these are node.
It also determine the best rout are sent data over the internet. It maintain
the map of physical networks on a internet (network) & forward data receive from
one physical network to other physical networks.
7. Gateway:-A gateway connects our smaller network to the internet . It passes

information one network to another network as our information travels across the
internet.
A gateway interconnects network at higher level that bridge or,

routers. It is usually supports address mapping from one network to another. It
tipically limits the interconnectivity the two networks to a sub-sets of the
application protocols supported on either ones.
It is also called protocol converters. It can operate at any
layer of the networking modem. Tipically a gateway must convert one protocol to
another protocol .
The main function of a gateway is to converts protocol among

communication network. It accepts data formatted for one protocol & convert it to
data formatted for another protocol before forwarding it.
 Network topology:-
It is the studies of the arrangements or, mapping of the elements

(links, nodes etc) of a network inter connection between the nodes . It also
determine the strategy for physically expanding the network. In future, Topologies
can be physical or, logical . Physical topology means a physical design of a network
including the devices, location&cable installation. Logical topology refers to the
fact that how data actually transfers in a network & opposed to its design.
 Types of Topology:-
There are different types of topology like bus, ring, star, tree, mesh etc.
1. Bus Topology:- It is a single common communication to which all the computers

are connected. It has a single length of a cable with a terminator at each end .
It is a passive topology which means only one computer at a time

can sent a message. Hence, the number of computer are attached to a bus network
can significantly affect the speed of the network . A computer must wait until the
bus is free before it can transmit each node is connected to other node. Network
operating system keeps tracks a unique address of each node & manages the flow
of data between machine. It is simplest and the most widely used in LAN design.
 Advantages:-
1. It is simple, reliable & easy to used in a small sized LAN.
2. It required least amount of cable to connect computer together & less expensive
than other cabling arrangements.
3. It is easy to implement & extend using connecters.
4. If one computer on the bus fails, it doesn't affect rest of the traffic of the bus.
 Dis-Advantages:-
1. In this topology, No two computers can transmit data at a time.
2. It doesn't cope well with heavy load which can slow down a bus considerably.
3. Performance degrades and additional computers are added.
4. Terminator are required at both ends of the cable.
2. Ring Topology: - It is also known as circular topology. This layout is similar to the
linear bus, except that the nodes are connected in a circle. In this topology each
node is connected to two & only two neighbouring system. The ring does not have
an end. It is made of short segments that connect one PC to the next PC & show on.
S1
S2 S3
S4
Fig:- Representation of ring topology

Data is accepted from one of the neighbouring nodes and is transmitted onward to
another node. Therefore, data travels in only direction from node to node around
the ring. Since each computer re-transmits, what it receives, a ring is an active
network & is not subject to the signal loss problem. There is no transmission
because there is no end the ring.
This type of topology can be found in peer-to-peer networks, in
which each machine manages both information processing & distribution of data
files. For ex- IBM token ring, FDDI ( fibre distributed data interface).
 Advantages:-
i. It is an orderly network where every device has access to the token (control
signal)& the opportunity to transmit because every computer is given equal
access to the token, no computer can monopolies the network.
ii. It performs better than a star topology under heavy network load.
iii. It can create much larger network using token ring.
iv. It doesn’t require network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers.
 Dis- Advantages:-
i. Network adopter card&multi-access use in this topology are much more
expansive than Ethernet cards & hubs used in bus topology.
ii. It is much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load.
iii. It is difficult to troubleshoot.
iv. One Multi-functioning node or, bad port in the multi-access unit can create
problem for entire network.
3. Star Topology: -In star topology, each computer on a network communicates with
central hub (also called as a concentrator) that re-sends the message either the all
computer all only destination computer. A hub expands one network connection
into many. For ex- A four port hub connects up to four machines. A signal hub is
sufficient for a small network. However, large network require multiple hubs but it
increases hardware and cabling costs.
NOTE:- In star topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only
to a central controller, Usually called a hub.
S1 S2
Hub
S3 S4
Fig:- Representation of star topology
 Advantage:-
i. It is more reliable (If one connection fails, it doesn’t affect other). Hub
detects the fault & isolates the faulty computer.
ii. It is easy to replace, install or, remove ports or, other devices, problem can
be easily detected.
iii. Use of multiple cable type is a same network with a hub.
iv. It is a good performance.
 Dis- advantage:-
i. It is expansive to install as it requires more cable.
ii. It is fully dependent on hub that is if it fails the whole network fails to
operate.
iii. Many star networks requires a device at the central point to re-broadcast or,
switch the network traffic.
4. Tree Topology: - It is a variation of star. As in a star nodes in a tree are linked to a
central hubed that controls the traffic to the network. However, not every device
plugs directly into the central hub. The majority of devices connect to a secondary
hub that in term connected to the central hub.
S1 S2
Central
Hub
S4
S3
Secondary
Hub
S5 S6 S7
Fig:- Representation of Tree Topology

The central hub in a tree is an active hub. An active hub contains a repeater (which
is a hardware device that re-generates the receive bit pattern before sending them
out). Repeater strengthens transmission and increases the distance a signal can
travel.
5. Mesh Topology:-In a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point

like every other device the term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.
N1
N2 N3
N4 N5
Fig:- A fully connected mesh topology (for 5 computers)

A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channel to
link ndevices.
 Advantage:-
i. The use of dedicated links guaranties that each connection can carries its
own data loads. Thus, illuminating the traffic problem that can occur
when links must be share by multiple devices.
ii. It is robust. If one link becomes un-usable, it doesn’t incapacitate by
entire system.
iii. Privacy or, security is also the important advantage. When every
message sent travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipients
views it physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
 Dis- advantage:-
The main disadvantages of mesh is a amount of cabling & Number of I/O
ports required.
 Internet: - It is a network of millions of computer which are connected to each

other to share information and resources computer on the internet, use remote
server mechanism to share files and device with the user machines with Internet.
We can review newspaper, magazines and a book listen to music and watches
movies, plays game, keeps our self-updated.
With current event, go for online shopping, know about
recipes, check airline, re-schedule railway reservation. So it is the best Example of
WAN.
ARPANET (advance research project agency network) is
called pre-devisor of internet. It can existence in 1969, Vinton Cerf was the father
of internet.
In India, internet services start on 15 Aug. 1995 through a
government owned company VSNL (videsh sanchaar nigam Ltd.) private internet
service providers like airtel, reliance etc. have also been allow to provide internet
service.
To access the information on internet will require
software called Web Browser. Some of the popular browser software is internet
explorer, Mozilla Firefox, chrome, safari etc. It is a collection of various services,
tools applications and resources. Some of the popular services on the internet are
browsing, researching, E-mail, E-learning and lost more.WWW is the major
applications of the internet.
WWW was started in 1978 by Sir Tim Burners le at physics laboratory (earn). It
provides a “point & click” interface to text, image, sound and movies that have
proven to very easy to use. This feature was made provides a “point & click” link
other documents on the WWW.
 Use of internet: -
I. Education: - It is widely used by students, scholars as well as teacher for
research & education. Now-a-day several unlined educational program are
available where students can study & participate to video conferencing.
Unline forms & reserves are also available through the internet.
II. E-commerce: - Commerce means exchange of goods & services involving
money. Every single business across the globe has been benefited from the
internet. Now-a-day, many companies have their own portals which are
used for E-commerce.
E-shopping: -It has become one of biggest industry in the
world. We can now purchase goods such as books, cloths, gift item or,
electronic gadgets from different shopping portals around the world. This
scenario changes have become possible only with proper utilization of the
internet. Like – OLX, Quicker etc.
III. Media & Entertainment: -Television & live show utilize the latest
technology to telecast program compare system can download software via
internet to watch live broadcasting of news & programs on television.
It provides the facility to read different newspapers
online & also acquire information regarding various topic, politics, sports
education, etc. It keeps of update with all the latest events across the world.
IV. Health & fitness: - We can now have an all-time doctor at our service for
providing health & fitness. We can read more about various
diseasestheirprevent& pre-causing majors on the internet.
V. Truism & travel: - Internetprovide for inline ability seen as booking, air
ticket, rail ticket etc. across the world, as any time up the day. We can also
cancel or, re-schedule or reservation online.
 Internet terms : -
I. Web pages: -The pages of a website are known as web pages. A web page
may include images, text, hot links, video, audio, etc.
II. Website: -A collection of large number of web pages is known as website.
It consists of a number of web pages that hold large amount of information
various type of website are available on the internet such as education
website, job website, entermainment website, etc.
III. WWW: - It is a collection of document store on computer around the
world. These documents are available in the internet & contain a wide verity
of resources such as text, graphics, multimedia, etc.
IV. Hyperlinks: - The web pages contain highlighted text or, images called
Hyperlinks. By clicking on these links we can move from one page to
another. We can easily identify a Hyperlink or a web page as it appears with
an underline & is usually blue in colour.
V. Web server: - A server can be any of the following:
1.A computer program which delivers web contain using Http over
the WWW.
2. It is a computer or , virtual machine which runs program of
delivering web contain.
VI. Web browser: - It is application software used to view and interpret web
pages. It acts as an interface between the user and the WWW.
A browser enables the user to request for web pages from a
web server & view the requested web pages on their computer screen. The
commonly used web browsers areMs- internet Explorer, safari, Chrome,
Mozilla, Netscape, UC, etc.
VII. URL (Uniform Research Locator): - An address or, location of a website
on the internet is called its URL. To visit any website, we show know its
URL. Some examples of URL’s www. Rediffmail.com, www. google.com,
www. yahoo.com, etc.
 Intranet: - It refers to a computer network within an organization. Intranet uses the
internet protocol technology to share any part of information securely.
It is generally restricted to the employees of an organization.
For Ex- The employee of the same bank are interlinked with each other through the
intranet. The private information can’t be accessed by using outside person.
 Extranet: - It refers to a computer network that allows control access from the
outside for specific business or, educational purposes. For Ex- the customers of a
private bank can access the bank’s website as make financial transactions.
It does not grant access to an organization’s entire network. It is
only a part of company intranet that can de-accessed by users outside the company.
 Network Component: -
I. Server: - It is a powerful computer or, series of computer with high speed &
great processing capability. It can link other computers or, electronic devices
together over server to provide important services to both private & public
users. A server full-fill the request to the client so it is called reply service.
II. Client: - It is a computer system which uses a network to access a remote
service from the server. It can access all the application or, information from
the main server. A client is also called node. A client passes the request to
the server so it is called request services.
III. NIC (Network Interface Card): - It is a small piece of computer hardware.
A LAN card which facilitates the communication b/w different computer
over a network. It identifies every single node in a network by providing a
unique physical address to it. This address is stored on the chip which is
mounted on the card.
IV. Modem (Modulator-Demodulator): - It is a hardware device that converts
the analog signal into digital & vice versa. Hence, A modem modulates as
well as demodulates measured in small bps (bits per second).
Types of Modem: -
A. Wireless modem: - It connects the computer to a wireless computer
instead of a telephone system. When a mobile internet user connects using a
wireless modem, they directly gets attach to the wireless internet service
provider (High speed) & can then access through a telephone line.
B. Cable modem: - It provides data communication through a device that
remains outside the computer &it is connected with wires. It connects to the
internet using a broadband access through a telephone lines.
 Interspace: - It is a vision of what the internet will become in the near feature it
will enable the users to cross correlate the information in multiple ways from
multiple sources. The interspace will occurs distributed services through transfer
concepts across different domains.
 Data & Information: - Data refers to a collection of numbers, characters symbols,
images etc. which can be processed by a computer it related to facts, events &
transactions. Data carries no meaning in its raw form. It must be processed and
interpreted to extend meaningful information.
 Difference between Data & Information
1. It is facts, statistics used for reference or, analysis whereas
information is knowledge device from study, experience (by the
senses) or, instructions.
2. Data is number, character, symbols, images etc. which can be
processed by a computer whereas information is communication of
intelligence.
3. Data is interpreted by a human or, a machine to derived its meaning
whereas the information is meaningful output which we get after
processing of data.
4. Data is representation of information whereas information is
knowledge about things, facts, concepts etc. in some contest that is
exchangeable amongst.
 Explain the function of server & client in a network.
 Server is a powerful computer or, a series of computer with high speed &
large processing capability. It can link other computers or, electronic devices
together over server to provide important services across a network to both
the private and public users through the internet. It is advisable to have server
with dedicated functionality such as web servers, print server, and database
server.
A client is a computer system which uses an internet to across
remote service from server. It can across all the application or, information
from the main server. A client is also known as node. The client –server
model is also known as request & reply service model.
 Protocol Hierarchies: -The first computer network where design with the
hardware are the name concern & the software as an afterthought. This strategy no
longer works. Network software is now highly structure.
To reduce their design complexity, most works are organised
as a stack of layers, or levels, each one built upon the one below it. The number of
layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer & the function of each
layer differ from network to network.
However, in all networks the purpose of each layer is to
other certain services to the higher layer, shielding those layers from the detail of
how the offer services are actually implemented. Layer N on one machine carries
on a conversation with layer N or, another machine.
The rules & conventions used in this conversation are
collectively known as the layer N protocol. Basically, A protocol is an agreement
between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed.
Host 1 Host
Layer 5 Layer 5
layer interface b/w 4 & 5

Layer 4 Layer 4
layer interface b/w 3&4
Layer 3 Layer 3
Layer 2 Layer 2

Layer 1 Layer 1
Physical Medium
A Five layer network illustrate in the above fig. The entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different machine are called peers. The peers may be
processes, hardware devices even human beings. In other word, the peers
communicate by using the protocol.
In fact, no data are directly transfer from layer N on one machine
to a layer N on another machine in steed each layer passes data & control in
formation to the layer immediately below it until the lowest layer is reached.
Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual
communication occur. The virtual communication shown by ………. Line & the
physical communication shown by solid line.
Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. It defines
which primitive operation & service the lower layer max available in upper one. It
is necessary to minimise the amount of information that must be passed b/w layers.
A set of layers or, protocols is called network architecture.
The specification of architecture must contain enough information to allow &
implementation, write the program or, built the h/w or, each layer show that it will
correctly obey the appropriate protocol.
The interface on all machines in a network be the
same, provided that each machine can correctly use all the protocols. A list of
protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol
stack.
 Design issue for the layer: -Some of the key design issues that occur in computer
network are present in several layers. Every layer need a mechanism for identify
senders & receivers. Since, a network normally have many computers, Some of
which have multiple processors that is it is needed for a process or, one machine to
specify with whom it want to talk as a consequence of having multiple destination,
some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific destination.
Another set of design decision concerns, the rules for data
transfer. In some system, data only travel in one direction (simplest
communication). In others they can travel in either direction, but not
simultaneously (half duplex communication). In still others they travel in both
directions at ones (full duplex communication).
The protocol must also determine how many logical channels connection
corresponds to, one for normal data & one for urgent data. Error control is an
important issue because physical communication services are not perfect. Many
error-detecting and error correcting codes are known but both ends of the
correction must agree on which one is being used. In addition, the receiver must
have some way of telling the sender which message have been correctly received
&which have not.
When it is convenient or, expansive to set of
they a separate connection for each pair of communicating processes, underlying
layer may decide to use the same connection for multiple, unrelated conversation as
long as the multiplexing & de-multiplexing is done transparently, it can be used by
any layer/ multiplexing is needed in the physical layer. Where all the traffic for all
connection has to be send over at most a few physical services.
When there are multiple paths b/w source &
destination a rout must be selected. We have to make select one of the available
circuits based on the current traffic load. It is utilize in the concept of routing.
 Interfaces & services: -The function of each layer is to provide services to layer
above it. The active elements in each layer are often all entities. An entity can be a
s/w entity (such as process) or, a h/w entity (such as I/o chip). Entity in the same
layer on different machine are called peer entity, the entity in layer N implement a
service used by layer (N+1). In this way, layer N is called service provider,&layer
(N+1) is called the service user. Layer N may use the services of layer (N-1) in
order to provide its service. It may offer several classes or, service that is fast,
expansive communication&slow cheap communication.
layer (n+1) IDU

ICI SD
SAP
Interface
layer n ICI SD
Heading SD
n-PDU
layer n entity exchange PDU's n
then layer n protocol
Fig: - Representation of relation b/w layer & interface
SAD: -Service Access Point IDU: - Interface Data Unit
SDU: - Service Data Unit PDU: - Protocol Data Unit
ICI: - Interface Control Information
Services are available at SAP's. The layer n SAP's are the place layer (n+1) can
access the services offered. It SAP has an address that uniquely identify it.
For Ex- The SAP's in the telephone system are sockets into which
modulator telephone can be plug & the SAP addresses are the telephone number of
this sockets.
In order from two layer to exchange information where as to
agree upon set of rules about the interface. At the typical interface, the layer (n+1)
entity passes IDU to the layer n entity through the SAP. The IDU consists of SDU
& some control information the SDU is the information pass across the network to
the peer entity & then up to layer (n+1). The control information is needed to help
the lower level job (for Ex- the number of bytes in the SDU) but is not part of the
data itself.
In order to transfer the SDU the layer n entity may have to
fragment into several pieces. Each of which given a header & sent as a separate
PDU such as a packet. The PDU headers are used by the peer entity. Entity to
carries out their peer protocol. They identify which PDU's content data & which
contain controlinformation provide sequence numbers & count and so on.
 Connection oriented & connection less services: -

The layers can offer two different types of service to the layer
above them that is connection oriented& connection less services. Connection
oriented service is modelled after the telephone system. To talk the someone, we
pick up the telephone dial the number talk & hand up. Similarly, to use a
connection oriented network service the service user first establishes a connection,
uses the connection & they release the connection. In contrast,connection less
service is modelled after the postal system. Each message carries the full
destination address & each one is routed the system independent of all the others.
Normally, when two messages are sent to the same
destination, the first one sent will be the first one to arrive. However, it is possible
that the first one sent can be delayed so that the second one arrives first with a
connection oriented services is impossible.
Each services can be characterize a quality of service, some services are
reliable in the sense that they never lose data. Usually, a reliable service is
implemented by having the receiver acknowledge receipt. So the sender is sure as
arrive. The acknowledgement process introduces overhead & villages, which are
often worth are sometimes undesirable.
Reliable connection oriented service has two minor
variations that is message sequential, & byte steams. In the formal the message
boundary are preserve. When two 1kb messages are sent, they arrives two distinct
1kb messages never as one 2kb messages. In the later, the connection is simply a
stream or, bytes with no message boundary, when 2kb arrives as the receiver there
is no way to tell if they were sent as one 2kb message or, two distinct 2kb message.
In some application, the delays introduced by
acknowledgement are unacceptable. One such application is digitize voice traffic.
In other situation, the convenience of not having to establish a
connection to send one short message in desired but reliability is essential. The
acknowledgement datagram service can be provided for these applications. It is
like sending a registered letter & requesting a return receipt. When the receipt
comes back, the sender is absolutely sure that the letter was delivered to the
intended party & not lost along the way.
There is another service which is applicable that is
request-reply service.In this service, the sender transmits a single datagram
containing a request contains the answer. Request-reply service is commonly used
to implement communication in the client-server model or, CS model. The client
issues a request & the server response to it.
Service Example
1. Reliable message stream sequence of pages
Connection 2. Reliable Byte Stream Remote Login
Oriented 3. Un-reliable connection Digitize voice
4. Un-reliable datagram electronic Junk mail
Connection 5. Acknowledge datagram registered mail
less 6. Request-reply database query
Fig: - Six different types of services
 Service Primitive:- A service is formally specified by a set of primitives,

(operations) available to a user or, other entity to access the service. These
primitives tell the service to perform some action or, report on an action taken
by a peer entity. There is a way to classify the service primitives into four
classes:-
Primitives Meaning
1. Request An entity-wants the service to do some work.
2. Indication An entity is to be informed about & event.
3. Response An entity wants to respond to an even.
4. Confirm the response to an earlier request has comeback.
Fig: - Four classes of service primitives

To illustrate the use of primitives we have to consider how a collection is
established & released. The initiating entity does a connect.requestwhich
result is a packet being sent. The receiver can gets a
connect.indication.Announcing that an entity somewhere want to set off a
connection to it. The entity getting the connect.indication then uses the
connect.response.ve to tell whether it wants to accept or, reject the proposed
connection either way, the entity issuing the initial connect.request finds out
what happen via a connect.confrom primitive.
Services can be either confirmed
or, un-confirmed. In a confirm service, there is a request & indication, a
response & a confirm. In un-confirm. In confirm service, there is just a
request & an indication.connectis always a confirm service because the
remote peer must agree to establish a connection data transfer, on the
otherhand, can be either confirm or, un-confirm, depending on whether or,
not the sender needs an acknowledgement both kinds of in network.
 The Relationship of services to protocols:- Services & protocols are distinct

concept. A service is a set of primitive(operations)that a layer provides to the
layer above it. The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to
perform of behalf of its users, but it says nothing at all about how these
operations are implemented a service relates to an interface between two
layers,with the lower layer being the service provider & the upper layer being
the service user.
In contrast, A protocol is a set of rule governing
the format & naming of the frames, packets or, messages that they are
exchanged by peer entities within a layer. Entities use protocol in order to
implement their service definitions. They are free to change their protocol at
will provide they do not changes the service visible to their users. In this way,
the service & the protocol are completely de-coupled.
An analogy with programming language
with worth making. A service is like an abstract data type or, an object in an
object oriented language. It defines operations that can be perform on an object
but does not specify how these operations are implemented. A protocol relates
to the implementation of service & as such is not visible to the user of the
service. Many older protocol didn’t distinct the service
form the protocol. In effect, a typical layer might have a service primitive send
packetwith the user providing a pointer to a fully assembled packet. This
arrangement meant that all changes to protocol where immediately visible to the
users.
 Need for Network Model: - There was a time when there was no such things
as network architecture various companies implemented s/w & h/w
communication without any thought as to layering or to the implementation of
architecture.
Initial computer networks have their own set of standards &
connections that where h/w dependent. Each manufacturer use to develop its
own communication protocol for its network.
IBM launched SNA (System Network Architecture) in 1974.
Similarly, DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) launched DNA (Digital
Network Architecture) 1980 for use on the DEC range of computer.
Other Telecommunication protocol where BNA
(Burroughs Network Architecture) by Burro incorporation, DSN(Distributed
System Network) by hp, prime net(Prime Computer Network) by prime
incorporation etc. Hence, data communication protocol of one network where
not compatible with any network more ever standards of same network
architecture also kept changing from time to time.
ISO (International Standard Organization) reorganization this
problem & establish a sub-comity to develop an international standard for
network architecture. The result of this sub-comities recommendation was the
OSI (Open System Inter-connection).
 Model: -The idea of Layering took off with the introduction of an international
standard called OSI model by the ISO in 1982.
 OSI reference model: -It is a frame work for defining standards for linking
heterogeneous computers in a packet-switch network. So, standard IZED
protocol made it possible for any two heterogeneous computer system located
anywhere in the world to communicate easily with each other. OSI refers to
the exchange of information among terminal devices, computers, people,
networks & processes. It defines where to perform tasks, but doesn't say how
to perform them. Individual services & protocol are not specifying. The
reference model is intended to provide a common basic for co-ordinating the
developing of standard aimed & system interconnection while allowing
existing standards to be placed in perspective within a common frame work.
The OSI model is also design in a highly structure way. A
separate set of protocol is define for each layer in the sable layers are that the
first three layer in Operating system, presentation layer in library sub-routines
in user's address and at last application layer in the user's program.
There are basically seven layer in OSI reference model:-
I. Physical Layer: -It is responsible for transmitting raw bit streams b/w two nodes
that is it converts sequence of binary digit into electric signal, light signal, or
electromagnetic signal depending on weather the two nodes are on a cable
circuits, fibber optics circuits, and microwave / radio circuit respectively.
Even electric detail such as how many volts to be used for 0 or, 1.
How many bits can be sent/see & weather transmission can take place only in
one direction or, in both directions simultaneously are decided by the physical.
In addition, physical layer protocol also dead with
mechanical detail such as size & shape of connecting plugs, number of pins in
plugs & function of each pin. RS232 is a popular physical layer standard for
serial communication line.
II. Data link layer: - It is responsible for detecting & correcting any error in
transmitted data since physical layer is concern only with a raw bit stream, data
link layer partitions it into frames. So that error detection & correction can be
perform independently for each frame.
This layer also performs flow control of frame between two sites to
ensure that a sender doesn’t flood a receiver with data by sending frame & a rate
faster than the receiver can process.
III. Network layer: -It is responsible for setting of a logical path between two nodes
for communication to take place it. Encapsulates frames into packets that can be
transmitted from one node to another by using a high level addressing & routing
skill that is routing is the primary job of network layer & routing algorithm
forms the main part of the network layer protocols. Two popular network layer
protocols are the X.25 protocol file & the internet protocol (IP).
IV. Transport layer: -It accepts message for arbitrary length for session layer,
segments them into packets, submits them to network layer for transmission &
finally reassembles packets at destination. Some packets may be lost on the way
from sender to receiver & depending on routing algorithms used in network layer
packets may arrived at destination in a sequence that is different from the other
in which they were sent.
Transport layer protocol includes mechanism for handling lost &
out of sequence packets. For this, the transport layer assign a sequence number at
each packets& users sequence number for detecting lost packets & ensuring that
messages re-constructed in correct sequence. Two most popular transport layer
protocols are TCP (transmission control protocol) & UDP (user datagram
protocol).
V. Session layer: -session layer provides means of establishing, maintaining, and
terminating a dialogue or, a session two end users. It allows communicating
parties to authenticate each other before establishing a dialog session between
them. It specifies dialog type – one way, two ways alternate or, two ways
simultaneous and initiates a dialog session. If message is a connection request
message. It also provides priority management service that is useful for giving
priority to important and time-bound messages over normal, less-important
message.
VI. Presentation layer: -Presentation layer provides facilities to convert message
data into a form that is meaningful to communicating application layer entities.
For this, it may perform such transformations as encoding and decoding, code
encryption and decryption or, message data depending on applications
requirements.
VII. Application layer: -It provides services that directly support end users of
network. It is a collection of miscellaneous protocols for various commonly used
applications such as electronic mail, file transfer, remote login, remote job entry,
and schemas for distributed database. Some popular application layer protocols
are X.400 (electronic-mail protocol), X.500 (directory server protocol), FTP (file
transfer protocol), and rlogin (remote login protocol).
 TCP/IP reference model: -TCP/IP model has come from the ARPA net, the
predecessor of the internet. ARPA net was a research network sponsored by the
US department of defence. It connected thousand of university and government
satellite communication began there was a need to connect multiple networks
together in a seamless way.
The TCP/IP reference model was named after it two primary
protocol that is TCP and IP. It was first defined in 1974. The main goal behind
the development of this model was that conversation between the source &
destination should not be broken off as long as these machine where functional
even through some machines or, transmission line in between out of operation.
The TCP/IP model also called the TCP/IP protocol stack that is
organized into four layers. Each of the layers of TCP/IP model exists as an
independent module as perform a well defined functions. Each layer
communicates as works with the function of the layers that are immediately
above & below it. It means that the transport layer will communicate & work
with both the application & the internet layers. The transport layer cannot
directly communicate with any other layer of the TCP/IP model.
I. TCP/IP network interface model: -It is at the lowest level of the
TCP/IP label. It accepts the datagram from the internet layer & transmits
over the network.
To accomplish this task the network interface layer must be
fully aware of the network hardware that it is using. It is also responsible
for translating as an internet address into a hardware address (48-bit mac
address).
II. Internet layer: -It is responsible for handling the communication from
one computer to the other. It accepts a request to send data from the
transport layer. It accepts data & encapsulates it in a datagram & then
uses a routing algorithm to determine the best method of delivering it.
After determining the best way to rout the datagram, the internet layer
passes it to the network interface layer.
III. Transport layer: -The main responsibility of the transport layer is to
provide communication from one application to other. If several
application programs are routing on a computer then the transport layer
has to figure out how to control the data from each application so that it
can be sent to the next lower layer correctly. It aids the following
information to each data packets: -
a). The identity of the application sending the data.
b). The identity of the application that should receive the data.
c). A check some.
The system that receives the data uses the check some to
verify that all of the above data arrived. It also uses the identity of the
receiving application so it can rout the data appropriately.
IV. Application layer: -It is used by application to access services across a
TCP/IP network. Some of the application that operates this layer are web
browser, FTP & R-login program. The application layer passes data to the
next layer in the stack, the transport layer.
 Example network: -Numerous networks are currently operating around the
world. Some of these are public network run by common carries or, PPTs (Post
Telegraph & telephone), others are research networks, yet others are co-
operative networks run by their users, and still others are commercial or,
corporate networks.
Networks differ in their history administration, facility offer,
and technical design & user communities. The history & administration can
vary from network carefully network planed by a single organization with a
well define goal. To and ad hock collection of machine that have been
connected to one another over the years without any master plan or, central
administration at all.
The facilities available range from arbitrary process-to-process
communication to E-mail, file transfer, Remote-login & Remote execution.
The technical design can differ in the transmission media used, the naming &
routing algorithms employed, the number & contents of the layer present & the
protocol used, finally, the user community can vary from a single corporation to
all the academic computer scientist in the industrialized world.
Popular commercial LAN package, Novell Netware, the
world wide internet including its predecessor, the ARPA net & NSF net
(National science foundation) & the first Gigabit networks.
 Novell Netware: -The most popular network system in the PC world is Novell
Netware. It was design to be used by companies downsizing from a mainframe
to a network of PC’s. In such systems, each user has a desktop PC functioning
as a client. In addition, some number of powerful PC’s operates as servers,
providing file services, database services & other services to a collection of
clients.
Novell Netware is based on the client server model, it uses a
proprietary protocol stack. It is based on the old Xerox network system. Novell
Netware predates OSI & is not based on it, if anything it looks more like
TCP/IP than like OSI.
SAP File server

layer
application
transport NCP IPX SPX
network
data link
Ethernet Token ring ARC net
physical
Ethernet Token ring ARC net
Fig: - The Novell Netware references model
The physical & data link layers can be selected from among
various industry standards, including Ethernet, IBM token ring & ARC net. The
network layers runs and un-reliable connectionless. Internet protocol called IPX
(internet packet exchange). It passes packets transparently from source to
destination even if the sources & destination are un-different networks. IPX is
functionally similar to IP, except that it uses 12 bytes addresses instead of 4
byte address.
Among IPX comes a connection oriented transport protocol called
NCP (Network Core Protocol). NCP also provide other services decide users
data transport & is really the heart of Netware.
A second protocol SPX (Sequenced packet exchanged) is
also available but provides only transport. TCP is another option. Application
can choose any of them. The file system uses NCP & lotus nodes uses XPS. For
ex- Session & presentation layer don’t exist. Various application protocols are
present in the application layer.
2 2 1 1 12 11
Destination address Source address Data
packet type
transport type
packet length
check sum
Fig: - A Novell Netware IPX packet
As in TCP/IP, the key to the entire architecture is the internet
datagram packet on pop of which everything else in built the check sum field is
rarely used, since the underlying data link layer also provide a check sum.
The packet length field tells how long the entire packet is,
header + data. The transport control field count how many networks the packet
has traversed. When this accedes a maximum the packet is discarded.
The packet type field is used to mark various control packets. The
two addresses are containing a 32-bit network number. A 48-bit machine
number (the 802 LAN address) & 16- bit local address (socket) on that machine.
Finally, we has the data which occupied the rest of the
packet with the maximum size being determined by the underling network.
 WWW: -It is a hues collection of “pages” of information linked to each other
around the globe. Each page can be a combination of text, image, audio clips,
video clips, animations & other electronically presentable material. The web
pages can be linked to other pages anywhere in the word. This system of
interlinked documents is known as hypertext.
Before the www, the internet was very difficult to navigate much
of the information on it was tuff to find & just as difficult to make use of
locating & downloading files residing on the internet. Some UNIX skills &
specialize tools to get the job done.
Tim burners lee is widely known as the father of
www. He was a physicist at the European organization for nuclear research
(CERN), A highly esteemed practical physical laboratory in Switzerland. In
1989,he submitted a proposal for www to the corn electronically & computing
for physics division after receiving a feedback on the proposal, he & his
colleague, robot cilia revised & re-submitted it. There revised proposal was
accepted & the project was official started. In 1991, the public received its first
hint of what was to become a revolution on the internet.
In feb 1993, the NCSA (national centre for supercomputing
application) released the first public version mozack for X-windows. It was a
break throw software product that kicked the www into high gear. It supported a
user friendly GUI that appealed to people normally un-comfortable using text
based product such as line mode browsers. In addition, mozack supported the
use of mouse. We could now navigate without using our keyword, tremendous
advance for most computer users.
The web was how a global system that allow accessfier from
around the world in April 1994, the first version of mozack was released, the
web accountant for more traffic over the NSF backbone then gopher an internet
protocol.
 Transmission media: -In a data transmission system, the transmission medium
is the physical path between transmitter & receiver. The transmission media that
are used to convey information can be classified into followed: -
i). Guided media ii). Un-guided media
Note: - In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
I. Guided media (wired media): -It provides a physical path along which
the signals are propagated with guided media the waves are guided along
the solid medium, these include copper twisted pair, copper co-axial cable
& optical fibre.
Traditionally, twisted pair has been the work horse as for
communication of all sorts higher data rates over longer distances can be
achieved with co-axial cable. So, co-axial cable often been use for high
speed LAN’s and for high capacity long distance trunk applications.
However, the tremendous capacity of optical fibre has made that medium
more attractive than co-axial cable & thus, optical fibre has taken over
much of the market for high speed LAN’s & for long distance
applications.
II. Un-guided media (wireless media): -It employee & antenna for
transmitting through air, vacuum or, water. The atmosphere & outer
space are example of un-guided media which provide a means of
transmitting electromagnetic signal but don’t guide them. This form of
transmission is usually referred to wireless transmission.
Un-guided transmission techniques commonly used for
information communication included broadcast radial, terrestrial
microwave & satellite. Infrared transmission is used in some LAN
application.
 Cable: -To connect different computer there is a line of communication. These
lines of communication are called cable. These cables allow transferring of data
& information from one computer to the other. They are the basic connecting
links.
There are various kind of cable that are use to connect the
computer in the network. These are twisted pair cables, co-axial cable, and fibre
optics cable.
1. Twisted pair cables: -It is one of the oldest & still most common
transmission media. It consists of two insulated copper wires typically
about 1mm thick, they contain two twisted wire of conducting material
insulated from each other. They are very cheap & easily available. The
wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecules.
Fig: - Twisted pair cable

The purpose of twisting the wires is to reduce electrical interfrence
from similar pair close by. The most common applciation of the twisted
pair in the telephone system. They can be used for either analog or,
digital transmission. The band width depends on the thickness of the wire
and the distance travelled, but several megabit/secound can be achived
for a few kilometer in many cases.
They are rarely used for computer network interconnection
because of their in ability to TCP is not error free.
 Types of twisted pair cable: -It comes into two varieties.
1. UTP 2. STP
I. UTP (unshielded twisted pair cable): -It is ordinary telephone wire. It is
needed in office, building, simple telephone support. It is the least expensive
of all the transmission media commonly used for LAN & is easy to work
with and simple to install. It is subject to external electromagnetic
interference including interference from nearby twisted pair & form noise
generated in the environment.
II. STP (shielded twisted pair cable): -It improves the characteristics of the
transmission medium. It is shielded metallic braid & shitting that reduces
interference. It provides better performance at lower data rates. However, it
is more expensive & more difficult to work with than UTP.
EIA – 568-A recognizes three categories to UTP travelling.
A. Category 3: - UTP cables & associated connecting hardware whose
transmission characteristics are specify up to 16MHz.
B. Category 4: - UTP cable associated connecting hardware whose
C. Category 5: - UTP cable associated connecting hardware whose
2. Co-axial cable: -It is like a twisted pair consists of two conductors, but is
constructed differently to permit it to operate winder range of frequency.
It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single
inner wire conductor.
The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced
insulating rings or, a solid di-electric material. The outer conductor is
covered with jacket or, shielding. A single co-axial cable has a diameter
of from 0.4 to about 1inch. It can be used over longer distance & support
more stations or, share line that twisted pair.
It includes the following layers: -

a). The inner layer is a conductor (copper wire), covered by an
insulating material. The conductor is generally made by copper wire.
b). The middle layer is insulating layer separating the inner from
the outer layer.
c). The outer layer is also a conductor in the form of mesh
surrounding the insulating queue.
 Application: - It is used in a wide verity of application that is
a). Television distribution
b). Long Distance telephone transmission
c). Short run computer system links
d). LAN
 Types of Co-axial cable: -
I. Base band co-axial cable: -It comes in two varieties that is 50ohm
cable & 75ohm cable. 50ohm cable is used for digital transmission &
75ohm is used for analog transmission. It consist of a stiff copper wire
the core surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator in encased
by a cylindrical conductor. The outer conductor is covered in a
protective plastic sheet.
The construction & shielding of the co-axial cable give it a
good combination of high band-width & excellent noise immunity.
The band width depends on the cable length. Base-band co-axial cable
used within the telephone system, cable television & some local area
network.
II. Broad-band: -It can be used up to 300MHz can run for 100km due to
the analog signalling to transmits digital signal on an analog network,
each interface must contain electronics to convert the outgoing bit
stream to an analog signal, and the incoming analog signal to a bit
stream.
It uses analog transmission on standard cable transmission
cabling, Broad-band system tipically cover a large area & therefore,
need analog amplifiers to s periodically. These amplifiers can only
transmit signals in one direction.
Broad-band systems are divided into multiple channels,
frequently 6MHz channel used for TV broadcasting. Each channel can
be used for analog television.
3. Fibre optics cable: -
Fig: - Fibre optic cables

An optical fibre is a thin (2-125micrometer) flexible medium
capable of conducting & ray. Various glasses & plastics can be to make
optical fibre the lowest losses have been obtain using fibres of ultra pure
fused silica ultra pure fibre. Fibre is difficult to manufacture higher loss
multi-component glass fibre are more economical still provide good
performance plastic fibre is even less costly & can be used for short –
haul links, for which moderately high losses acceptable. They carry data
and information & transmit them in the form rays. Hence, they are free
from any outside interface like noise. This cable consists of a core glass
fibre, whose diameter is measured in microns surrounded by glass
cladding. This in term is covered by protective sheets.
The yare used for specialized application they are widely
used in computer network although they are costly. This is because they
are capable for transmitting data in hues volume & high speed. The
chances of data being corrupted through the transmitting lines are very
low.
The fine of application has become important for optical fibre.
1. Long haul trunks 2. Metropolitan trunks
3. Rural exchange trunks 4. Subscriber loops
5. LAN’s
 EM spectrum (electromagnetic spectrum): -When electron moves, they
create electromagnetic waves that cane propagate through free space (even in a
Vacuum) these waves were predicted by the British physicist James clerk
Maxwell in 1865. And first produce & observe by the Jerman Physicist Heneric
Hertz in 1887.
The number of oscillation per second of an electromagnetic
wave is called its frequency (f) & is measured in Hz (in honour of Henery
Hertz) The distance between two conjugative maxima (or, minima) is called the
wave length which is universally designated by the Greek later .
By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to an electrical
circuit the electromagnetic wave can be broadcast efficiently & received by a
receiver some distance away. All wireless communication is based on this
principal. In vacuum or, electromagnetic wave travel at the same speed, no
matter what their frequency. This speed, usually called the speed of light (c) is
approximately 3x108 m/s.of about 1 foot per nanosecound.
The fundamental relation between f, , and c in vacuum is = .
The radio, microwave, infrared & visible light portions of
the spectrum can all be used for transmitting information by modulating the
amplitude frequency of the phase of wave.
Ultraviolet light, X-rays, -rays, would be even better due to their
higher frequency but they are hard to produce & modulate. They do not
propagate well through building & are dangerous to living things.
The amount of information that electromagnetic wave can
carry is related to its band width. In USA, the fcc allocates spectrum from AM
& FM radio, Television & similar phone as well as for television company,
police & marry time navigation, military, govt & many other computing
network users.
Full form : -
ELF - Extremely low frequency
VF - Voice frequency
VLF - Very low frequency
LF - Low frequency
MF - Medium frequency
HF - High frequency
VHF - Very high frequency
UHF - Ultra high frequency
SHF - Super high frequency
EHF - Extremely high frequency
IHF - Incredibly high frequency
AHF - Astonishingly high frequency
PHF - Prodigiously high frequency
 Radio transmission: -Radio waves are easy to generate can travel long
distances & penetrate building easily. So they are widely used for
communication, both indoors & outdoors. Radio wave also ommi-directional,
meaning that they travel in all direction from the source. So that the transmitter
& receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically.
The properties of radio waves are frequently dependent on
frequencies. At low frequency, radio waves pass through obstacles (disturbance)
well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from the source, roughly as
1/r3 in air.
At high frequency, radio wave tends to travel in straight line and bounce
off obstacles they are also absorb by rain. At all frequencies, radio waves are
subject to interference from motor & other electrical equipments.
Due to radio’s ability to travel long distances, interference

between users is a problem. For this reason, all government tightly licence the
user of radio transmitter with one exception.
In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio wave follow the ground
as illustrates. These waves can be detected for perhaps 1000km at the lower
frequency, less at the higher once. In the HF & VHF band, the ground waves
tend to be absorbed by the earth. However, the waves that reach the Ionosphere,
a layer or, charged particles circling the earth at a height of 100-500 km are
refracted by it & sent back to the earth. Under certain atmosphere conditions, the
signals may bounce several times. Amateur radio operators (harms) use this
band to talk long distance. The military also communicates the HF & VHF
bands.
 Micro wave transmission: -Above 100 MHz, the wave’s travels in straight line
& can therefore de-narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small
beam using a parabolic antenna (like the familiar satellite TV dish)gives a much
higher signal to noise a radio, but the transmitting and receiving antennas must
be accurately aligned with each other. In addition, this directionality allow
multiple transmitter lined up in a row to communicate with multiple receiver in
a row without interference.
Before fibre optics, for detects this micro waves from the hot of the
distance Telephone transmission system. In fact, the long distance carrier MCI’s
name first stood for microwave communication & Incorporation because its
entire system was originally built on microwave towers.
Unlike, radio microwave do not pass through building well. In
addition, even through the beam may be well focused at the transmitter, there is
still divergence in space. Some waves may be refracted off low- lying
atmospheric layers and may takes slightly longer to arrive than direct wave. The
delayed wave may arrive out of phase with the direct wave and thus cancel the
signal. This effect is called multipath fading.
Microwave communication is widely used for long distance
telephone communication, cellular telephone, TV distribution etc. In
addition, to being used for long distance transmission, microwaves have another
important use that is industrial scientific & medical bands. These band forms
the one exception to the licensing rule. Transmitter using this band do not
require govt. Licensing.
 Infrared & millimetre waves: - Unguided infrared & millimetre waves are
widely used for shot range communication. The remote controls used on
Television, VCR’s and stereos all use Infrared communication. They are
relatively direction, cheap and easy to build but have a major drawback. They
do not pass through solid objects. In general, as we go from long wave radio
toward visible light, the waves behave more & more like light & less & less like
radio.
On another hand, the fact that infrared wave do not pass through
solid wire. It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not
interfere with a similar system in adjacent room. There is no any gout license is
needed to operate an infrared communication can’t be use outdoors because as
in the visible spectrum.
 Light wave transmission: -Unguided optical signalling has being used for
centuries. A more modern application to connect LAN’s into two buildings
through lasers mounted on their roof tops. Co-herent optical signalling using
layers is inherently unidirectional, so each building needs its own layer and its
own photo detector. This screen offer very high band width & very low cost it
is also relatively easy to install.
A disadvantages is that laser beam can’t penetrate rain or, thick for,
but they normally work well is sunny days. Heat from the sun during the day
this cause the convection to rise up from the roof of the building. This turbulent
air diverted the beam & made it dance around the detector.
Atmospheric ‘seeing’ like this make the stars twinkle which
is why astronomous but their telescope on the tops of mountains to get above as
much of the atmosphere as possible. It is also responsible for shimmering roads
on hot days & the waving images when looking out above a hot radiator.
 Multiplexing : - The method of dividing a physical channel into multiple
logical channel to enable a no. of independent signals to be transmitted
simultaneously on it is known as multiplexing. The electronic device that
perform this task in known as multiplexer.
A multiplexer takes several data communication lines or,
signals & convert them into one data communication line or, signal at the
sending end.
For Ex-, In figure, the multiplexer takes the signal from the four
terminals & converts them into one large signal that is transmitted over one
communication line then, at the receiving end, another multiplexer breaks the
single large signal into four original signal. Without multiplexer, four separate
communication line could be required.
Hence, multiplexing enables use of signal
transmission medium to transmit data b/w several transmitter & receivers
concurrently. The two basic method of multiplexing channel are FDM & TDM.
Multiplexing is a type of network mechanism which allow a no. of simple, low
cost terminal to share each communication line, introduces almost no delay &
required specify computer system. For ex- The telephone line that we use for
our daily conversation can carry 100 or, even 1000 of conversation by suing
multiplexing.
Multiplexing is used in two ways : -

i). By dividing a communication channel into various smaller segment of
different frequencies.
ii). By taking group of bytes from each sender & send or, transmit them
over the channel one after another. Each group of data types are tagged
at the begging & end with start & end control bytes.
 Types of Multiplexing : -
i). FDM: -
In FDM, available band width of a physical medium is divided into

several smaller, disjoint logical band width each component band width is used
as a separate communication line (channel).
The best example of FDM is the manner in which multiple
radio stations are supported simultaneously. Each radio station is assigned a
frequency range within a bandwidth of radio frequencies. Several radio station
may be transmitting speech simultaneously over physical channel "Either" _ An
invisible, ever present and unprovable medium - was perposed to explain the
theory of transmission of webs in space.
The electromagnetic propagation of wave in space are now
accepted an proven concept but the term ether has come to stay. Radio receiver
antenna receive signal transmitted by all stations. Finally tunning dail in a radio
set is used to isolate signals of the station tunned.
In FDM, signals to be transmitted must be analog signal. Hence,
Digital signal must be converted to analog from, if they are 2 use FDM.
ii). TDM : -
In TDM (time division multiplex) total time available in a channel
is divided among several users, and each user of the channel is allotted a time
(a short time interval), during which they may transmit a message that is
multiple data streams belonging to different users are interleaved into one data
stream at sender end of the channel at receiver end, a de-multiplexer
reassembles individual chunk of messages into full message of different users.
Although TDM may be use to multiplex digital or analog
signals, its usages a more appropriate for digital data transmission. It is also
suitable for communication b/w computer because computer communicate short
fast burst.
Beside this, TDM is generally more efficient as more sub-channel
can be derived it is up to network designer to allocate time slots to different
channel, It is common to have 32 low-speed terminals connected to one high
speed line.
 Cellular Radio : - The traditional telephone system (even when bread band
ISDN is fully operational) will still not be able to satisfy a growing group of
users. Consequently, there is increasing completion from a system that uses
radio waves instead of wire & fibres for communication. This system will play
& increasingly important role in the networking of notebook computers short
pocket telephone and PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) in the coming years.
Satellite paging, codeless telephone, example of cellular & similar
technologies are the example of cellular radio. This systems are now merging,
producing portable computers capable of sending & receiving phone calls,
Faxes & Email as well as looking up information in remote database & doing
this anywhere in global.
Such devices are already creating a use market. Many company in
the computer, telephone, satellite & other industries want a peace of the action
the result is chaotic market, with numerous overlapping and in-compatible
product and services all rapidly changes & typically difference in every country
as well.
 Modems : - It stands for modulator and demodulator. Modem is a device the
accept a serial stream of bits as input and produces a modulated carrier as output
(or, viseversa). The modem is inserted b/w the computer (digital) & telephone
system (analog).
Digital data can also be represented by analog signal by use of a
modem. It converts a series of binary (0 & 1) voltage pulses into an analog
signal by encoding the digital data on to a carrier frequency.
The resultant signal occupied a certain spectrum of frequency
centered about the carrier & may be propagated across a medium suitable for
that carrier. The most common modem represent the digital data and voice
spectrum & hence allow these data to be propagated over ordinary voice grade
telephone lines at the other end, end of the line, another modem demodulates the
signal to recover the original data.
 Categories of Noise :- There are basically four categories of noise.
1. Thermal Noise :- It is done to thermal agitation of electron. It is
present in all electronic devices & transmission media and is a function
of temperature. It is uniformly distributed across the frequency
spectrum & hence it often refer to as white noise. It cannot be
eliminated & therefore places and upper bound on communication
system performance.
2. Inter modulation :-It may be occurs when signals at different
frequencies share the same transmission medium. It is produce when
there is some non-linearity in the transmitter, receiver or intervening
transmission system.
Normally, these component behave as linear systems
that is the output is equal to the input times constant.
3. Crosstalk: -It is unwanted coupling b/w signal paths. It can occur by
electrical coupling b/w nearby twisted pair or rarely co-axial cable
caring multiple signals. It can occur when unwanted signal picked up
by microwave antenna. Although highly directional antenna are used.
Microwave energy does spread during propagation. Typically,
crosstalk is of the same order of magnitude. As or, less than thermal
noise.
4. Impulse Noise : -It is a non-continuous consisting of irregular impulse
or, noise spikes of short duration and of relatively high amplitude. It is
generated from a variety of causes, Including external electromagnetic
disturbance such as lightning and faults flows in the communication
system.
It is generally only a minor annoyance. for analog
data. Ex- voice transmission may corrupted by sort clicks and crackles
are no loss or intelligibility. However, impulse noise is the primary
source of error in digital communication.
 Telephone System : - When two computers owned by the same company for
organization & located close to each other need to communicate, it is often
raciest just to run a cable b/w them. These facility, especially the PSTN
(Public Switch telephone network) were usually design many years ago, with
a completely different goal in mind to transmitting the human voice in mote or,
less recognizable form.
The telephone system consists of three major component that is
a). local loops (twisted pairs, analog signalling)
b). Trunks (fibre optics or, microwave, mostly digital)
c). switching offices.
 Structure of telephone system : - Alexander Graham Bell patented the
telephone in 1886. The first telephone company was opened at new haven,
Connecticut in 1878. It was also called switching offices the company ran a
wire to each customer's house or, offices.
In 1980, the three major parts of the telephone system were in
place that is he switching offices, the wire b/w the customers & the switching
offices, and the long distance connection b/w the switching offices.
If a subscriber attached to a given end offices calls another
subscriber attach to the shell end office, the switching mechanism within the
office sets up a direct electrical connection b/w the two local loops. This
connection remains intact for the duration of the call. Each end office has a no.
of outgoing lines to one or, more nearby switching centres, called toll offices.
These lines are called call connecting tools. If both the caller's & callee's end
offices happened to have a tall connecting trunks to the same toll office, the
connection may be establish within the toll office.
Consequently, all the long distance trunks within the
telephone system are rapidly being converted to digital. The old system used
analog transmission over copper wires. The new ones uses digital transmission
over optical fibres.
1. Transmission impairment : -Analog signalling consist of varying a
voltage with time to represent & information string. If transmission
media were perfect, the receiver would receive exactly the same signal
that the transmitter sent. On fortunately media are not perfect, so the
received signal is not the same as the transmitted signal. for digital data
this different can leads to errors.
2. Attenuation : -Transmission line suffer from attenuation. It is the loss
of energy as the signal propagates outwards. In guided media, (for ex-
wires or, optical fibre) the signal falls off logarithmically with the
distance.
The loss is expressed in decibels/km. The amount of energy
lost depends on the frequency. If the attenuation is too much, the
receiver may not be able to detect the signal at all, or, the signal may fall
below the noise level.
3. Delay distortion : - It is caused by the fact that different furrier
component travel at different speeds. For digital data, fast component
from 1-bit may catch up and overtake slow components. from the bit
ahead, mixing the 2-bits & increasing the portability of incorrect
reception.
 Mac Sub-layers : - Mac protocol : - The protocol used to determine who does
next on a multi-access channel belong to a sub-layer of the data-link layer
called the MAC(media access control) sub-layer. It is especially important in
LAN's nearly all of which use a multi-access channel as the basis of their
communication. Technically, the MAC sub-layer is the bottom part is the data
link layer. MAC protocols are specific to the LAN using them (Ethernet, token
ring & token bus). MAC control focuses on methods of sharing a single
transmission medium.
 Function of MAC: -
I. On transmission, Assemble data into a frame with address & error
detection fields.
II. On reception, dis-assemble, frame & perform address reorganization
& error detection.
III. It govern access to the LAN transmission medium.
 ATM Network : -It stand for Asynchronous transfer mode. It is a form of
data transmission that allow voice, video & data to be sent along the same
network. It is a cell relay protocol design by ATM former & adopted by the
ITU-T(Internation Telecommunication Union).
The combination of ATM & B-ISDM will allow high speed
interconnection of all the worlds network. In fact ATM can be through as of
the "highway" of the information super highway.
 Advantage of ATM :-
1. It is connection oriented. Hence, accurate & pre- dictable delivery is
ensure.
2. Some s/w functions have been more to H/w. Thus, the data rate is
increased.
3. It is less prone to noise degradation.
4. Small cell sizes of ATM of on fewer changes to introducing errors, as
contrasted with large sized data packets to packet switching.
5. It provides automatic error correction rather than relaying on
transmission.
6. The optimizing use of high data rate transmission media like optical
fibre.
7. Any delay in transmission can be compensated by increasing data rate
or changing band width.
 Proxy Server : -Is is a server which acts as an intermediary b/w the client
application & the web server. It is used in computer network to improve
performance & filtering purposes.
In an organization, proxy server is used to prevent its
employee to access certain types of websites. It provide security & check to the
overall system. It can also improve the performance of the network.
For Ex- suppose two user access the web through proxy
server. If user X requests a web page same page 1. Sometimes later if user Y
requests the same page then this request will not forwarded to the web server.
It simply returns the same page which it has access for user X, thus saving lot
of time.

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 Data Publication :-

It refers to the exchange of information between two

 Element of data communication system :-

2. Transmitter:- Usually, the data generated by a source system are not

For ex- A modem takes a digital stream from an attach

3. Transmission system:-This can be a single transmission line or, a complex

For Ex- A modem will accept an analog system, coming

5. Destination:-It takes the incoming data from the receiver.

3. Cost benefit advantage:-A network may consist of many powerful small

At present many server service have been moved to

4. SCALABILITY:-The ability to increase system performance gradually by

5. Powerful communication medium:-Networks make co-operation among , far-

1. LAN 2. WAN 3. MAN

1. LAN (Local Area Network):- It is a group of computer located in the same

 Components of LAN:- Generally there are five components of LAN.

2. Network communicating device:-These are devices such as hubs, routers

3. NIC's(Network Interface Cards):- For each network device required to access

4. Cable:- Cable as a physical transmission medium.

5.Network OS:- Software application required to control the use of network

2. It allows for high speed exchange of essential information.

3. It contributes to increased productivity.

It provides internet connectivity for LAN in a

4. Data rates adequate for distributed computing application.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network ):- It is a network system connecting cities,

They are used to connect LAN's & other types of

1. It generally covers large distances(states,countries, continents).

1. Network Interface Card(NIC):- It provides the physical connection between

The most common NIC connection today is Ethernet cards. It

2. MODEM (Modulator - Demodulator):- The meaning of modulator is change

 Modems are of two types:-

Internal modem is a hardware cards and external modem are kept

3. Repeaters:-When a signal travels a network cable (per any other medium of

A Repeater is a device that electrically amplifies the signals

A good example of the use of repeaters could be in a LAN using a

6. Router :-It translate information from one network to another network . It is

The router can direct traffic to prevent head on collision and

7. Gateway:-A gateway connects our smaller network to the internet . It passes

A gateway interconnects network at higher level that bridge or,

The main function of a gateway is to converts protocol among

It is the studies of the arrangements or, mapping of the elements

1. Bus Topology:- It is a single common communication to which all the computers

It is a passive topology which means only one computer at a time

3. It is easy to implement & extend using connecters.

1. In this topology, No two computers can transmit data at a time.

3. Performance degrades and additional computers are added.

4. Terminator are required at both ends of the cable.

Fig:- Representation of ring topology

Fig:- Representation of Tree Topology

5. Mesh Topology:-In a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point

Fig:- A fully connected mesh topology (for 5 computers)

 Internet: - It is a network of millions of computer which are connected to each

layer interface b/w 4 & 5

layer interface b/w 1&2

layer (n+1) IDU

 Connection oriented & connection less services: -

 Service Primitive:- A service is formally specified by a set of primitives,

Fig: - Four classes of service primitives

 The Relationship of services to protocols:- Services & protocols are distinct

SAP File server

Note: - In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Fig: - Twisted pair cable

It includes the following layers: -

Fig: - Fibre optic cables