ESC302 Chapter 9 - Groundwater

11/04/2019
Most water is in the oceans
Chapter 9
GROUNDWATER
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The Hydrologic Cycle - the movement and interchange of water between the
sea, air, and land.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
 Evaporation – solar radiation provides energy
 Precipitation – rain or snow
 Transpiration – evaporation from plants
 Runoff –water flowing over land

surface
 Infiltration – water soaking into
the ground
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Question:
Water balance - the volume of water that passes through each cycle
annually.
The main process that links water in the atmosphere with water on the
Earth’s surface is ________________.
The amount of water that remains on the surface as runoff depends on:
 Intensity and duration of rainfall a) Transpiration
 Amount of water already in the soil b) Infiltration
 Nature of the surface material c) Evaporation
 Slope of the land d) Condensation
 Extent and type of vegetation e) Wind
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Drainage basin
It is the total area drained by a stream

and its tributaries.
 tributary - a small stream flowing into
a larger one.
Divide - ridge or high ground that divides
one drainage basin from another.
Continental Divide separates the streams

that flow into the Pacific from those that The Mississippi River’s drainage basin includes all the land area drained by the
flow into the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Mississippi River itself and by all its tributaries, including the Ohio and Missouri
rivers. This great drainage system includes more than one-third the land area of
the contiguous 48 states.
River Systems
River systems involve the entire drainage basin. It can be divided into three
zones:
– Sediment production: where most of the sediment is derived, is
located in the headwater region of the river system.
– Sediment transport: sediment is transported through the channel
network along sections referred to as trunk streams.
- Sediment deposition: sediments

either accumulate at the mouth of
the river to form a delta, or are
moved far offshore by ocean
Because the Red River flows north, it tends to thaw first at the south end and ice-jam at the
north end, causing water to back up at the south end of the valley. Post-glacial isostatic uplift currents.
is greater at the north end of the valley, where the glacial ice was thicker, so the valley is
gradually tipping north to south, from Pembina toward Wahpeton. Since Lake Agassiz drained
from North Dakota about 9,000 years ago, the Red River has meandered over an increasingly
broad floodplain. Flooding is a recurring problem along portions of the Red River.
Running water
Stream - a body of running water, confined to a channel, that runs

downhill under the influence of gravity.
 Headwaters - upper part of stream near its source in the mountains
 Mouth - place where a stream enters sea, lake or larger stream
 Channel - a long, narrow depression eroded by a stream into rock or
sediment
 Stream banks - sides of channel
 Streambed - bottom of the channel
 Floodplain - flat valley floor composed of sediment deposited by the
stream
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Drainage pattern - the arrangement, in map view, of a stream and its Radial pattern:
tributaries. – streams diverge outward like the spokes of a wheel
Most tributaries join the main stream at an acute angle, forming a V or Y – typically form on conical mountains (volcanoes).
pointing downstream.
Rectangular pattern:
Dendritic: – tributaries have frequent 90o bends and join other streams at right angles
– drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree – develop on regularly fractured rock.
– most common
– it is determined chiefly by the direction of slope of the land.
Trellis pattern:
– parallel streams with short tributaries meeting at right angles
– forms where tilted layers of resistant rock alternate with layers of
non-resistant rock (e.g. sandstone and shale)
FACTORS AFFECTING
STREAM EROSION AND
DEPOSITION
Water may flow in one of two ways:

 laminar flow - water moves in roughly straight-line paths that Stream erosion and deposition are controlled primarily by:
parallel the stream channel. - a river’s velocity and,
 turbulent flow - water moving in an erratic fashion that can be - to a lesser extent, its discharge.
characterized as a swirling motion.
Velocity is largely controlled by:

the stream gradient - usually decreases downstream. The gradient is
greatest in the headwater region and decreases toward the mouth of the
stream.
channel shape, size.
channel roughness.
the amount of water flowing in the channel.
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Velocity • Stream gradient is the downhill slope of the streambed

Stream velocity - the distance water travels in a stream per unit time.
• Channel shape and roughness: Both affect stream velocity due to drag
 Higher stream velocities promote erosion and transport of coarser sediments – Narrower, deeper channels allow faster flow
 maximum velocity near center of channel – Smoother channels allow faster flow
 Floods involve increased velocity and erosion – Wider, shallower channels decrease flow speed
– Rougher channels decrease flow speed
Regions of maximum velocity in a stream.
Arrows on the map show how the
Semicircular channel allows stream to flow
maximum velocity shifts to the outside of rapidly.
curves. Sections show maximum velocity
on outside of curves and in the center of Wide, shallow channel increases friction,
the channel on a straight stretch of slowing river down.
stream.
Rough, boulder-strewn channel slows river.
Floods involve increased velocity and discharge (volume of water passing a

particular point in a stream over time). Question:
As floodwaters recede, both velocity and discharge decrease, leading to the
deposition of a blanket of sediment, usually mud, over the flooded area. Laminar flow, where water moves in approximately straight-line paths,
characterizes _________________.
Although the gradient decreases toward

a) Fast-moving streams
the mouth, increases in discharge and
channel size and decreases in roughness b) Slow-moving streams
more than offset the decrease in slope. c) The edges of channels
Consequently, flow velocity usually d) The bottoms of channels
increases toward the mouth. e) All of the above
Question:
STREAM EROSION
As a stream changes from its headwaters to its mouth, which of the

following is NOT likely to occur?
a) Flow velocity decreases

b) The channel gets wider downstream
c) Sediment size gets smaller downstream
d) The channel gets smoother
e) The volume of water increases
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Hydraulic action
Streams cut their own valleys, deepening and widening them over time
Ability of flowing water to pick up and move rock and sediment.
and carrying away the sediment.
It can also erode loose material from a stream bank on the outside of
a curve.
Streams erode rock and sediment in three ways:
Hydraulic action is particularly effective at the base of a waterfall, where it
 hydraulic action,
may erode a deep plunge pool.
 solution,
 abrasion.
Solution Abrasion
Although ordinarily slow, can be an effective process of weathering Grinding away of stream channel by the friction and impact of the
and erosion. sediment load.
Potholes are eroded into streambed by the abrasive action of the sediment
load in the stream.
A stream flowing over other sedimentary

rocks, such as sandstone, can dissolve the
cement, loosening grains that can then be
picked up by hydraulic action.
STREAM TRANSPORTATION OF
Question: SEDIMENT
The erosional power of a stream is greatly enhanced by its _________.
a) Sediment load
b) Viscosity variations
c) Changes in slope
d) Acid Rain
e) Mineralogy
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Bed load
Large or heavy particles that travel on the streambed.
– Traction load - large particles that travel along the streambed by
The sediment load transported by a stream can be subdivided into:
rolling, sliding or dragging.
 bed load,
– Saltation load - medium particles (typically sand-sized) that travel
 suspended load,
downstream by bouncing along - sometimes in contact with the
 dissolved load. streambed and sometimes suspended in the flowing water.
Most of a stream’s load is carried in suspension and in solution.
Suspended load - small/light sediment that remains above the stream STREAM DEPOSITION
bottom by turbulent flow for an indefinite period of time.
Dissolved load - dissolved ions produced by chemical weathering of
soluble minerals upstream.
Load is related to a stream’s:

Competence – stream’s ability to
transport particles based on size rather
than quantity.
Capacity – the maximum load of
solid particles a stream can transport
per unit of time.
Large rivers with high flow velocities have large capacities.
Deposition occurs whenever a stream slows, causing a reduction in

competence.
The sediments transported by a stream are often deposited temporarily

along the stream’s course.
Such sediments move sporadically downstream in repeated cycles of Bar - a ridge of sediment, usually
erosion and deposition, they will form: sand and gravel, deposited in the
 bars and middle or along the banks of a
stream.
 flood-plain deposits.
At or near the end of a stream, sediments may be deposited more

permanently in a delta or an alluvial fan.
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Braided streams contain sediment deposited as numerous bars

around which water flows in highly interconnected rivulets.
A braided stream characteristically

has a wide, shallow channel. Meanders in a stream.
These sinuous curves
develop because a stream’s
velocity is highest on the
outside of curves,
promoting erosion there.
International Space Station view of a braided stream carrying a heavy

suspended load of sand and gravel from melting glaciers, Brahmaputra, Tibet
Meandering streams flow faster along the outside of bends and more slowly Meander cutoffs may form when a new, shorter channel is cut through
along the inside, depositing point bars on the insides of the meanders. the narrow neck of a meander (as during a flood).
With time, an oxbow lake may fill with sediment and vegetation.
Base level - the lowest elevation to which a stream can erode its channel.
Question:
 Ultimate base level: sea level is
the lowest level to which stream
At a bend in a river, the main erosion is ________. erosion could lower the land.
 Temporary or local, base levels:
include lakes, resistant layers of
a) on the outside of the bend rock. Main streams act as base
b) on the inside of the bend levels for their tributaries.
c) both outside and inside the bend
d) at an oxbow lake
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Floodplains are broad strips of land built up by sedimentation on either

Shaping stream valleys side of a stream channel.
Valley sides are shaped by:

• Weathering
• Overland flow floodplain sediments are left behind
• Mass wasting as flood waters slow and recede at the
Characteristics of narrow valleys: end of flood events.
• V-shaped
• Downcutting toward base level
• Incised meanders
main channel has slightly raised banks with respect to the floodplain
known as natural levees.
Floods and flood control

Floods are the most common geologic hazard.
Causes of floods:
• Weather
• Human interference with the stream system
Engineering efforts:
• Artificial levees
• Flood-control dams
• Channelization
-- Nonstructural approach through sound floodplain management.
Flash floods occur with little warning and can be deadly because they
produce a rapid rise in water levels and can have a devastating flow velocity.
River flood plains. Flooded flood plain of the Animas River, Colorado.
Grand Forks
Question:
When a stream is in a v-shaped valley running on bedrock the stream is:
a) Well above base level

b) At base level
c) Below base level
d) Responding to a rise in base level
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Delta - body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when flow

velocity decreases.
Pororoca – tidal
– Surface marked by shifting distributary channels
bore Amazon river
Shape of a delta depends on whether it’s:

– wave-dominated - has prominent barrier islands
– tide-dominated - dominated by strong tides,
– stream-dominated - dominance of stream sedimentation that forms the
fingerlike distributaries.
Stream-dominated
THE STORAGE OF GROUNDWATER The importance of ground water
Ground Water – lies beneath the ground surface, filling pores in sediments
and sedimentary rocks and fractures in other rock types.
Represents 1.7% of the hydrosphere.
 resupplied by slow infiltration of precipitation
 generally cleaner than surface water
 accessed by wells
Tremendously important resource!!

 Growing population has a large impact on groundwater resources
 Being removed at ever increasing rates
 Pollution impacts are increasing
The Water Table

• Saturated zone – subsurface zone in which all rock openings are filled with
Ground Water lies beneath the ground surface, filling pores in sediments, water
sedimentary rocks and fractures in other rock types • Water table – top of the saturated zone
water level at surface of most lakes and rivers corresponds to local water
table
• Unsaturated zone –
unsaturated region
above the water table
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• Perched water table – above and separated from main water table by Porosity and Permeability
an unsaturated zone.
commonly produced by thin lenses of impermeable rock (e.g., shale or Porosity - the percentage of rock or sediment that consists of voids or
clays) within permeable ones. openings.
 measurement of a rock’s ability to hold water
 loose sand has ~30-50% porosity
 compacted sandstone may have only 10-20% porosity
Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid through pores and

fractures.
 interconnectedness of pore spaces
 most sandstones and conglomerates are porous and permeable
 granites, schists, unfractured limestones are impermeable
Porosity and Permeability of Sediments and Rocks

Aquifer - body of saturated rock or sediment through which water can
Sediment Porosity (%) Permeability
move easily.
Gravel 25 to 40 Excellent
Sand (clean) 30 to 50 Good to excellent – Sandstone
Silt 35 to 50 Moderate – Conglomerate
Clay 35 to 80 Poor
Glacial till 10 to 20 Poor to moderate – Well-jointed limestone
Rock – Sand and gravel
Conglomerate 10 to 30 Moderate to excellent –Highly fractured volcanic rock
Sandstone
Well-sorted, little cement 20 to 30 Good to very good
Average 10 to 20 Moderate to good Aquitard - rock/sediment that retards ground water flow due to low
Poorly sorted, well-cemented 0 to 10 Poor to moderate porosity and/or permeability.
Shale 0 to 30 Very poor to poor
Limestone, dolomite 0 to 20 Poor to good
– Shale
Cavernous limestone up to 50 Excellent – Clay
Crystalline rock
Unfractured 0 to 5 Very poor
– Unfractured crystalline rocks
Fractured 5 to10 Poor
Volcanic rocks 0 to 50 Poor to excellent
Unconfined Aquifer
The movement of groundwater
– Has a water table, and is only partly filled with water
– Rapidly recharged by precipitation infiltrating down to the saturated zone Movement of ground water through pores and fractures is relatively slow
(cm to meters/day) compared to flow of water in surface streams.
Confined Aquifer
 flow velocities in cavernous limestones can be much higher (km/day).
– Completely filled with water under pressure (hydrostatic head)
– Separated from surface by impermeable confining layer/aquitard
– Very slowly recharged
Flow velocity depends upon:

 slope of the water table
 permeability of the rock
or sediment
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Springs and streams

Wells
A deep hole dug or drilled into the ground to Spring - a place where water flows naturally
obtain water from an aquifer. from rock or sediment onto the ground
surface.
 for wells in unconfined aquifers, water level
before pumping is the water table Gaining streams - receive water from the
saturated zone.
 water enters well from pore spaces within
the surrounding aquifer  gaining stream surface is local water table
Losing streams - lose water to the saturated
 water table can be lowered by pumping,
zone
a process known as drawdown
 stream beds lie above the water table
 water may rise to a level above the top
 maximum infiltration occurs through
of a confined aquifer, producing an
streambed, producing permanent
artesian well
“mound” in the water table beneath dry
channel
Hot water underground

Hot springs - Water is 6 – 9oC (10–15oF) warmer than the mean air
temperature of the locality.
• ground water heated by nearby magma bodies or circulation to
unusually deep (and warm) levels within the crust
• hot water is less dense than cool water and thus rises back to the
surface on its own
Groundwater discharge from springs in the Redwall Limestone wall of the Grand
Canyon cascades into the Colorado River at Vasey's Paradise in the Grand Canyon.
Geysers - hot springs that periodically erupt hot water and steam. Geothermal energy
• minerals often precipitate around geysers as hot water cools
Geothermal energy – produced using
rapidly in the air.
natural steam or superheated water
• No CO2 or acid rain are
produced (clean energy
source).
• Some toxic gases given off
(e.g., sulfur compounds).
• Can be used directly to heat
buildings.
• Superheated water can be very
corrosive to pipes and
equipment.
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Contamination of groundwater
Infiltrating water may bring contaminants down to the water table,
including:
• pesticides/herbicides
• fertilizers
• landfill pollutants
• heavy metals
• bacteria, viruses and parasites
from sewage:
• industrial chemicals (PCBs, TCE)
• acid mine drainage
• radioactive waste
• oil and gasoline
Contaminated ground water can be extremely difficult and
expensive to clean up.
Balancing withdrawal and recharge
If ground water is withdrawn more rapidly than it is recharged, the The San Joaquin Valley, an important
water table will drop. agricultural area, relies heavily on
– Dropping water table can lead to ground subsidence. irrigation.
Between 1925 and 1977, this part of
• surface of the ground drops as buoyancy from ground water the valley subsided almost 9 meters
is removed, allowing rock or sediment to compact and sink. (30 feet) due to the withdrawal of
groundwater and the resulting
– Subsidence can crack foundations, roads and pipelines.
compaction of sediments.
– Areas of extremely high ground water pumping (such as for crop
irrigation in dry regions) have subsided 7-9 meters.
GEOLOGIC WORK OF GROUNDWATER Caves - naturally-formed underground chambers. Acidic ground water
dissolves limestone along joints and bedding planes.
Features found within caverns:

 Form in the zone of aeration.
 Composed of dripstone.
 Calcite deposited as dripping water
evaporates .
 Common features include stalactites
(hanging from the ceiling) and stalagmites
(growing upward from the floor).
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Sinkholes – caves near the surface that have collapsed.

Development of
Karst topography – area with rolling hills, disappearing streams, Karst Landscape
and sinkholes.
 landscape formed due to dissolving rock (limestone).
Tower karst is a spectacular type of karst topography that forms in warm, tropical
climates where accelerated weathering produces steep or vertical-sided
limestone towers.
Other Effects of Groundwater

Question:
• Preservation of Fossils
 Petrified Wood
Which of the following is associated with areas of karst topography?
 Concretions
• Geodes a) sinkholes
b) soluble rock
c) caverns
d) all of these
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Next: Chapter 10 – Glaciers, Deserts

and Wind
ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 79
14

ESC302 Chapter 9 - Groundwater

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11/04/2019

Most water is in the oceans

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 2

 Runoff –water flowing over land

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 3 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 4

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 5 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 6

It is the total area drained by a stream

Continental Divide separates the streams

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 7 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 8

- Sediment deposition: sediments

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 9 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 10

Stream - a body of running water, confined to a channel, that runs

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 11 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 12

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 13 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 14

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Water may flow in one of two ways:

Velocity is largely controlled by:

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 17 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 18

Velocity • Stream gradient is the downhill slope of the streambed

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 19 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 20

Floods involve increased velocity and discharge (volume of water passing a

Although the gradient decreases toward

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 21 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 22

As a stream changes from its headwaters to its mouth, which of the

a) Flow velocity decreases

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ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 25 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 26

A stream flowing over other sedimentary

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 27 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 28

The erosional power of a stream is greatly enhanced by its _________.

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 29 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 30

Most of a stream’s load is carried in suspension and in solution.

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 31 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 32

Load is related to a stream’s:

Large rivers with high flow velocities have large capacities.

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 33 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 34

Deposition occurs whenever a stream slows, causing a reduction in

The sediments transported by a stream are often deposited temporarily

At or near the end of a stream, sediments may be deposited more

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 35 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 36

Braided streams contain sediment deposited as numerous bars

A braided stream characteristically

International Space Station view of a braided stream carrying a heavy

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ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 39 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 40

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Floodplains are broad strips of land built up by sedimentation on either

Valley sides are shaped by:

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 43 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 44

Floods and flood control

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 45 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 46

When a stream is in a v-shaped valley running on bedrock the stream is:

a) Well above base level

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 47 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 48

Delta - body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when flow

Shape of a delta depends on whether it’s:

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 49 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 50

THE STORAGE OF GROUNDWATER The importance of ground water

Tremendously important resource!!

ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 51 ESC302 - BERQUÓ CHAPTER 9 52

The Water Table

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Permeability - the capacity of a rock to transmit fluid through pores and

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