Fracture

Abstract:
Most alloys contain second phases which lose cohesion with the matrix or fracture and
the voids so formed grow as dislocations flow into them. Coalescence of the voids forms
a continuous fracture surface followed by failure of the remaining annulus of material
usually on plane at 45° to the tension axis. The central fracture surface consists of
numerous cup-like depressions generally called dimples. The shape of the dimples is
strongly influenced by the direction of major stresses-circular in pure tension and
parabolic under shear

Ductile fracture
A pure and inclusion free metal can elongate under tension to give approx. 100% RA and a point
fracture, Fig. 1. Most alloys contain second phases which lose cohesion with the matrix or fracture
and the voids so formed grow as dislocations flow into them. Coalescence of the voids forms a
continuous fracture surface followed by failure of the remaining annulus of material usually on plane
at 45° to the tension axis. The central fracture surface consists of numerous cup-like depressions
generally called dimples. The shape of the dimples is strongly influenced by the direction of major
stresses-circular in pure tension and parabolic under shear. Dimple size depends largely on the
number of inclusion sites. Fig. 2a shows typical dimples.
 Figure 1.(a) Stages in ductile fracture from inclusions
(b) Fracture toughness n thickness
Some important features of ductile fracture can be summarised as follows:

 Pure metals and solid solutions that are relatively free from second phase particles (including
impurity particles) are usually more ductile than strong two-phase alloys.
 The local stress required for whole nucleation at particles depends on their resistance to
cracking and the strength of their bond with the matrix.
 The local stress generated at the particles depends on the flow strength of the alloy, the applied
strain and the shape and size of the particles.
 Growth of the holes, so that they coalesce to form a macroscopic fracture, depends on the
applied stresses being tensile. Much higher ductilities are achieved in compressive straining.
In cleavage fracture the material fails along well defined crystallographic planes within the grain but
the crack path is affected by grain boundaries and inclusions. Basically a cleavage fracture surface
contains large smooth areas separated by cleavage steps and feathers, river markings and cleavage
tongues which are the direct result of crack path disturbances-Fig. 2b.
Intercrystalline fracture is characterized by separation of the grains to reveal a surface composed of
grain boundary facets, Fig. 2c. This type of fracture is found in stress-corrosion, creep hot tearing
and hydrogen embrittlement.
Fatigue fractures are characterized by striations (Fig. 2d) representing the extent of crack
propagation under each cycle of loading.

a) Dimples in a ductile fracture of mild b) Cleavage patterns in HS steel fracture

steel (x5000) (x12000)
 c) Intergranular fracture in low alloy steel d) Fatigue striations in Nimonic 80A
(x1500) (x7000)(A.Strang)
Figure 2. Fracture in Scanning electron micrographs

Compound stresses and brittle fracture

The failure of some American all-welded ships during the Second World War has stimulated much
work on the causes of brittle fracture in steel. In the tensile test plastic deformation involves
shearing slip along crystal planes within the crystals, but in the presence of tension of equal
magnitude in each principal direction, shearing stresses are absent, plastic deformation is prevented
and a brittle fracture occurs as soon as the cohesive strength of the material is exceeded. Equal
triaxial tension stresses do not arise frequently in practice, but it is common to find a triaxial tension
superimposed on a unidirectional tension, and if the margin between cohesive strength and plastic
yield strength is small, a brittle fracture may occur in a material ordinarily considered highly ductile.
Compound stresses arise in a weld in very thick plate and in a tube under internal pressure and an
axial tension.
This is shown in Fig. 3 with cohesive stress-strain curves, B, N, and F. If the two curves intersect at
Y, brittle fracture occurs preceded by plastic deformation, which decreases as the cohesive strength
curve becomes lower with respect to the yield stress-strain curve. Orowan has shown that if the
yield stress is denoted by Y, the strength for brittle fracture by B (both Y and B depend on the
plastic strain), and the initial value of Y (for strain = 0) by Y0 we have the following relation:
 The material is brittle if B < Y0;
 The material is ductile but notch-brittle if Y0 < B < 3Y0
 The material is not notch-brittle if 3Y < B.
The factor 3 takes into account the stress increase at a notch. Whether the material is notch-brittle
or not depends on the very small margin between B and 3Y.
 Figure 3.(a) Yield and cohesive stress curves
(b) Slow notch bend test
(c) Effect of temperature on the Izod value of mild steel
Carbon steel is an exceptional material, because 3Y and B are so close, and this is the reason why
the results of Izod tests seem to be so erratic, and why notch brittleness is so sensitive to slight
variations of composition, previous treatment and temperature.
Brittle fracture is characterised by the very small amount of work absorbed and by a crystalline
appearance of the surfaces of fracture, often with a chevron pattern pointing to the origin of
fracture, due to the formation of discontinuous cleavage cracks which join up (Fig. 4). It can occur
at a low stress of 75-120 MPa with great suddenness; the velocity of crack propagation is probably
not far from that of sound in the material in this type of fracture plastic deformation is very small,
and the crack need not open up considerably in order to propagate, as is necessary with a ductile
failure.

Figure 4. Steel brittle fracture surface with chevron markings. Micrograph shows
discontinuous cracks ahead of main crack
The work required to propagate a crack is given by Griffith`s formula:

(1)
where:
 = tensile stress required to propagate a crack of length c
 = surface energy of fracture faces
E = Young`s modulus
Orowan modified the Griffith theory to include a plastic strain energy factor, p, since some plastic
flow is always found near the fracture surface:

(2)
When the temperature is above the brittle-ductile transition temperature, p is large and the
stress, , required to make the crack grow will also be large. Below the transition temperature the
metal is brittle and p will be smaller. The stress necessary to cause crack growth, therefore, will be
reduced. The reason for the increasing speed of crack propagation, once a crack has started, is clear
from both Griffith`s and Orowan`s equations: as the crack grows in length, the stress required for
propagation continually decreases.
6.16.1 Materials for Static Load Applications

It is possible to classify the applications involving a static load into (i) large structures, (ii) fabricated
structures, (iii) small components, and (iv) equipment housings. A brief account for each type of
application is given below. Examples of large structures include frames, housings, and machine beds.
Because each of these structures represents a considerable weight, materials used in these applications
must have a rather high load-carrying capacity. To satisfy

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this requirement, various grades of cast iron as well as carbon steels are usually used in these
applications. In addition to their adequate mechanical strength, they are characterized by low price and
ease of fabricability. In some applications of this nature, however, where weight saving is an overriding
factor, nonferrous light metals such as aluminum alloys are used. Large structures are in general
manufactured by two methods: (i) casting using various techniques and (ii) fabricating (welding, riveting,
bolting, etc.). When the structure is rather large, it is extremely difficult to improve its mechanical
strength by heat treatment. Therefore, it is essential that the desired properties are maintained in the
as-manufactured condition requiring selection of suitable materials as well as manufacturing methods.
Frequently, it is more economical as well as practical to build large structures from standard fabricated
components such as bars, plates, rods, sheets, etc. and assemble them by various joining processes. This
practice has a number of advantages; e.g., it permits the use of wrought metal products such as hot-
rolled plates and cold-rolled sheets which have better mechanical properties than castings. Also, this
practice permits the use of a wide range of fabrication processes, and it speeds up production in
comparison with castings. Most of the fabricated components are made of hot-rolled low-carbon steels;
however, high-strength low-alloy steel can also be used because of its superior strength and toughness.
Another advantage of high-strength low-alloy steels is their superior resistance to atmospheric
corrosion. Even though AISI alloy steels have still higher strength, they are generally undesirable for
these applications because of their inferior formability and fabricability. Although the use of nonferrous
alloys is rather restricted in these applications, light metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium
alloys are used in a few applications where weight saving is of prime importance. Materials used in
manufacturing smaller components, such as machines and housings and casings for small instruments
and appliances, can vary widely depending upon the load and stress level during service, production
quantity, fabrication methods, and general appearance. Also, ferrous alloys are used in many of these
applications. When casting processes are suitable for production of small components, various grades of
cast iron are used. For example, malleable cast iron is particularly suited for applications requiring high
strength and ductility; however, for very high strength requirements, high-carbon steels or even tool
steels are preferred. Cast magnesium alloys are used in some applications where the load requirements
are not too severe and light weight is an important aspect. Because of their excellent castability, good
mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance, cast aluminum alloys are also used in small component
applications. Furthermore, some of the cast copper alloys are suitable for these applications. Although
cast alloys have many small-part applications, smaller parts and components can be best made from
sheet metal by many

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Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

cold-working processes. Typical applications range from small brackets to complex base and frame
configurations. Ferrous alloys are most commonly used in these applications, including low-carbon steel
grades and the AISI grades; however, stainless steels are also used when excellent surface appearance
and maximum corrosion resistance are required. Other materials used in these applications to a lesser
extent than the ferrous alloys include aluminum alloys and copper alloys. Small components such as
various fasteners, studs, and small flanges are usually manufactured from rod stock by means of what is
known as screw machine. Carbon steels are used in the majority of these applications, but both
aluminum and copper alloys can find some applications. Equipment housings are used to protect
operating units from mechanical damage and to some extent from environmental corrosion. Also, they
guard operating personnel and others from possible injury by moving mechanical elements, electric
shock, contact with hot area, and excessive noise. Ferrous sheet metals,
particularlythoseofAISIgrades,areusefulintheseapplications.Somealuminum and copper alloys are used
to a much less extent in certain applications.

6.16.2 Materials for Dynamic Load Applications

Design criteria for static load applications are rather simple and more straightforward in comparison
with dynamic load applications. Dynamic loads include (i) impact loads which cause very rapid strain rate
of the material and which can lead to fracture, and (ii) fatigue loads which are more commonly
encountered and involve repeated application of a load smaller than the respective static breaking load.
Although creep is sometimes treated as a dynamic loading condition, it is not as clearly dynamic as
impact and fatigue loads, and therefore it is treated separately in the next section. Impact loading
conditions are encountered in many airborne parts subjected to severe shock and vibrations. However,
fatigue loading conditions are developed in many engineering structures including rotating machine
parts such as shafts. It is possible that both fatigue and impact loads are combined to produce very high
strain rates.

bility of a given material for instantaneous and considerable plastic deformation under high localized
stress, which is referred to as notch toughness. It is important to realize that microscopic notches acting
as stress concentration sites can arise from microstructural inhomogeneities such as shrinkage cavities
and gas holes in cast metals. Other microscopic notches, particularly in ferrous alloys, include sharp-
edged graphite flakes in gray cast iron and the martensite needles in a soft retained austenite matrix.
Therefore, a basic requirement for high-impact toughness in any ferrous alloy is a homogeneous
microstructure. Among the steel grades suitable for impact toughness applications are those with
maximum

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It is recalled from Chap. 4 that the impact toughness test measures the capa

Copyright © 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

ductility. Although high ductility must be combined with an adequate static strength, ductility remains to
be the decisive factor. For example, a steel having a high level of tensile strength and lower ductility is
inferior to a steel of lower strength and higher ductility. Performance capability is also determined by
the ductile to brittle transition temperature range. Low-carbon steels (0.2% C) with a uniform fine
pearlitic structure can satisfy those requirements. Extralow nonmetallic content, particularly sulfur,
phosphorus, nitrogen, and oxygen, further improve impact toughness, and therefore a thoroughly
deoxidized steel grade is preferable. A fine-grained pearlitic structure promoting impact toughness can
be obtained by quenching and tempering at a specified temperature usually around 6508C to produce a
dispersion of fine spheroidal carbides in a ferrite matrix. However, since the hardenability of low-carbon
steels with low carbon content is not adequate for such a treatment, low-carbon grades of AISI
structural alloy steels are selected for applications requiring a combination of high static strength and
impact toughness. Because of their low-impact toughness, highcarbon grades of both carbon and alloy
steels are not recommended for such applications. However, some of the stainless steel grades with
sufficient impact toughness can be used. Wrought nonferrous alloys can also be used in applications
requiring high-impact toughness such as some of the high-strength precipitation hardened aluminum
and titanium alloys. Wrought steels are by far the most frequently selected structural materials for
fatigue applications. One of the most important properties governing the selection of a steel for fatigue
applications is its ultimate tensile strength. Usually, the endurance limit (see Sec. 4.3.6) is a fraction of
the ultimate tensile strength in the order of 0.4.

For example, if the ultimate strength of a steel grade is 690 MPa, its endurance limit is about 275 MPa.
However, this value serves only as a guide because of the wide scatter usually observed in determining
the endurance limit. To achieve highstrength levels suitable for fatigue applications, the steel must be
quenched and tempered to produce tempered martensite, which requires high hardenability.
Microstructure is also important for optimum fatigue strength. Spheroidal pearlite is preferred over
lamellar pearlite. Since fatigue cracks originate at the surface, surface hardening treatments such as
case hardening or carburizing significantly increases the fatigue strength. Mechanical treatments of the
surface such as shot peening is also useful in increasing fatigue strength. Nonferrous alloys for fatigue
applications include aluminum, titanium, and nickel alloys.