MT (1e) PDF

A Complete Course in Physics(Mathematical Tools)
Rajat Kalia
March 11, 2011
© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

http://www.rajatkalia.com
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2

Contents
1 Derivatives 5
1.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Basics of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Dierentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Dierentiation of Implicit functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10 Dierentiation of Parametric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11 Higher order derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.12 Logarithmic Dierentiation(Revisiting Logarithms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Limits 13
2.1 Rate of Change and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Limit of a sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Some important Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Limits using Series expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Application of Derivatives 21
3.1 Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Tangents and Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4 Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5 Maxima and Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4 Integrals 25
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Some basic Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.5 Integration by Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.6 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.7 Integrals of some more types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.8 Denite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.9 Some Properties of Denite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.10 Area under the curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.11 Area between Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.12 Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5 Application of Integrals 33
5.1 Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Lengths of Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3 Areas of Surfaces of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.4 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6 Vectors 41
6.1 Scalars and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.4 Position and Distance Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.5 Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.6 Components of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3 © Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

4 CONTENTS
6.8 PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7 Coordinate Systems 47
7.1 Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, φ, z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, φ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8 Vector Calculus 49
8.1 Dierential Length , Area and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2 Line, Surface, And Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.3 Del Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.4 Gradient of a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.5 Divergence of a Vector And Divergence Theorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.6 Curl of a Vector And Stroke's Theorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.7 Laplacian of a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.8 Classication of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Chapter 1
Derivatives
Before we go into the details of the concept of derivatives,
let us rst do some hands on problems and learn the use of
Rule dxd (x ) = nx n n−1
, where n is a real number.
derivatives.
Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions
1.1 Preliminaries a) f (x) = x

b) f (x) = x3
1.1.1 Overview of Functions c) f (x) = x5
√
The amount of functions which we require in this course would d) f (x) = x
be clear by the following example
√
e) f (x) = x
3
x
Q: For the function f (x) = , nd f (x + 3) , f (3x) ,3f (x) f) f (x) = xπ
x + 2
,
3

3f (3x + 3) , f x , (f (x))
3 1
g) f (x) =
x
x+3
Sol: f (x + 3) = d d 1
x+5 Sol: a) f (x) = (x )
3x dx dx
f (3x) =
3x + 2 Now we apply the formula. Here n=1
3x d
3f (x) =
x+2 ⇒ (x) = 1.x0 = 1
dx
9x + 9 b) Applying the formula again here, for n=3
3f (3x + 3) =
3x + 5 d 3
⇒ (x ) = 3.x3−1 = 3x2
x3 dx
f x3 =

+2 x3 d 5
c) As in previous cases, (x ) = 5x4

x
3 dx
3
(f (x)) = √ 1
x+2 d) f (x) = x can be written as x 2 . So, we apply the
1
formula for n =
1.2 Basics of Derivatives d √
2
1 1 −1 1 1 1
⇒ ( x) = x 2 = x− 2 = √
d dx 2 2 2 x
The derivative of a function f (x) is written as f (x).
dx 1
e) Here, n =
Rule : d
dx
(constant) = 0 [ Read as : Derivative of a con-
d √
3
1 2 1
stant = 0] ⇒ ( 3 x) = x− 3 = √ 3
dx 3 3 x2
Q : Find the derivatives of the follwoing functions
f)
d π
(x ) = πxπ−1 [ Remember that n needs not be a
dx
a) f (x) = 1 rational number or an integer. It can be an irrational
b) f (x) = 5 number also like π .]

√
c) f (x) = 3 4 g) Here, for n = −1
d) f (x) = π d −1 1
⇒ (x ) = −1.x−1−1 = −x−2 = − 2
dx x
e) f (x) = e3
f) f (x) = 6!
π Rule :
d
dx
(f1 (x)+f2 (x)+f3 (x).........+fn (x)) =
d
dx
(f1 (x)+
g) f (x) = tan d d d
3 (f2 (x) + (f3 (x)......... + (fn (x)
dx dx dx
−1 1
h) f (x) = sin −
2 d d d

Example x2 + x = x2 + (x) = 2x + 1
i) f (x) = log10 16 dx dx dx
Sol: All the derivatives are zero as the functions are constants.
[ You don't need to worry about the expressions like sin−1 and log .
Rule :
d
dx
d
(c.f (x)) = c (f (x))
dx
You are going to learn them in due course. For the time being this
information would be handy: Any function with constant argument is d d

1 Example 3x2 = 3. x2 = 3 (2x) = 6x
constant if dened. Here , sin−1 has a constant argument i.e − ] dx dx
2

6 CHAPTER 1. DERIVATIVES
Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions * Let, f (x) = x5 ⇒ f / (x) = 5x4
a) f (x) = x3 + x2 + x
*f /
(1 − 2x) = 5 (1 − 2x) × (−2) = −10 (1 − 2x)
4 4
b) f (x) = 3x7 − 5x4 + x3 Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

5 √
c) f (x) = 5x 2 + 8 x
5
2 3 4
√ √ √ a)f (x) = (x + 1) + (2x + 1) + (3x + 1) + (4x + 1)
d) f (x) = x + 2 x + 3 x + 4 x
3 4
n n
b) f (x) = xn + (2x) + (3x)
d 2
e) f (x) = (x + 2x + 1) 2 3
dx c) f (x) = (2x + 1) − (3x − 1) − (1 − 4x)
m n p
d 3 d 2 d d) f (x) = (1 − αx) + (2 − βx) − (3 − γx)
Sol. a) f / (x) = (x ) + (x ) + (x) √ √ √
dx dx dx e) f (x) = 1 − 2x + 3 2 − 3x − 4 4x + 3
⇒ f / (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 d d d
d d d 3 Sol. a)f
/
(x) = (x + 1) +
2
(2x + 1) +
3
(3x + 1) +
/
b) f (x) = (3x7 ) − (5x4 ) + (x ) dx dx dx
dx dx dx d 4 2
(4x + 1) = 1 + 2 (2x + 1) .2 + 3 (3x + 1) .3 +
d d d 3 dx
⇒ f / (x) = 3 (x7 ) − 5 (x4 ) + (x ) 3 2
4 (4x + 1) .4 = 1 + 4 (2x + 1) + 9 (3x + 1) + 16 (4x + 1)
3
dx dx dx
⇒ f / (x) == 21x6 − 20x3 + 3x2 n−1 n−1
b) f / (x) = nxn−1 + 2n (2x) + 3n (3x)
3 4 2
/ 5 1 − 25 3 8 − 4 c) f / (x) = 2 − 6 (3x − 1) + 12 (1 − 4x)
c) f (x) = 5 × × x2 + 8 × × x 5 = x2 + x 5
2 5 2 5 m−1 n−1
/ − 21 − 23 − 34
d) f / (x) = −αm (1 − αx) − βn (2 − βx) +
d) f (x) = 1 + x +x +x p−1
γp (3 − γx)
e) f (x) = 2x + 2 − 12 − 32 − 34
/
e) f / (x) = − (1 − 2x) − (2 − 3x) − (4x + 3)
⇒ f (x) = 2
Rule :
d
(f (x + c)) = f / (x + c)
Rule :
d
dx
(f g) = f / g + g / f [ The Product Rule]
dx
d √
Example
d
(x + 1)
3 Example
2
( x. (x + 2) )
dx
*
dx
*
√
To evaluate this, let us rst of all assume f (x) = x3 To evaluate this, let us assume f (x) = x and
* ⇒ f (x + 1) = (x + 1) 3
g (x) = (x + 2)
2
. Now,
1 −1
f / (x) = (x) 2 and
* /
f (x) = 3x
Now,
2 /
g (x) = 2 (x + 2)
2
* ⇒ f (x + 1) = 3 (x + 1)
/ 2
* ⇒
d
(f g) = f / g + g/ f =
dx
Q: √

Find the derivatives of the following functions 1 − 1
2

(x) 2 . (x + 2) + (2 (x + 2)) . ( x) .
2 3 4 2
a) f (x) = (x + 1) + (x + 2) + (x + 3) + (x + 4) The result can be furthur simplied if needed. [It
√ √ √ should be noted that the result f / g + g / f can be written
b) f (x) = (x + 1) + x+2+ 3x+3+ 4x+4
in various equivalent forms like f g / + gf / = g / f + f / g
(x + 2π) (x + 3π)
2 3 etc.]
c) f (x) = (x + π) + +
2! 3!
2 Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions
d) f (x) = (x − 1) − 2 (x − 2)
d d d a) f (x) = x (x + 1)
Sol: a) f / (x) =
(x + 1) +
2
(x + 2) +
3
(x + 3) +
dx dx dx b) f (x) = (x + 1) (x + 2)
d 4 2 3
(x + 4) = 1 + 2 (x + 2) + 3 (x + 3) + 4 (x + 4) c)f (x) = (2x + 1) (3x + 2)
dx
n
1 1 1 d) f (x) = xn (x + n)
/ −1 −2 −3
b) f (x) = 1+ (x + 2) 2 + (x + 3) 3 + (x + 4) 4 5
2 3 2 e) f (x) = x3 (x + a) + (x + b) (x + 2b) −
2 6
(x + 3π) (x + c) (x + 2c)
/
c) f (x) = 1 + (x + 2π) +
2! 2 3
f) f (x) = (3x + 1) (4x + 2)
/
d) f (x) = 1 − 4 (x − 2) 3 3
g) f (x) = (2 − 3x) (3x − 4)
Rule :
d
dx
(f (cx + d)) = f / (cx + d) .c h) f (x) = (1 + x) (2 − x) − (1 + 2x) (2 − 4x) +
(1 + 3x) (2 − 16x)
d i) f (x) = (x + a) (x + b) (x + c)
Example 1: (3x + 2)2
dx
*
m n p
j) f (x) = (x − α) (x − β) (x − γ)
Now, to evaluate this derivative, let us assume
3 4 5
f (x) = x2 .Its derivative, we already know, i.e. k) f (x) = (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3)
f / (x) = 2x . l) f (x) = (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 4)
2 3 4
* Using the above rule,

d
dx
f (3x + 2) = m)
1
f (x) = (ax − b) m (c − dx) n (ex − f ) p
1 1
/
f (3x + 2) .3 = 2 (3x + 2) × 3 = 6 (3x + 2)
Sol. a)To be able to nd this derivative, let g (x) = x and
d
Example 2: (1 − 2x)5 h (x) = x + 1
dx

1.3. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 7
⇒ f (x) = g (x) .h (x) * Applying the rule, we get the

5
! deriva-
⇒ f / (x) = g / (x) .h (x) + h/ (x) .g (x) d (1 − 2x) 2

tive equal to, 3 =
(1 + 2x) 2 dx
⇒ f / (x) = 1. (x + 1) + 1. (x) 3 3 1 5
−5 (1 − 2x) 2 . (1 + 2x) 2 − 3 (1 + 2x) 2 (1 − 2x) 2
⇒ f / (x) = (x + 1) + x = 2x + 1 2
3
b) f / (x) = (x + 1) + (x + 2) (1 + 2x) 2
c) f / (x) = 2 (3x + 2) + 3 (2x + 1)

n n−1
d) f / (x) = nxn−1 (x + n) + nxn (x + n)
4
x+1
e) f / (x) = x3 + 3x2 (x + a) + 5 (x + b) (x + 2b) + a) f (x) =
5 6 5
x+2
(x + b) − (x + 2c) − 6 (x + c) (x + 2c) 3
(x + 1)
f)
/ 3
f (x) = 6 (3x + 1) (4x + 2) + 12 (3x + 1) (4x + 2)
2 2 b) f (x) = 2
(x + 2)
/ 2 3
g) f (x) = −9 (2 − 3x) (3x − 4) + 3
3 2 (3x − 1) (2x + 1)
9 (2 − 3x) (3x − 4) c) f (x) = 2 + 2
(2x − 1) (3x + 1)
/
h) f (x) = − (1 + x)+(2 − x)−2 (2 − 4x)+4 (1 − 2x)+
(ax − α) (bx − β) (cx − γ)
3 (2 − 16x) − 16 (1 + 3x) d) f (x) =
(ax + α) (bx + β) (cx + γ)
i) Letf (x) = g (x) .h (x)where g (x) = x+a and h(x) =
(x + b) (x + c) 1. (x + 2) − 1. (x + 1) 1
/ /
Sol. a) f / (x) = 2 = 2
⇒ g (x) = 1 and h (x) = (x + b) + (x + c) (x + 2) (x + 2)
Also , f / (x) = g / (x) .h (x) + h/ (x) .g (x) 2 2 3
3 (x + 2) (x + 1) − 2 (x + 1) (x + 2)
i.e. f (x) /
= 1. (x + b) (x + c) + b) f / (x) = 4
(x + 2)
((x + b) + (x + c)) . (x + a)
2
(2x − 1) .3 − 2 (2x − 1) (3x − 1)
⇒ f / (x) = (x + a) (x + b) + (x + b) (x + c) + c) f / (x) = +
4
(x + a) (x + c) (2x − 1)
2 2 3
6 (2x + 1) (3x + 1) − 6 (2x + 1) (3x + 1)
The derivative of product of three functions can be
4
written in a general form (3x + 1)
d d d d) Let us assume f (x) as the product of three terms
(uvw) = u. (vw) + vw. (u) ax − α bx − β
dx dx dx u, v and w , where u = , v = and
d

d d

d ax + α bx + β
⇒ (uvw) = u. v. w + w. v + vw. (u) cx − γ
dx dx dx dx w=
cx + γ
d d d d du (ax + α) a − (ax − α) a 2aα
⇒ (uvw) = uv w + uw v + vw u = = . Similarly,
dx dx dx dx dx 2 2
(ax + α) (ax + α)
/ m n p−1
j) f (x) = (x − α) (x − β) .p (x − γ) + dv 2bβ dw 2cγ
m p n−1 = 2 and dx =
(x − α) (x − γ) .n (x − β) + dx (bx + β) (cx + γ)
2
n p m−1
(x − β) (x − γ) .m (x − α)
bx − β cx − γ 2aα
2 4 5 Hence, f / (x) . = . +
k) f / (x) = 3.2 (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3) + bx + β cx + γ (ax + α)2
3 3 5
4.3 (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3) + ax − α cx − γ 2bβ ax − α bx − β 2cγ
3 4 4 . 2 + .
5.4 (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3) ax + α cx + γ (bx + β) ax + α bx + β (cx + γ)2
/ 2 3 4
l)f (x) = (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 4) +
3 4
(x − 1) (x − 3) (x − 4) .2 (x − 2) + 1.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric func-
tions
2 4 2
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 4) 3. (x − 3) +
2 3 3
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) 4 (x − 4)
/
m)f (x) =
e
p
1 1 1
(ax − b) m (c − dx) n (ex − f ) p
−1
− Rule :
d
dx
(sin x) = cos x
d 1 1 1
−1
(ax − b) m (ex − f ) p (c − dx) n . +
n Proof. It can be proved using the rst principle , which is
a 1 1 1
−1
(c − dx) n (ex − f ) p (ax − b) m beyond the scope of this book. However , interested stu-
m
dents can read it from the corresponding NCERT book on
f / g − g/ f Mathematics for +2.

d f
Rule : = [ The Quotient Rule]
dx g g2
d (1 − 2x)
5
2
! Rule :
d
dx
(cos x) = − sin x
Example 3
dx (1 + 2x) 2
d d π
* To evaluate this, let
3
f (x) = (1 − 2x)
5
2
and g (x) =
Proof. (cos x)
π dx
=
dx
sin
2
−x =
(1 + 2x) 2 cos − x . (−1) = − sin x

2
*⇒ f / (x) =
5 3 3
(1 − 2x) 2 (−2) = −5 (1 − 2x) 2 .
Rule
2 1 d
Similarly, g / (x) = 3 (1 + 2x) 2 : (tan x) = sec2 x
dx

1

d d sin x
Proof. (tan x) = d) f / (x) = 2 (cot (1 − 4x) . cos (5x + 1) .5−
dx dx cos x cot
(1 − 4x)
d d logb p 2
cos x. (sin x) − sin x. (cos x) sin (5x + 1) . − loga p = cosec (1 − 4x) . (−4))
dx dx logb a
=
cos2 x f / (x) = cos x. cos x + sin x.(−
e)
sin x) +
cos x. cos x − sin x. (− sin x) sec x. sec x + tan x. tan x. sec x − −cosec2 x .cosecx −
2
=
cos2 x cot x. (−cosecx. cot x)
1
= = sec2 x ⇒ f / (x) = cos2 x − sin2 x + sec3 x + tan2 x. sec x +
cos2 x cosec3 x + cot2 x.cosecx
Rule :
d
(cot x) = −cosec2 x
dx 1.4 Derivatives of Exponential and
Proof.
d
(cot x) =
d cos x Logarithmic Functions
dx dx sin x
=
sin x. (− sin x) − cos x. cos x
2
Rule :
d x
dx
(e ) = ex
(sin x)
1
= − 2 = −cosec2 x
sin x
Rule :
d
dx
(ln x) =
1
x
π
Alternately, it can be proved by taking cot x = tan
2
−x Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions
and then dierentiating both sides.
d d π a) f (x) = e3x−3
(cot x) = tan −x
dx dx 2 b) f (x) = ln (1 − 2x)
π
= sec2 − x . (−1) 1
2 c) f (x) =
e2x
= −cosec2 x ln x
d) f (x) =
Rule d e4x
: (sec x) = sec x. tan x e) f (x) = ln 2x.e
2x
dx
f) f (x) = cosecx. ln x.x3
d d 1
Proof. (sec x) = ex + e−x
dx dx cos x g) f (x) =
ex − e−x
d d
cos x (1) − 1 (cos x)
= dx dx Sol. a) Let g(x) = ex
cos2 x
sin x Then f (x) = g(3x − 3)
= = sec x. tan x
cos2 x
⇒ f (x) = g / (3x − 3) .3
/
Rule :
d
dx
(cosecx) = −cosecx. cot x
⇒ f / (x) = e3x−3 .3 = 3e3x−3
1 −2
b) f / (x) = .(−2) =
1 1 − 2x 1 − 2x
Proof. It can be proved by taking either cosecx = or
c) Now f (x) can be written in a simpler form i.e.
π sin x
f (x) = e−2x

by taking cosecx = sec −x . The students should try
2
it themselves. ⇒ f / (x) = e−2x .(−2) = −2e−2x
1
e4x .
− ln x.e4x .4 1 − x ln x.4
d) f (x) =
/ x =
2 xe4x
(e4x )
a) f (x) = sin 57o
/ 2x 1 2x 1
b) f (x) = cos (3x + 2) e) f (x) = ln 2x.e .2 + e .2 = e2x 2 ln 2x +
2x x
c) f (x) = tan (1 − 2x) . sec (3x)
/ d d
sin (5x + 1) f )f (x) = cosecx. ln x. x3 + cosecx.x3 . ln x +
d)f (x) = dx dx
cot (1 − 4x) d
ln x.x3 cosecx
e) f (x) = sin x. cos x + tan x. sec x − cot x.cosecx dx
1
⇒ f / (x) = cosecx. ln x.3x2 + cosecx.x3 . +
Sol. a) It can be observed that f (x) is a constant. x
ln x.x3 . (−cosecx. cot x)
⇒ f / (x) = 0 d d
ex − e−x ex + e−x − ex + e−x ex − e−x

b)
/
f (x) = − sin (3x + 2) .3 = −3 sin (3x + 2) g) f / (x) = dx dx
(ex − e−x )2
d
c) f / (x) = tan (1 − 2x) . sec (3x) + (ex − e−x ) (ex − e−x ) − (ex + e−x ) (ex + e−x )
dx ⇒ f / (x) = 2
d (ex − e−x )
sec (3x) . tan (1 − 2x) =
dx −4
tan (1 − 2x) . sec (3x) . tan (3x) .3 + ⇒ f / (x) = 2
sec (3x) . sec2 (1 − 2x) . (−2) (ex − e−x )

1.6. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 9
1.5 The Chain Rule 1.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonomet-

If there exists a composite function y =
dy
f (g(x))
can . Then
ric Functions
dx
dy df (g(x)) dg(x) Theorem 1. To prove that the derivative of y = sin−1 x is
be expressed in a more convenient form i.e = . 1
dx dg(x) dx √
. Ofcourse, the composite function can be further branched. In 1 − x2
that case, the chain would become longer.
Proof. We can prove this by the use of the Chain Rule and sub-
dy
A slightly easier to understand denition also exists viz = sequent dierentiation
dx
dy du dv We have y = sin−1 x
. . ⇒ sin y = x
du dv dx
The proposition would be more clear with a few examples Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
Example 1 : y = sin x 3

cos y.
dy
dx
=1
dy 1 1
⇒ y = f (g (x))where f (x) = sin (x)and g (x) = x3 ⇒
dx
=
cos y
=√
1 − x2
⇒ f / (x) = cos x and g / (x) = 3x2
dy
⇒ =
df (g(x)) dg(x)
. = f / (g (x)) .g / (x)
Derivative of y = cos−1 x is −√
1
1 − x2
dx dg(x) dx
dy
⇒ y = cos−1 x

= cos x3 .3x2 Proof. We have
dx
⇒ cos y = x

2
3
Example 2 : y = tan (ln x) Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
dy
⇒ y = f (g (h (k (x)))) where f (x) = x2 , g (x) = tan x − sin y.=1
dx
h(x) = x3 and k (x) = ln x
, dy 1 1
dy ⇒ =− = −√
⇒ = f / (g (h (k (x)))) .g / (h (k (x))) .h/ (k (x)) .k / (x) dx sin y 1 − x2
dx
dy 2 1
1

⇒ 3 3
= 2 tan (ln x) . sec2 (ln x) .3 (ln x) . Derivative of y = tan−1 x is
dx x 1 + x2
Proof. We have y = tan−1 x
2
a) f (x) = ex ⇒ tan y = x
b) f (x) = ln (cot x) Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get

c) f (x) = cos 1 + x2 dy
sec2 y. =1
d) f (x) = e2 sin x dx
√ dy 1 1 1
e)f (x) = x2 + x + 1 ⇒ = = =
x dx sec2 y 1 + tan2 y 1 + x2
f) f (x) = ee
1 + x2

1
g) f (x) = sin Derivative of y = cot−1 x is −
1 − x2 1 + x2
√

1
h) f (x) = ln x+ √ Proof. We have y = cot−1 x
x
⇒ cot y = x
Sol.
2
a) f / (x) = ex .2x Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
1 dy
−cosec2 y.

b) f / (x) = . −cosec2 x = − sec x.cosecx =1
cot x dx
dy 1 1 1

c) f / (x) = − sin 1 + x2 .2x ⇒ =− =− =−
dx cosec2 y 2 1 + x2
1 + cot y
d) f / (x) = e2 sin x .2 cos x

1 1
e) f / (x) = √ . (2x + 1) Derivative of y = sec−1 x for x>0 is √
2 x2 + x + 1 x x2 − 1
x
f) f / (x) = ee .ex

1 + x2

d 1 + x2
Proof. We have y = sec−1 x
/
g) f (x) = cos .
1 − x2 dx 1 − x2 ⇒ sec y = x

1 + x2 1 − x2 2x − 1 + x2 . (−2x)

Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
⇒ f / (x) = cos . 2
1 − x2 (1 − x2 ) dy
sec y. tan y. =1

1 + x2

4x dx
⇒ f / (x) = cos . dy 1 1
1 − x2 (1 − x2 )2 ⇒ = = √
dx sec y. tan y x x2 − 1
/ 1 1 1 −3
h) f (x) = . √ − .x 2
√

1 2 x 2 1
x+ √ Derivative of y = cosec−1 x for x>0 is - √
x
x x2 − 1

Proof. We have y = cosec−1 x ∂f 1

= 2 .xz
∂y 1 + (xyz)
⇒ cosecy = x
∂f 1
x , we
Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. get = 2 .xy
∂z 1 + (xyz)
dy
−cosecy. cot y. =1 ∂f
dx c) = yexy ln z
dy 1 1 ∂x
⇒ =− =− √ ∂f
dx cosecy. cot y x x2 − 1 = xexy ln z
∂y
Q: Dierentiate the following trigonometric Inverse functions ∂f 1
with respect to x = exy .
∂z z
y = cos−1 3x2
1.8 Dierentials

a)
−1

b) y = tan x3 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions The law of dierentials can be explained by the help of an ex-
−1 ample
c) y = cot (ln x)
4
If T x, y ,z and t . Then
is a function of four variables the
−1
d) y = sin e−x dierential
dTcan be expressed as

−1
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = dx + dy + dz + dt

e) y = sin cos x3 ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Sol. a)
dy
= −√
1
.6x Q : Find df f = r2 sin θ cos φ
if
dx 1 − 9x4
∂f ∂f ∂f
dy 1
Sol. Now df = dr + dθ + dφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
b) = .3x2
dx 1 + x6
dy 1 1 ∂f ∂f ∂f
So, we rst of all evaluate , and .
c) = 2 .x ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
dx 1 + (ln x)
∂f
dy 1 4 = 2r sin θ cos φ
.e−x . −4x3

d) =q ∂r
dx 2
1 − e−x4 ∂f
= r2 cos θ cos φ
dy 1 ∂θ
e) =√ . − sin x3 .3x2 ∂f
dx 2
1 − cos x3
= −r2 sin θ sin φ
∂φ
1.7 Partial Derivatives ⇒ df =
r2 sin θ sin φdφ
2r sin θ cos φdr + r2 cos θ cos φdθ −
We dene a function of more than one variables with the help of

an example
Q : Find dη η = xyz + x2 y 2 z 2
if
Let f (x, y, z, t) = x2 y 3 z 4 + t . Now the value of this function

∂η

∂η

∂η
varies not only as a function of x but also as a function of y,z Sol. Now dη = dx + dx + dx
∂x ∂x ∂x
and t. To nd the parital derivative w.r.t a particular variable,
we treat all the other variables as constants and dierentiate. ∂η
In the present example, the parial derivative w.r.t x is given = yz + 2xy 2 z 2
∂x
∂f
by = 2xy 3 z 4 (Keeping y ,z and t as constants). Similarly , ∂η
∂x = xz + 2x2 yz 2
∂f ∂f ∂y
partial derivative w.r.t y is = 3x2 y 2 z 4 , = 4x2 y 3 z 3 and
∂y ∂z ∂η
∂f = xy + 2x2 y 2 z
= 1. ∂z
∂t
⇒ dη = yz + 2xy 2 z 2 dx + xz + 2x2 yz 2 dx +
Q: Evaluate the following partial derivatives. xy + 2x2 y 2 z dx
∂f ∂f ∂f
a) For f = x2 + y 3 + z , nd
,
∂x ∂y
and
∂z 1.9 Dierentiation of Implicit functions
−1 ∂f ∂f ∂f
b) For f = tan (xyz) , nd , and Implicit functions are the functions in which one variable is not
∂x ∂y ∂z
explicitly expressed in terms of the other variables. Example can
xy ∂f ∂f ∂f be y = xey . Here y is a function of both x and y . To evaluate
c) For f = e ln z , nd , and
∂x ∂y ∂z dy
in such a case, the method of dierentials is used. e.g. in
dx
∂f this case
Sol. a) = 2x
∂ (xey )

∂ (xey )

∂x dy = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
∂f ⇒ dy = (ey ) dx + (xey ) dy
= 3y 2
∂y ⇒ dy (1 − xey ) = ey dx
∂f dy ey
=1 ⇒ =
∂z dx 1 − xey
∂f 1 dy
b) = 2 .yz Q : Find if x = y + y2 + y3
∂x 1 + (xyz) dx

1.11. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES 11
Sol. You can either proceed by the method of dierentials or a) x = 2at3 , y = at5
there is a slightly better approach as shown below
b) x = a cos θ,y = b cos θ
Dierentiate both sides w.r.t y . This gives c) x = sin t, y = cos 3t
dx 1
= 1 + 2y + 3y 2 d) x = t, y =
dy t
dy 1 1 e) x = cos 2θ cos 3θ , y = sin 2θ sin 3θ
⇒ = = .
dx dx 1 + 2y + 3y 2
dy
1.11 Higher order derivatives
dy
Q

2 2 2
: Find if x + y + 2xy + x + 3y + 5 = 0
dx The second order derivative of y w.r.t x can be represented
d2 y dy
Sol. Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get as . It can be evaluated by dierentiating again
dx2 dx
dy dy dy d2 y
2x + 2y + 2y 2 + 4xy +1+3 +0=0 w.r.t. x. If y and x are expressed parametrically, then
dx dx dx dx2
d2 y
dy can be evaluated with the help of chain rule i.e. =
⇒ 2x + 2y 2 + 1 + (2y + 4xy + 3) =0 dx2
dx

d dy d dy dt
dy 2x + 2y 2 + 1 = . .
⇒ =− dx dx dt dx dx
dx 2y + 4xy + 3
The higher order derivatives can be found out in a similar
1.10 Dierentiation of Parametric manner by further dierentiating the derivatives of y .
functions Q: Find
d2 y
if y = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1
dx2
The independent variables are expressed in terms of a new de-
dy
pendent variable. Such representation of a curve or a body is Sol. It can be easily observed found out that = 3x2 + 6x + 2
called parametric representation dx
d2 y

d dy d
x = at2 , y = 2at is a

e.g. parametric representation of the . Now, = = 3x2 + 6x + 2 = 6x + 6
curve y 2 = 4ax . Here in the representation a third variable t dx2 dx dx dx
has been introduced.
dy dy dx d2 y
To nd in such a case, we evaluate and rst and Q: Find if y 3 + x3 − 3x2 y = 0 .
dx dt dt dx2
dy
dy dy dy dt Sol. Dierentiate the expression w.r.t x rst.
use chain rule to nd as follows: = . = dt . In
dx dx dt dx dx
dy dy
dt ⇒ 3y 2 + 3x2 − 6xy − 3x2 =0
dy 2a 1 dx dx
this particular example , = =
dx 2at t dy
⇒ 3y 2 − 3x2 + 3x2 − 6xy = 0...(I)
dy dx
Q: Find if x = a (t − sin t) and y = a (1 − cos t) dy 3x2 − 6xy 6xy − 3x2
dx ⇒ =− 2 =
dx 3y − 3x2 3y 2 − 3x2
dy dy dx
Sol. To evaluate , we rst of all nd and
dx dt dt Dierentiating this expression (I) again w.r.t. x , we get

dy d dy d
= a sin t 3y 2 − 3x2 + 3x2 − 6xy = 0
dt dx dx dx
dx d dy d2 y d
= a (1 − cos t) ⇒ 3y 2 − 3x2 . + 3y 2 − 3x2 2
+ 3x2 − 6xy = 0
dt dx dx dx dx
d2 y

dy dy
dy a sin t sin t ⇒ 6y − 6x . + 3y 2 − 3x2 +
⇒ = = dx2
dx a (1 − cos t) 1 − cos t dx dx
dy
6x − 6y − 6x =0
dy dx
Q: Find if x = ekt and y = e−kt 2
d2 y
dx dy dy
⇒ 6y − 12x. + (6x − 6y) + 3y 2 − 3x2 =0
dy dy dx dx dx dx2
Sol. To evaluate , we rst of all nd and
2
dy dy
dx dt dt 6y − 12x. + (6x − 6y)
d2 y dx dx
dy ⇒ 2 =−
= e−kt (−k) dx 3y 2 − 3x2
dt
6xy − 3x2
2
6xy − 3x2

dx 6y − 12x. + (6x − 6y)
= ekt (k) d2 y 3y 2 − 3x2 3y 2 − 3x2
dt ⇒ 2 =−
dx 3y 2 − 3x2
dy e−kt (−k)
⇒ = = −e−2kt
dx ekt (k) d3 y
Q: Find if x and y are expressed parametrically as x = e−t
dx3
Q: If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations and y = t3 .
given in Exercises , without eliminating the parameter, Find
dy dy dx
. Sol. We rst of all nd and
dx dt dt

dy dx d
= 3t2 and = −e−t Q: If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that (u.v.w) =
dt dt dx
dy 3t2 du dv dw
⇒ = − −t = −3et t2 .v.w + u. .w + u.v. by use of logarithmic dierenti-
dx e dx dx dx
ation.
d2 y

d dy dt d dt
⇒ 2 = . = −3et t2 .
dx dt dx dx dt dx
d
d2 y −3et t2
⇒ 2 = dt
dx dx
dt
t 2

2
d y −3 e t + 2tet
⇒ 2 = −t
= 3e2t t2 + 2t
dx −e
Proceeding furthur in a similar manner
d2 y

d
d3 y dx2 dt
=
dx3 dx
dt
d
d3 y 3e2t t2 + 2t
⇒ 3 = dt

−t
= −6e3t t2 + 3t + 1
dx −e
d2 y
Q: If y = 5 cos x3 sin x, prove that +y =0
dx2
Q: If y = 3 cos (ln x) + 4 sin (ln x) , show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
1.12 Logarithmic Dierentia-

tion(Revisiting Logarithms)
Let us rst learn the basic denition of logarithms. First of all
, we have a exponential equation of the form aα = b . This
equation can be written in the logarithmic form as α = loga b.
So, we understand that logarithms is just another way of writing
an equation which has exponents involved in it.
Logarithms have few basic properties :
log a p=
logb p
logb a
(Base Change Formula)
log a pq = loga p + loga q
loga pn = n loga p
Now suppose, we have a function of the form, y = f (x) =
v(x)
[u (x)] .
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten
as
ln y = v (x) ln [u (x)]
Using chain rule we may dierentiate this to get
1 dy 1 0 0
. = v (x) . .u (x) + v (x) ln [u (x)]
y dx u (x)
The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x) and
u(x) must always be positive as otherwise their logarithms are
not dened.
Q: Dierentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

s
(x − 3) x2 + 8
a) f (x) =
x2 + 3x + 4
b) f (x) = xsin x , x > 0
c) f (x) = cos x. cos 2x. cos 3x
cos x
d) f (x) = (ln x)
x
e) f (x) = (ln x) + xln x
x √
f) f (x) = (sin x) + sin−1 x
dy
Q: Find
x y
, if y + x + x
x
= ab . [Hint: Take u = yx ,
dx
v = xy ,w = xx ]

Chapter 2
Limits
Before we get our hands dirty with the real stu, let's try some ax2 + bx + c
k) lim , a + b + c 6= 0
easy limit's to get the idea as to what we are going to learn in x→1 cx2 + bx + a
this chapter. 1 1
+
Example Find the limits: x 2
l) lim
(i) lim x3 − x2 + 1 x→−2 x + 2
x→1
(ii) lim x (x + 1) sin ax
x→3 m) lim
x→0 bx
(iii) lim 1 + x + x2 + .......... + x10
x→−1 sin ax
3
x − 4x2 + 4x
0 n) lim a, b 6= 0
00 x→0 sin bx
(iv) lim [ form ] [Introduction to L' Hos-
x→2 x2 − 4 0 sin (π − x)
o) lim
pital Rule ] x→π π (π − x)

x−2 1 cos x
(v) lim − 3 p) lim
x→1 x − x x − 3x2 + 2x
2
x→0 (π − x)
Rule(1) For any positive integer n , cos (2x − 1)

q) lim
xn − an x→0 cos (x − 1)
lim = nan−1
x→a x − a ax + x cos x
r) lim
Example Find the limits: x→0 b sin x
x15 − 1 s) lim x sec x
a) lim10
x→0
√ −1
x→1 x
sin ax + bx
1+x−1 t) lim a, b, a + b 6= 0
b) lim x→0 ax + sin bx
x→0 x
u) lim (cosecx − cot x)
Rule(2) The following are two important limits x→0
sin x tan 2x
v) lim
i) lim
x→0 x
=1 π x− π
x→
2 2
1 − cos x
ii) lim =0
x→0 x Q: Find lim f (x) and lim f (x) , where f (x) =
( x→0 x→1
Example Find the limits:
2x + 3, x≤0
sin 4x
a) lim 3 (x + 1) , x > 0
x→0 sin 2x
tan x
b) lim
(
x→0 x x2 − 1, x≤1
Q: Find lim f (x) , where f (x) = 2
Q: Evaluate the following limits :
x→1 −x − 1, x > 1
a) lim (x + 3)

x→3  |x|
, x 6= 0

22
Q: Evaluate lim f (x), where f (x) = x
x→0
b) lim x − 0, x=0
x→π 7
x
c) limπr2  , x 6= 0
r→1
Q: Evaluate lim f (x), where f (x) = |x|
4x + 3 x→0 0, x=0
d) lim
x→4 x−2
x10 + x5 + 1 Q: Find lim f (x) , where f (x) = |x| − 5
x→5
e) lim
x→−1 x−1 
(x + 1) − 1
5 a + bx, x < 1

f) lim Q: Suppose f (x) = 4, x=1
x→0 x 
b − ax, x > 1

3x2 − x − 10
g) lim
x→2 x2 − 4 and if lim f (x) = f (1) , what are possible values of a and b?
x→1
x4 − 81
h) lim
2
x→3 2x − 5x − 3
Q: If a1 , a2 , ........, an be xed real numbers and dene a function
i) lim
ax + b f (x) = (x − a1 ) (x − a2 ) ...... (x − an ).
x→0 cx + 1
1 What is lim f (x) ? For some a 6= a1 , a2 , ........an , compute
z3 − 1 x→a1
j) lim 1 lim f (x).
z→1 z 6 −1 x→a

14 CHAPTER 2. LIMITS
4y

|x| + 1, x < 0
 a) For the rst 2 sec : =
Q: If f (x) = 0, x = 0. 4t
1 1
× 9.8 × 22 − × 9.8 × 02

|x| − 1, x > 0

2 2 = 9.8m/s
For what value(s) of a does lim f (x) exists ?
2−0
x→a
4y
f (x) − 2 b) From sec 1 to sec 2 : =
Q: If the function f (x) satises lim = π , evaluate 4t
x→1 x2 − 1 1 1
lim f (x). × 9.8 × 22 − × 9.8 × 12
x→1 2 2 = 14.7m/s
 2−1
2
mx + n, x < 0

Q: If f (x) = nx + m, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 . For what integers m and

 3
nx + m, x > 1
n does both lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist ?
x→0 x→1
2.1 Rate of Change and Limits

2.1.1 Average Rate of Change and Secant
Lines
Given an arbitrary function y = f (x), we calculate the average
rate of change of y x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] by dividing
w.r.t.
the change in the value of y , 4y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ), by the length
4x = x2 − x1 = h of the interval over which the change occurs. So, it is clear that if we set to = 1 , the value of average
speed gets closer to 9.8 m/s as we reduce the magnitude
Denition: Average rate of change over an Interval. 4y
of h. Let's expand the R.H.S. of for to = 1 .
The average rate of change of y = f (x) w.r.t. x over the interval 4t
4y f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) We have,
[x1 , x2 ] is =
4x x2 − x1
Geometrically, the rate of change of f over [x1 , x2 ] is the slope 4y 4.9 t2o + 2to h + h2 − 4.9t2o
= = 9.8 + 4.9h
of the line through the points P(x1 , f (x1 )) and Q(x2 , f (x2 )). In 4t h
geometry, a line joining two points of a curve is a secant to the
curve. Thus , the average rate of change of f from x1 to x2 is
So, we see that as h becomes smaller , the average speed
aproaches its limiting value.
identical with the slope of secant PQ.
[ The limiting case of average value gives the deriva-

tive . This method is called the First Principle of
Dierentiation ]
Example-2 The Average Growth Rate of a Laboratory Popu-

lation
(a) Figure shows how a population of fruit ies (Drosophila)

grew in a 50-day experiment. The number of ies was counted
at regular intervals, the counted values plotted with respect to
time, and the points joined by a smooth curve (colored blue in
Figure ). Find the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45.
2.1.2 Average and Instantaneous Speed

A moving body's average speed is found by dividing the distance
covered by the time elapsed.
Example-1: Finding an Average Speed
A rock breaks loose from the top of a tall cli. What is it's
average speed
a) during the rst 2 sec of fall.
b) during the 1-sec interval between second 1 and second 2.
(b) The Growth Rate on Day 23
Sol. The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is Sol: To answer this question, we examine the average rates of
the change in distance, 4y , divided by the length of the time change over increasingly short time intervals starting at day 23.
interval, 4t. (For our convenience , we take the y coordinate In geometric terms, we nd these rates by calculating the slopes
axis in the negative direction , taking the y coordinate as of secants from P to Q, for a sequence of points Q approaching
zero, when t=0 ) P along the curve (Figure ).

2.1. RATE OF CHANGE AND LIMITS 15
though f (1) is not dened, It is clear , that we can make the

value of f (x) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough
to 1.
The values in the table show that the secant slopes rise from
8.6 to 16.4 as the t-coordinate of Q decreases from 45 to 30, and
we would expect the slopes to rise slightly higher as t continued
on toward 23. Geometrically, the secants rotate about P and
seem to approach the red line in the gure, a line that goes
through P in the same direction that the curve goes through P.
We will see that this line is called the tangent to the curve at
P. Since the line appears to pass through the points (14, 0) and a
(35, 350), it has slope We say that f(x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and
350 − 0 we write
= 16.7 ies/day (approximately)
35 − 14 x2 − 1
On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about lim f (x) = 2 , or lim =2
x→1 x→1 x − 1
16.7 ies day. Note: The limit does not depend on how the function is dened
at xo . It would be clear through the following example.
Example-3 : A point moves rectilinearly in one direction. Fig.
Example:
shows
limf (x) = 2
x→1
even though f is not dened at x=1
the distance s traversed by the point as a function of the time t.

Using the plot nd:
limg (x) = 2
x→1
even though g (x) = 1 at x=1
(a) the average speed of the point during the time of motion;
(b) the maximum speed;
limh (x) = 2
x→1
also h (x) = 2 at x = 1 . So , h (x) is the only
(c) the time moment to at which the instantaneous speed is function for which the limit and the value of the function
equal to the mean speed averaged over the rst to seconds. are same.
2.1.3 Behaviour of a function near a point Exercise

x2 − 1 Q1: For the function g(x) graphed here, nd the following limits
Let's look at the behaviour of a function f (x) = near
or explain why they do not exist.
x−1
the point x = 1.
a) lim g (x)
The given formula denes f for all real numbers except x=1 x→1
( we cannot divide by zero). For any x 6= 1 , we can simplify b) lim g (x)
the formula by factoring the numerator and canceling common x→2
factors: c) lim g (x)

(x − 1) (x + 1) x→3
f (x) = =x+1 for x 6= 1.
x−1
Q2
: For the function (t) graphed here, nd the following limits
or explain why they do not exist.
a) lim f (t)
x→−2
b) lim f (t)
x→−1
The graph of f is thus the line y = x+1 with the point (1, 2)
removed. This removed point is shown as a hole in gure. Even c) lim f (t)
x→0

6. Power Rule : If r and s are integers with no common factor

r/s
and s 6= 0 , lim (f (x))
then = Lr/s provided that Lr/s is
x→c
a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L > 0 ) i.e. The
limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the
limit of the function, provided the latter is a real number.
2.2.2 The Sandwich Theorem

Suppose that g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h (x) for all x in some open interval
containing c, except possibly at x = c itself. Suppose also that
Q3: The accompanying gure shows the plot of distance fallen lim g (x) = lim h (x) = L . Then lim f (x) = L .
x→c x→c x→c
versus time for an object that fell from the lunar landing
module a distance 80 m to the surface of the moon.
a. Estimate the slopes of the secants P Q1 , P Q2 , P Q3 and

P Q4 and arranging them in a table.
b. About how fast was the object going when it hit the
surface?
x2 x2
Example: Given that 1− ≤ u (x) ≤ 1 + for all x 6= 0
4 2
nd lim u (x) , no matter how complicated u is.
x→0
Q4: Find the average rate of change of the function over the
given intervals.
(x) = x 3
+1
a) [2,3]
b) [-1,1]
Explore the rate of change of function for a very small in-

terval close to x = 1.
2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Application

sin θ
Laws
: To prove that lim = 1 , θ in radians by
x→0 θ
using the identity sin θ < θ < tan θ
2.2.1 Limit Laws
If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M , then
x→c x→c
1. The Sum Rule : lim (f (x) + g (x)) = L+M . i.e. The limit
x→c
of sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
2. Dierence Rule : lim (f (x) − g (x)) = L − M . i.e. The

x→c
limit of the dierence of two functions is the dierence of
their limits.
3. Product Rule : lim (f (x) .g (x)) = L.M i.e. The limit of a

x→c
product of two functions is the product of their limits.
4. Constant Multiple Rule : lim (k.f (x)) = k.L .i.e. The limit
x→c
of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit
of the function.

f (x) L
5. Quotient Rule : lim = , M 6= 0 .i.e. The limit
x→c g (x) M
of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, Proof The plan is to show that the right-hand and left-hand
provided the limit of the denominator is not zero. limits are both 1. Then we will know that the two-sided

2.4. LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE 17
limit is 1 as well. To show that the right-hand limit is 1, we 2.3.1 The Epsilon-Delta Denition

π
begin with positive values of less than . Notice that
Denition

2 Let (x) be dened on an open interval about x0
Area 4OAP < Area sector OAP < Area 4OAT . except possibly at x0 itself. We say that the limit of (x) as
x approaches x0 is the number L, and write lim f (x) = L if,
We can express these areas in terms of θ as follows: x→x0
1 1 for every number > 0 there exists a corresponding number
Area 4OAP = * base * height = sin θ δ > 0 such that for all x, 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < .
2 2
1 2 θ One way to think about the denition is to suppose we are ma-
Area sector OAP = r θ =
2 2 chining a generator shaft to a close tolerance. We may try for
1

diameter L, but since nothing is perfect, we must be satised
Area 4OAT = tan θ
2 with a diameter (x) somewhere between L− and L+ . The
1 θ 1 δ is the measure of how accurate our control setting for x must
Thus , sin θ < < tan θ be to guarantee this degree of accuracy in the diameter of the
2 2 2
This last inequality goes the same way if we divide all three shaft. Notice that as the tolerance for error becomes stricter, we
1 π may have to adjust δ. That is, the value of how tight our control
terms by the number ( sin θ ) which is positive since 0 < θ <
2 2 setting must be, depends on the value of the error tolerance.
. √
θ 1 Example : For the limit lim x − 1 = 2 , nd a δ > 0 that
1< < . x→5
sin θ cos θ works for = 1 . √
That is , nd a δ > 0 such that for all x ,
Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities:
sin θ 0 < |x − 5| < δ ⇒ x − 1 − 2 < 1 .
1> > cos θ Example : Prove that lim f (x) = 4 if f (x) =
θ x→2
Since, lim cos θ = 1 , the sandwich theorm gives
(
x→0+ x2 , x 6= 2
sin θ
lim+ =1 1 , x=2
x→0 θ
Recall that sin θ and θ are both odd functions . Therefore,
f (θ) =
(sin θ)
is an even function, with a graph symmetric
2.4 Limit of a sequence
θ
about the y-axis . This symmetry implies that the left-hand Q: Find lim xn if
x→∞
limit at 0 exists and has the same value as the right-hand limit:
sin θ sin θ sin θ 3n2 + 5n + 4
lim = 1 = lim . So, lim =1 a) xn =
θ→0− θ θ→0 + θ θ→0 θ 2 + n2
5n + 2n2 − 3n + 7
3
2.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit b) xn =

4n3 − 2n + 11
1 + 2 + 3........ + n
Now that we have gained some insight into the limit concept, c) xn =
n2
working intuitively with the informal denition, we turn our at- 2 3
3n + n − 2
tention to its precise denition. We replace vague phrases like d) xn =
gets arbitrarily close to in the informal denition with specic
4n2 + 2n + 7
2n3 + 2n2 + 1

conditions that can be applied to any particular example. With
e) xn =
a precise denition we will be able to prove conclusively the limit 4n3 + 7n2 + 3n + 4
properties given in the preceding section, and we can establish
2n3 1 − 5n2

Q: Find lim
(x)
other particular limits important to the study of calculus. To + .
x→∞ 2n2 + 3 5n + 1
x → x0 equals the number L, we

showthat the limit of as
need to showthat the gap between (x) and L can be made as Q: Find lim xn if
x→∞
(x)
small as we choose if x is kept close enough to Let us see what √ √
this would require if we specied the size of the gap between a) xn = 2n + 3 − n − 1
√ √
and L. b) xn = n2 + n + 1 − n2 − n + 1
√
Example 2

: Consider the function y = 2x − 1 near x0 = 4. c) xn = n n − n2 + 1
√
Intuitively it is clear that y is close to 7 when x is close to d) xn =
3
n2 − n3 + n
4, so lim (2x − 1) = 7. However, how close to does x have √ √
x→4 n2 + 1 + n
to be so that diers from 7 by, say, less than 2 units? e) xn = √ 4 √
n3 + n − n
q q
3 2 3 2
f ) xn = (n + 1) − (n − 1)
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 + ......... − 2n
g) xn = √ √
n2 + 1 + 4n2 − 1
1 1 1 1
h) xn = + + + .............. +
1.2 2.3 3.4 n (n + 1)
2.5 Some important Techniques

x 1
1
Rule(1) lim 1+ α
= lim (1 + α) = e = 2.71828......
x→∞ x α→0
ln (1 + x)
Rule(2) lim = 1 [L' Hospital]
x→0 x
ax − 1
Rule(3) lim = ln a (a > 0)
x→0 x

2.5.1 Exercises Q: Find the limits:
Q: Find the limits:

1 − cos x
a) lim
x→0 x2
4x5 + 9x + 7
a) lim tan x − sin x
x→1 3x6 + x3 + 1 b) lim
x→0 x3
x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 2
b) lim cos (πx/2)
x→2 x3 − x − 6 c) lim
x→1 1−x
x+1
c) lim √
x→−1 6x2 + 3 + 3x Q: Find the limits:
xp − 1
7x
1
d) lim (given that p and q integers) a) lim 1+
x→1 xq − 1 x→∞ x
√
9 + 5x + 4x2 − 3 1
e) lim
x→0 x b) lim (1 + x) 3x
√
3
x→0
10 − x − 2 x
f ) lim

x→2 x−2 x
c) lim
√ √ x→∞ 1 + x
x + 7 − 3 2x − 3
g) lim √ √ mx
x→2 3 x + 6 − 2 3 3x − 5 k
d) lim 1+
x→∞ x
x−3
h) lim loga √
x→3 x+6−3 ln (1 + x)
e) lim
x→0 3x − 1
x3 − x2 − x + 1
i) lim e4x − 1
x→1 x3 − 3x + 2
√ √ f) lim
x→0 tan x
x + 8 − 8x + 1
j) lim √ √ ln (a + x) − ln a
x→1 5 − x − 7x − 3 g) lim
x→0 x
Q: Find the limits: ex − e−x
3 2
h) lim
x x x→0 sin x
a) lim −
x→∞ 3x2 − 4 3x + 2 ln x − 1
√ i) lim
x→e x − e
b) lim 9x2 + 1 − 3x
x→+∞
√ √ √
c)
2 x+33x+55x
lim √ √
x→+∞ 3x − 2 + 3 2x − 3
2.6 Limits using Series expansion
d) lim
√
x→−∞
2x2 − 3 − 5x

2.6.1 Some important Series
√ x x2 x3
1) ex = 1 +

e) lim x x2 + 1 − x + + + ...........................
x→+∞ 1! 2! 3!
√
2x2 + 3
f ) lim x x2 x3
x→+∞ 4x + 2 2) e−x = 1 − + − + ...........................
√ 1! 2! 3!
2x2 + 3
f.1) lim 2 3
x→−∞ 4x + 2 (loga) x (loga) x2 (loga) x3
3) ax = 1 + + + + ...........
1! 2! 3!
g) lim 52x/(x+3)
x→∞
x2 x3
Q: Find the limits: 4) log (1 + x) = x − + − ...............
2 3
2x − 2
a) lim √ x2 x3
5) log(1 − x) = −x −
3
x→1 26 + x − 3 − − ...............
2 3
x+1
b) lim √
x→−1 4 x + 17 − 2 x3 x5
√ 6) sin x = x − + − ..................
1+ 3x 3! 5!
c) lim √
x→−1 1 + 5 x
x2 x4
√
k
1+x−1
7) cos x = 1 − + + ................
2! 4!
d) lim ( k positive integer )
x→0 x
x3 2x5
π 8) tan x = x −

sin x − + − ............
6 3 15
e) lim √
π 3 − 2 cos x
x→ x3 9x5
6 9) sin−1 x = x + + + ..........
cos x 3! 5!
f ) lim q
π 3 2 x3 x5 x7
x→ (1 − sin x) 10) tan−1 x = x − + − .................
2 3 5 7
2 sin2 x + sin x − 1
g) lim x2
x→
π 2 sin2 x − 3 sin x + 1 11) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n(n − 1) + .........
6 2!

2.6. LIMITS USING SERIES EXPANSION 19
2.6.2 Exercises
Q: With the aid of the principle of substitution of equivalent
quantities nd the limits:
sin 5x
a) lim
x→0 ln (1 + 4x)
1 − cos x
b) lim x
x→0
1 − cos
2
ln cos x
c) lim √
x→0 4 1 + x2 − 1
√
1 + x + x2 − 1
d) lim
x→0 sin 4x
2 2
sin 2x + sin−1 x − tan−1 x
e) lim
x→0 3x
3 sin x − x2 + x3
f ) lim
x→0 tan x + 2 sin2 x + 5x4
2 4
(sin x − tan x) + (1 − cos 2x) + x5
g) lim
x→0 7 tan7 x + sin6 x + 2 sin5 x
√
sin 3 x ln (1 + 3x)
h) lim √ √
x→0 tan−1 x 2 e5 3 x − 1

1 − cos x + 2 sin x − sin3 x − x2 + 3x4

i) lim
x→0 tan3 x − 6 sin2 x + x − 5x3
sin 3x
j) lim
x→0 ln (1 + 5x)
ln (1 + sin 4x)
k) lim
x→0 esin 5x − 1
esin 3x − 1
l) lim
x→0 ln (1 + tan 2x)
tan−1 3x
m) lim
x→0 sin−1 2x
ln (2 − cos 2x)
n) lim
x→0 ln2 (1 + sin 3x)
√
1 + sin 3x − 1
o) lim
x→0 ln (1 + tan 2x)

ln 1 + 2x − 3x2 + 4x3
p) lim
x→0 ln (1 − x + 2x2 − 7x3 )
√
1 + x2 − 1
q) lim
x→0 1 − cos x


Chapter 3
Application of Derivatives
3.1 Rate of Change decreasing when the foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the
wall ?
Example 1: Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per
second with respect to its radius r when r = 5 cm. Q11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 + 2. Find the
Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of points on the curve at which the y-coordinate is changing 8
9 cubic centimetres per second. How fast is the surface area times as fast as the x-coordinate.
increasing when the length of an edge is 10 centimetres ?

Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves
Q12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of 1/2
cm/s. At what rate is the volume of the bubble increasing
move in circles at a speed of 4cm per second. At the instant,
when the radius is 1 cm?
when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how fast is the
enclosed area increasing? Q13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable
Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the 3
rate of 3 cm/minute and the width y is increasing at the rate
diameter (2x + 1) . Find the rate of change of its volume
2
of 2cm/minute. When x =10cm and y = 6cm, nd the rates of with respect to x.
change of (a) the perimeter and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Q14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3 /s. The
falling sand forms a cone on the ground in such a way that
3.1.1 Solve the exercise below: the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the radius of
Q1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect
the base. How fast is the height of the sand cone increasing
when the height is 4 cm?
to its radius r when (a) r = 3 cm (b) r = 4 cm
Q2.
3.2 Increasing and Decreasing Func-
The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s.
How fast is the surface area increasing when the length of
an edge is 12 cm?
tions
Q3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate
Denition 1: Let I be an open interval contained in the domain
of 3 cm/s. Find the rate at which the area of the circle is
of a real valued function f. Then f is said to be
increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) for all x1 ,
Q4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 x2 I.
cm/s. How fast is the volume of the cube increasing when (ii) strictly increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
the edge is 10 cm long? for all x1 , x2 I.
(iii) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) for all
Q5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in x1 , x2 I.
circles at the speed of 5 cm/s. At the instant when the (iv) strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is the enclosed for all x1 , x2 I.
area increasing?
Q6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s.

What is the rate of increase of its circumference?
Q7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5

cm/minute and the width y is increasing at the rate of 4
cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, nd the rates of
change of (a) the perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectan-
gle.
Q8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on ination, is

being inated by pumping in 900 cubic centimetres of gas
per second. Find the rate at which the radius of the balloon
increases when the radius is 15 cm.
Q9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable

radius. Find the rate at which its volume is increasing with
Denition 2[Which we will use in practrice] : Let f be con-
the radius when the later is 10 cm.
tinuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on the open interval (a,b).
Q10.
´
A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of Then
f (x) > 0 for each x (a, b)
´
the ladder is pulled along the ground, away from the wall, (a) f is increasing in [a,b] if
at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height on the wall (b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f (x) < 0 for each x (a, b)

22 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if ´

f (x) = 0 for each x Note If a tangent line to the curve y = f (x) makes an angle θ
dy
´
(a, b)
with x-axis in the positive direction, then = slope of the
Remark : (i) f is strictly increasing in (a, b) if f (x) > 0 for dx
tangent = tan θ .
´
each x (a, b)
(ii) f is strictly decreasing in (a, b) if f (x) < 0 for each x (a,
Particular cases
b)
(i) If slope of the tangent line is zero, then tan θ = 0 and
(iii) A function will be increasing (decreasing) in R if it is so
so θ = 0 which means the tangent line is parallel to the x-axis.
in every interval of R.
In this case, the equation of the tangent at the point (x0 , y0 ) is
Example 1: Find the intervals in which the function f given by
given by y = y0 .
f (x) = x2 4x + 6 is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing
Example 2: Find the intervals in which the function f given
(ii) If θ π
2
, then tan θ ∞ , which means the tangent line
by f (x) = 4x3 6x2 72x + 30 is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly is perpendicular to the x-axis, i.e., parallel to the y-axis. In this
decreasing. case, the equation of the tangent at (x0 , y0 ) is given by x = x0

Example 1 Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 x
at x = 2.
3.2.1 Exercise
==
Example 2 Find the point at which the tangent to the curve
√
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is strictly
y= 4x 3 1 has its slope 2/3 .
increasing on R. Example 3 Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 and
2
being tangent to the curve =0. y+
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is strictly in- x−3
creasing on R. x2 y 2
Example 4 Find points on the curve + = 1 at which the
4 25
3. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = tangents are (i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.
2
2x 3x is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly decreasing Example 5 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y=
x−7
at the point where it cuts the x-axis.
4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = (x − 2) (x − 3)
2x3 3x2 36x + 7 is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly de- Example 6 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to
creasing
2 2
the curve x3 + y3 = 2 at (1, 1).
5. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly Example 7 Find the equation of tangent to the curve given by
increasing or decreasing: (a) x2 + 2x5 (b) 106x2x2 (c)
π
x = a sin3 t, y = b cos3 t at a point where t= .
3
2x 9x 12x
2
+1 (d) 69xx (e) (x + 1)3 (x3)3
2 2
6. Show that y = log (1 + x) −

2x
, x > −1 is an increasing 3.3.1 Exercise
2+x
function of x throughout its domain. 1. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 3x4 4x at x =
4.
7. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x2)]2 is an increasing
2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y =
x−1
,
function. x−2
x 6= 2 at x = 10.
3. Find the slope of the tangent to curve y = x3 x + 1 at the
3.3 Tangents and Normals point whose x-coordinate is 2.

4. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 3x + 2
Recall that the equation of a straight line passing through a given at the point whose x-coordinate is 3.
point (x0 , y0 ) having nite slope m is given by y y0 = m(xx0 ). 5. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x = a cos3 θ ,
Note that the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) y = a sin3 θ at θ = π
4
=

dy
at the point (x0 , y0 ) is given by . So the equa- 6. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x = 1 a sin θ,
dx π
(xo ,yo )
y = b cos2 θ at θ=
´
tion of the tangent at (xo , yo ) to the curve y = f (x) is given 2
7. Find points at which the tangent to the curve y =
byy y0 = f (x0 )(xx0 ) . Also, since the normal is perpendicu-
3 2
lar to the tangent, the slope of the normal to the curve y = f (x)
x 3x 9x + 7 is parallel to the x-axis.
´
2
−1 8. Find a point on the curve y = (x2) at which the tangent
at (x0 , y0 ) is , if f (x0 ) 6= 0 . Therefore, the equa-
f 0 (x0 ) is parallel to the chord joining the points (2, 0) and (4, 4).
3
tion of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x0 , y0 ) is given by 9. Find the point on the curve y = x 11x + 5 at which the
y y0 = 0
−1
f (x0 )
= ´
(x − x0 ) i.e. (y y0 )f (x0 ) + (x x0 ) = 0 . =
tangent is y = x11.
10. Find the equation of all lines having slope 1 that are
1
tangents to the curve y = , x 6= 1.
x−1
11. Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 which are
1
tangents to the curve y= , x 6= 3.
x−3
12. Find the equations of all lines having slope 0 which are
1
tangent to the curve y= .
x2 − 2x + 3
x2 y 2
13. Find points on the curve + = 1 at which the tangents
9 16
are (i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis.
14. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the given
y = x4 6x3 + 13x2 10x + 5 at
curves at the indicated points: (i)
4 3 2 3
(0, 5) (ii)y = x 6x + 13x 10x + 5 at (1, 3) (iii) y = x at (1,
2 π
1) (iv) y = x at (0, 0) (v) x = cos t , y = sin t at t = .
4

3.5. MAXIMA AND MINIMA 23
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = the horizontal distance from the building and h(x) is the height
x2 2x + 7 which is (a) parallel to the line 2xy + 9 = 0 (b) of the ball . What is the maximum height the ball will reach?
perpendicular to the line 5y 15x = 13 .
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is ying along the path
16. Show that the tangents to the curve y = 7x3 + 11 at the
given by the curve f (x) = x2 + 7. A soldier, placed at the point
points where x=2 and x = 2 are parallel.
(1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter when it is nearest to him.
17. Find the points on the curve y = x3 at which the slope of
What is the nearest distance?
the tangent is equal to the y-coordinate of the point.
18. For the curve y = 4x3 2x5 , nd all the points at which In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e.,
the tangent passes through the origin. we wish to nd out the maximum or minimum values of the given
19. Find the points on the curve x2 + y 2 2x3 = 0 at which functions. In order to tackle such problems, we rst formally
the tangents are parallel to the x-axis. dene maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local
2
20. Find the equation of the normal at the point (am , am3 ) maxima and minima and test for determining such points.
for the curve ay 2 = x3 .

21. Find the equation of the normals to the curve y = x3 +
2x + 6 which are parallel to the line x + 14y + 4 = 0. Denition Let f be a function dened on an interval I. Then
22. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the

parabola y 2 = 4ax at the point (at
2
, 2at). (a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a
23. Prove that the curves x = y 2 and xy = k cut at right point c in I such that f (c) > f (x) , for all xI .
angles if 8k 2 = 1.
24. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the hy- The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and
x2 y2 the point c is called a point of maximum value of f in I.
perbola − =1 at the point (x0 , y0 ).
a2 b2 √
=
=
25. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y= 3x 2
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a
which is parallel to the line 4x 2y + 5 = 0 .
point c in I such that f (c) < f (x), for all xI .
3.4 Approximations The numberf (c), in this case, is called the minimum value
of f in I and the point c, in this case, is called a point of
Let Δx denote a small increment in x. Recall that the increment minimum value of f in I.
in y corresponding to the increment in x, denoted by Δy, is given
by Δy = f (x + Δx)f (x). We dene the following (c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a
(i) The dierential of x, denoted by dx, is dened by dx = Δx. point c in I such that f (c) is either a maximum value or a
(ii) The dierential of y, denoted by dy, is dened by dy = minimum value of f in I. The number f (c), in this case, is
´
f (x)dx or dy =
dy
dx
4x . called an extreme value of f in I and the point c is called an
extreme point.
Denition1[ First Derivative Test ] Let f be a function dened

on an open interval I. Let f be continuous at a critical point
c in I. Then
´
´
(i) If f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x in-
´
creases through c, i.e., if f (x) > 0 at every point suciently
close to and to the left of c, and f (x) < 0 at every point
suciently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point
of local maxima.
In case dx = Δx is relatively small when compared with x, dy

is a good approximation of Δy and we denote it by dy
√ ≈ Δy.
Example 1 : Use dierential to approximate 36.6 .
1
Example 2 : Use dierential to approximate (25) 3
Example 3: If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 cm
with an error of 0.03 cm, then nd the approximate error in
calculating its volume.
3.5 Maxima and Minima ´

´
(ii) If f (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x in-
´
creases through c, i.e., if f (x) < 0 at every point suciently
Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day
close to and to the left of c, and f (x) > 0 at every point
life.
suciently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point
(i) The prot from a grove of orange trees is given by P (x) =
of local minima.
ax + bx2 , where a,b are constants and x is the number of orange
trees per acre. How many trees per acre will maximise the prot?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high,
(iii) If ´
f (x) does not change sign as x increases through c,
2 then c is neither a point of local maxima nor a point of local
x
travels along a path given by h (x) = 60 + x − , where x is minima. Infact, such a point is called point of inection.
60

24 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
9. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given

volume of 100 cubic centimetres, nd the dimensions of the
can which has the minimum surface area?
10. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of

the pieces is to be made into a square and the other into a
circle. What should be the length of the two pieces so that
the combined area of the square and the circle is minimum?
11. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be in-
scribed in a sphere of radius R is 8/27 of the volume of the
sphere.
12. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and
√
given volume has an altitude equal to 2 time the radius of
the base.
13. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maxi-
√
Denition2 [Second Derivative Test] Let f be a function dened mum volume and of given slant height is tan=1 2 .
on an interval I and c in I. Let f be twice dierentiable at c.
Then
14. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given
´

−1 1
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f (c) = 0 and f (c) < surface area and maximum volume is sin
3
0 The value f (c) is local maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ´(c) = 0 and f (c) >

0 In this case, f (c) is local minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if ´

f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0. In this case,
we go back to the rst derivative test and nd whether c is a
point of local maxima, local minima or a point of inexion.
Example 1: Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the

sum of whose squares is minimum.
Example 2: Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at points A
and B, respectively. If AP = 16 m, BQ = 22 m and AB = 20
m, then nd the distance of a point R on AB from the point A
such that RP 2 + RQ2 is minimum.
Example 3: If length of three sides of a trapezium other than
base are equal to 10cm, then nd the area of the trapezium when
it is maximum.
Example 4: Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder
of greatest curved surface area which can be inscribed in a given
cone is half of that of the cone.
3.5.1 Exercise
1. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as
large as possible.
2. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and

xy 3 is maximum.
3. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35

and the product x2 y 5 is a maximum.
4. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of

whose cubes is minimum.
5. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a

box without top, by cutting a square from each corner and
folding up the aps to form the box. What should be the
side of the square to be cut o so that the volume of the
box is the maximum possible.
6. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a

box without top, by cutting o square from each corner and
folding up the aps. What should be the side of the square
to be cut o so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
7. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given xed circle,

the square has the maximum area.
8. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and

maximum volume is such that its height is equal to the
diameter of the base.

Chapter 4
Integrals
As earlier, lets do some hands on problems before we get into a) f (x) = 3x2 + 5x + 6
the intricacies of the topic. √ 1
b) f (x) = x+ √
x
4.1 Introduction 3
c) f (x) = 4x −
3
x4
2
When we talk of integral , it may mean either an Indenite In- d) f (x) = ax + bx + c
√
tegral or a Denite Integral. In PHYSICS, we would usually e) f (x) = sin x + cos x + x (1 − x)
be interested in the Denite Integral . Mathematically , integra-
x7 − 7x5 − x
tion is the reverse of dierentiation . i.e. If a function F (x) has f) f (x) = √3
x
a derivative f (x), then F (x) would be one of the possible inte-
grals of f (x) . Now when we say, one of the possible inegrals, g) f (x) = sec x (sec x + tan x)
we may emphasize that all the possible functions F (x) belong h) f (x) = tan2 x
to the same Family of Curves and dier from each other by a 2 − 3 sin x
0
constant only. We would be using a general symbol C0 with the i) f (x) =
cos2 x
function F (x) to imply the whole family of curves which have a
1 1
derivative f (x) . j) f (x) = + + eax
x2 x
1 1
k) f (x) = √ +
4.2 Some basic Integrals 9−x 2 16 + 9x2
´ x dx = nx + 1 + C
n
n+1
, where n is a real number.
4.3 Integration by substitution
´
´ cos xdx = sin x + C
The given integral f (x) dx can be transformed into another
form by changing the independed variable x to t by substituting
´ sin xdx = − cos x + C x = g (t)

Consider F (x) =
´
f (x) dx
´ sec xdx = tan x + C
2 Put x = g (t)so that
dx
dt
= g 0 (t)
´ cosec xdx = − cot x + C

0
We write, dx = g (t)dt .
2 ´ ´
Thus , I = f (x) dx = f (g (t)) g 0 (t)dt
´ sec x. tan xdx = sec x + C This change of variable formula is one of the important tools
available to us in the name of integration by substitution. It is
´ cosecx. cot xdx = −cosecx + C often important to guess what will be the useful substitution.
Usually, we make a substitution for a function whose derivative
´ √1dx− x = sin x + C
also occurs in the integrand.
−1
Example : Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
2
i) sin mx
´ 1 +dxx
2
(ii) 2xsin(x√ + 1)√
2
= tan−1 x + C tan4 x sec2 x
(iii) √
x
´ x√xdx− 1 = sec x + C
2
−1
(iv)
sin tan−1 x
1 + x2
´ e dx = e + C
Some results obtained by the method of substitution
x x
´
i)
´ tanxdx = log|secx| + C
ii)
´ cotxdx = log|sinx| + C
´ x1 dx = ln |x| + C iii)
iv)
´ secxdx = log|secx + tanx| + C
cosecxdx = log|cosecxcotx| + C
´ f (x) dx = F (x) + C
If f (ax + b) dx =
, then
´
F (ax + b) 4.3.1 Exercise
+C
a Q: Find the following integrals:
´ ´ ´
(f (x) ± g (x)) dx = f (x)dx ± g (x) dx + C (i)
´
sin3 x cos2 xdx
´ sin x
Q: Find the antiderivatives of the following functions: (ii)
sin (x + a)
dx

26 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRALS
´ dx sin x
(iii) 30.
1 + tan x 1 + cos x
Q: Integrate the functions in Exercises
31.
sin x
2
2x (1 + cos x)
1.
1 + x2 1
32.
2 1 + cot x
(log x)
2. 1
x 33.
1 − tan x
1
3. √
tan x
x + x log x
34.
sin x cos x
4. sin x sin (cos x)
2
(1 + log x)
5. sin (ax + b) cos (ax + b) 35.
x
√
6. ax + b (x + 1) (x + log x)
2
√ 36.
7. x x + 2 x
√ x sin tan−1 x4
3

8. x 1 + 2x2 37.
√ 1 + x8
9. (4x + 2) x2 + x + 1
1
4.4 Integrals of Some Particular Func-
10. √
x− x tions
x ´

dx 1 x − a
11. √ , x>0 Rule(1) = log
+C
x+4 x2 − a2 2a x + a
1 ´

dx 1 x + a
Rule(2) = log +C
12. x − 1 3 x5
3

a2 − x2 2a x − a
x2 ´ dx 1 −1 x

13. Rule(3) = tan +C
(2 + 3x3 )
3 x2 + a2 a a
´ dx √
Rule(4)

1 √ = log x + x2 − a2 + C
14. m , x>0 2
x −a 2
x (log x)
´ dx x
15.
x Rule(5) √ = sin−1 +C
9 − 4x2 a2 − x2 a
´ dx √
16. e2x+3 Rule(6)

√ = log x + x2 + a2 + C
2
x +a2
x
17.
ex2
−1
4.4.1 Exercise
etan x
18. Q: Find the following integrals:
1 + x2
´ dx
2x a)
e −1 x2 − 16
19. 2x
e +1 ´ dx
b) √
e2x − e−2x 2x − x2
20. ´ dx
e2x + e−2x c)
2
x − 6x + 13
21. tan2 (2x − 3) ´ dx
d)
22. sec2 (7 − 4x) 3x2 + 13x − 10
´ dx
sin−1 x e) √
23. √ 5x2 − 2x
1 − x2
Q: Find the following integrals:
2 cos x − 3 sin x ´
24. (i)
x+2
6 cos x + 4 sin x 2x2 + 6x + 5
1 ´ x+3
25. 2
(ii) √
cos2
x (1 − tan x) 5 − 4x + x2
√
cos x
26. √ 3x2
x a)
√ x6 + 1
27. sin 2x cos 2x 1
b) √
cos x 1 + 4x2
28. √
1 + sin x 1
c) q
29. cot x log sin x 2
(2 − x) + 1

4.6. INTEGRATION BY PARTS 27
1 2x
d) √ 5.
9 − 25x2 x2 + 3x + 2
3x 1 − x2
e)
1 + 2x4 6.
x (1 − 2x)
x2
f) 1
1 − x6 7.
x−1 x4 − 1
g) √
x2 − 1 1
8. [Hint: multiply numerator and denominator by
x2 x (xn + 1)
h) √ xn1 and put xn = t ]
x + a6
6
sec2 x x2
i) √ 9.
tan2 x + 4 (x2 + 1) (x2 + 4)
1 (3 sin x − 2) cos x
j) √
2
x + 2x + 2 10.
5 − cos2 x − 4 sin x
1
4.6 Integration by Parts
k)
9x2 + 6x + 5
´
1 ´ ´ ´ ´
l) √
7 − 6x − x2 Rule(*) f (x)g(x)dx = f (x) g(x)dx [f (x) g(x)dx]dx
m) p
1
(x − 1) (x − 2)
The integral of the product of two functions = (rst function) Ö
Ö
(integral of the second function) Integral of [(dierential coef-
1 cient of the rst function)
´ (integral of the second function)]
n) √
8 + 3x − x2 Example : Find
´ x cos xdx
1 Example : Find
´ logxxdx
o) p Example : Find xe dx
(x − a) (x − b)
´ x sin−1 x
4x + 1 Example : Find √ dx [Hint: Put sin−1 x = θ and
p) √ 1 − x2
2x2 + x − 3 then integrate by parts]
´ x
x+2 Example : Find e sin xdx
q) √
x2 − 1
5x − 2
´
´
Corollary Integral of the type ex [f (x)+f (x)]dx = ex f (x)+C
r)
´ x

1 + 2x + 3x2 1
Example: e tan−1 x + dx
6x + 7 1 + x2
s) p
´ x2 + 1 e x

(x − 5) (x − 4)
Example :
2 dx
x+2 (x + 1)
t) √
4x − x2
x+2 4.6.1 Exercise
u) √
2
x + 2x + 3 1. x sin x
x+3
v)
2
x − 2x − 5
2. x sin 3x
w) √
5x + 3 3. x2 ex
x2 + 4x + 10
4. x log x
4.5 Integration by Partial Fractions 5. x log 2x
We will only be discussing one type , in which concepts of vedic 6. x2 log x
mathematics can be incorporated. Other type of partial fractions
will be discussed in the mathematics course in higher classes.
7. x sin1 x
The technique will be explained with the help of following ex-
8. x tan1 x
amples.
9. x cos1 x
4.5.1 Exercise 10. (sin1 x)2
Integrate the rational functions in Exercises
x cos−1 x
x 11. √
1. 1 − x2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
12. x sec2 x
1
2. 2 13. tan1 x
x −9
3x − 1 14. x(log x)2
3.
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)
15. (x2 + 1) log x
x
4. 16. ex (sin x + cos x)
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)

xex π
17. ´4
(1 + x)
2
d) 0 sin3 2t cos 2tdt
Q:

1 + sin x Evaluate the denite integrals in Exercises .
18. e x
1 + cos x ´1
1. −1
(x + 1) dx
1 1
19. e x
− ´3 1
x x2 2. 2 x
dx
(x − 3) ex ´
20. 3 3. 12 (4x3 5x2 + 6x + 9)dx
(x − 1)
´
21. e2x sin x 4. 45 ex dx

2x π
22. sin −1
´4
1 + x2 5. 0 tan xdx
4.7 Integrals of some more types ´4

π
6. π cosecxdx
´√ x √ a 2 √ 6
Rule(1)

x2 a2 dx = x2 − a2 − log x + x2 − a2 +C
2 2 ´1 dx
´√ x√ 2 a2 √ 7. 0 √
Rule(2) 1 − x2

2 2
x + a dx = x +a + 2 2 2
log x + x + a +
2 2
C ´ dx
8. 01
´√ 1 √ 2 a 2 1 + x2
−1 x
Rule(3) 2 2
a − x dx = x a − x + 2 sin +C
´
2 2 a dx
´√ 9. 23 2
Example : Find x2 + 2x + 5dx x −1
= =
´√ π
Example : Find 3 2x x2 dx ´
10. 2 cos2 xdx 0
´ 3 xdx
1.
√
=
4 x2
11. 2 x2 + 1
2.
√
=
1 4x2 12.
´ 1 2x + 3
0 5x2 + 1
dx
√
3. x2 + 4x + 6 ´
13. 01 xex dx
2
√
4. x2 + 4x + 1
5.
√
= =
1 4x x2 14.
´2
1 x2
5x2
+ 4x + 3
6.
√
x2 + 4x 5 = π
7.
√
1 + 3x x2 = 15.
´4
0

2 sec2 x + x3 + 2 dx
√ ´π 2 x
8. 2 x

x2 + 3x 16. sin − cos dx
0 2 2
r
x2 ´ 2 6x + 3
9. 1+
9 17. 0 x2 + 4
dx
4.8 Denite Integral 18.

´1 x
0
xe + sin
πx
4
dx
´b
f (x) dx
4.9 Some Properties of Denite Inte-
Steps for calculating .
a ´
(i) Find the indenite integral f (x) dx . Let this be
F(x). There is no need to keep integration constant C because
if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get

´b
f (x) dx =
grals
a
b
[F (x) + C]a = [F (b) + C] − [F (a) − C] = F (b) − F (a) . Thus, We list below some important properties of denite integrals.
the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the value of the These will be useful in evaluating the denite integrals more
denite integral. easily.
(ii) Evaluate F (b)F (a) = [F (x)]ba , which is the value of ´b ´b
´b P0 : f (x) dx = f (t) dt
a
f (x) dx . We now consider some examples a a
´b á á
Q: Evaluate the following integrals: P1 :
a
f (x) dx = − b
f (x) dx . In particular,
a
f (x) dx = 0
´3 2 ´b ć ´b
a)
2
x dx P2 : f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
√ a a c
´9 x
b)  dx ´b ´b
4 
3 2 P3 :
a
f (x) dx = a
f (a + b − x) dx
30 − x 2  á á
P4 :
0
f (x) dx = 0
f (a − x) dx (Note that P4 is a particular
case of P3 )
´2 xdx ´ 2a á á
c)
1 (x + 1) (x + 2) P5 :
0
f (x) dx = 0
f (x) dx + 0
f (2a − x) dx

4.10. AREA UNDER THE CURVE 29
4.10 Area under the curve

( á
´ 2a 2 0 f (x) dx, if f (2a − x) = f (x)
P6 : 0 f (x) dx =
0, if f (2a − x) = −f (x)
From Fig , we can think of area under the curve as composed of
´1 á
P7 : (i) −1 f (x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx, if f is an even function i.e. large number of very thin vertical strips. Consider an arbitrary
strip of height y and width dx, then dA (area of the elementary
if f (−x) = f (x)
á strip)= ydx, where, y = f(x).
(ii)
−a
f (x) dx = 0 , if f is an odd function i.e. if f (−x) =
−f (x)
π
´4 2
Example 1 : Evaluate π sin xdx
−
4
´ 1 x sin x
Example 2 : Evaluate
0 2
dx
´ 1 1 + 5cos x4
Example 3 : Evaluate
−1
sin x cos xdx
π
´2 sin4 x
Example 4 : Evaluate 0 dx
sin4 x + cos4 x
π
´3 dx
Example 5 : Evaluate π √
1 + tan x
6
π
´2
Example 6 : Evaluate log sin xdx
0
This area is called the elementary area which is located at an
arbitrary position within the region which is specied by some
4.9.1 Exercise value of x between a and b. We can think of the total area A of
the region between x-axis, ordinates x = a, x = b and the curve
By using the properties of denite integrals, evaluate the inte-
y = f (x) as the result of adding up the elementary areas of thin
grals in Exercises
strips across the region PQRSP. Symbolically, we express
π ´b ´b ´b
´2 A= dA = a ydx = a f (x) dx
1. 0 cos2 xdx a
The area A of the region bounded by the curve x = g (y),
π √ y-axis and the lines y = c, y = d is given by
´2 sin x
2. 0 √ √ dx
sin x + cos x
π 3
´2 sin 2 x
3. 0 3 3
dx
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
π
´2 cos5 xdx
4. 0 5
sin x + cos5 x
´1
5. 0
x (1 − x) dx
n
π
´4
6. 0 log (1 + tan x) dx
´ √
7. 02 x 2 − xdx
x = 3
π ´d ´d
´2 A= c
xdy = c g (y) dy
8. 0 (2 log sin x − log sin 2x) dx Here, we consider horizontal strips as shown in the Fig .
2 2 2
π Example 1 Find the area enclosed by the circle x + y = a .
´2 x2 y2
9. π sin2 xdx Example 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse + 2 =1
− a2 b
2
´
10. 0π
xdx 4.10.1 Exercise
1 + sin x 1. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y 2 = x and
π the lines x = 1, x = 4 and the x-axis.
´2
11. π sin7 xdx
− 2. Find the area of the region bounded by y 2 = 9x, x = 2, x = 4
2 and the x-axis in the rst quadrant.
´ 2π
12. 0 cos5 xdx 3. Find the area of the region bounded by x2 = 4y , y = 2, y = 4
π and the y-axis in the rst quadrant.
´ 2 sin x − cos x
13. 0 dx x2 y 2
1 + sin x cos x 4. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse + =1
´ 16 9
14. 0π log (1 + cos x) dx .
√ x2 y 2
á x
15. 0 √ √ dx 5. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse + =1
x+ a−x 4 9
.

6. Find the area of the region in the rst quadrant enclosed by

√ 4.12.2 Methods of Solving First Order, First
x-axis, line x= 3y and the circle x2 + y 2 = 4. Degree Dierential Equations
7. Find the area of the smaller part of the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 4.12.2.1 Dierential equations with variables separable
a
cut o by the line x= √ . The dierential equation then has the form
2 dy
= h (y) .g (x)
dx
8. The area between x = y2 and x=4 is divided into two equal If h (y) 6= 0, separating the variables, equation can be rewritten
parts by the line x = a, nd the value of a. as
dy
= g(x)dx
9. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y=x 2 h(y)
Integrating both sides , we get
and y=x .
´ dy ´
= g(x)dx
h(y)
10. Find the area bounded by the curve x2 = 4y and the line
x = 4y 2. Example Find the general solution of the dierential equation
dy x+1
= , (y 6= 2)
11. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y 2 = 4x dx 2−y
and the line x = 3.
Example Find the general solution of the dierential equation
dy 1 + y2
=
1 + x2
4.11 Area between Two Curves
dx
Example Find the particular solution of the dierential equa-
For setting up a formula for the integral, it is convenient to take tion

dy
dx
= =4xy 2
given that y = 1, when x = 0.
elementary area in the form of vertical strips. As indicated in
the Fig , elementary strip has height f (x)g(x) and width dx so
that the elementary area
4.12.2.2 Homogeneous dierential equations
dy
To solve a homogeneous dierential equation of the type =
y dx
F (x, y) = g
x
We make the substitution y = v.x
Dierentiating equation with respect to x, we get
dy dv
=v+x
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of from equation , we get
dx
dv
v+x = g(v)
dx
dv
x = g (v) − v
dx
Separating the variables in equation, we get
Example Find the area of the region bounded by the two

dv dx
=
parabolas y=x 2
and
2
y = x. g (v) − v x
Integrating both sides of equation , we get
Example Find the area lying above x-axis and included be-
2 2 2
´ dv ´ dx
tween the circle x + y = 8x and inside of the parabola y = 4x. = +C
g (v) − v x
dy
Example
4.12 Dierential Equations Show that the dierential equation
is homogeneous and solve it.

(xy)
dx
= x + 2y
4.12.1 Formation of a Dierential Equation Example

y dy
whose General Solution is given Show that the dierential equation
y
x cos
x dx
=
y cos +x is homogeneous and solve it.
Example Form the dierential equation representing the family x
of curves y = mx, where, m is arbitrary constant.
4.12.2.3 Linear dierential equations
Example Form the dierential equation representing the fam- dy
A dierential equation of the from + Py = Q where, P and
ily of curves y = a sin (x + b), where a, b are arbitrary dx
constants. Q are constants or functions of x only, is known as a rst order
linear dierential equation. Some examples of the rst order
Example Form the dierential equation representing the family

linear dierential equation are
dy
of ellipses having foci on x-axis and centre at the origin. + y = sin x
dx
dy 1
Example Form the dierential equation of the family of circles +
dx x
y = ex
touching the x-axis at origin.
dy y 1
+ =
dx x log x x
Example Form the dierential equation representing the family Another form of rst order linear dierential equation is
of parabolas having vertex at origin and axis along positive dx
direction of x-axis.
+ P1 x = Q1
dy

4.12. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 31
where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions of y only. Some

examples of this type of dierential equation are
dx
+ x = cos y
dy
dx −2x
+ = y 2 e−y
dy y
dy
(*) Lets consider + Py = Q
dx ´
P dx
The function g(x) = e is called Integrating Factor (I.F.)
of the given dierential equation.
Multiplying g (x) in equation , we get
´ ´ ´
P dx dy P dx P dx
e + Pe y = Qe
dx
Example Find the general solution of the dierential equation
dy
− y = cos x
dx


Chapter 5
Application of Integrals
5.1 Volumes Cavalieri's principle says that solids with equal altitudes and
identical cross-sectional areas at each height have the same vol-
5.1.1 Volumes by Slicing and Rotation About ume . This follows immediately from the denition of volume,
an Axis because the cross-sectional area function A(x) and the interval
[a, b] are the same for both solids.
The volume of a solid of known integrable cross-sectional area

Example 3 : Volume of a Wedge
A(x) from x = a to x = b is the integral of A from a to b,
´b A curved wedge is cut from a cylinder of radius 3 by two
V = A (x) dx
°
a planes. One plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
The second plane crosses the rst plane at a 45 angle at the
center of the cylinder. Find the volume of the wedge.
Example 1 : Volume of a Pyramid

A pyramid 3 m high has a square base that is 3 m on a side.
The cross-section of the pyramid perpendicular to the altitude
x m down from the vertex is a square x m on a side. Find the
volume of the pyramid.
5.1.2 Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method

The solid generated by rotating a plane region about an axis in
its plane is called a solid of revolution. To nd the volume of
a solid like the one shown in Figure, we need only observe that
the cross-sectional area A(x) is the area of a disk of radius R(x),
the distance of the planar region's boundary from the axis of
revolution. The area is then
2 2
A (x) = π (radius) = π [R (x)]
So the denition of volume gives
´b ´b 2
Example 2 : Cavalieri's Principle V = a
A (x) dx = a
π [R (x)] dx

34 CHAPTER 5. APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolu-

tion is often called the disk method because a cross-section is a
circular disk of radius R(x).
Example 4 : A Solid of Revolution (Rotation About the x-

Axis)
√
The region between the curve y= x , 0≤x≤4 , and the
x-axis is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find its
volume.
Example 8 : Rotation About a Vertical Axis

Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
Example 5 : The circle x2 +y 2 = a2 is rotated about the x-axis between the parabola x = y2 + 1 and the line x=3 about the
to generate a sphere. Find its volume. line x = 3.
5.1.3 Solids of Revolution: The Washer

Method
Example 6 : A Solid of Revolution (Rotation About the Line

y=1 )

√
bounded by y= x and the lines y = 1, x = 4 about the line
y = 1.
The cross-sections of the solid of revolution generated here are

´b
washers, not disks, so the integral
a
A (x) dx leads to a slightly
dierent formula.
If the region we revolve to generate a solid does not border on
or cross the axis of revolution, the solid has a hole in it . The
cross-sections perpendicular to the axis of revolution are washers
Example 7 : Rotation About the y-Axis (the purplish circular surface in Figure ) instead of disks. The
dimensions of a typical washer are
2 Outer Radius = R (x)
between the y-axis and the curve x = ,1 ≤ y ≤ 4 , about the
Inner Radius = r (x)
y
y-axis. The washer's area is

5.1. VOLUMES 35
2 2
A (x) = π [R (x)] − π [r (x)]
Consequently, the denition of volume gives
Example 9 A Washer Cross-Section (Rotation About the x-

Axis)
The region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 1 and the line

y = −x + 3 is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find
the volume of the solid.
5.1.4 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

Example 1 : Finding a Volume Using Shells
The region enclosed by the x-axis and the parabola y =

f (x) = 3x − x2 is revolved about the vertical line x = −1 to
generate the shape of a solid (Figure ). Find the volume of the
solid.
Example 10 : A Washer Cross-Section (Rotation About the

y-Axis)
The region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line

y = 2x in the rst quadrant is revolved about the y-axis to
generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.

Example 2 : Cylindrical Shells Revolving About the y-Axis

√
The region bounded by the curve y= x the x-axis, and the
line x=4 is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find
Example 3 : Applying the Arc Length Formula for a Graph
Find the length of the curve
√ 3
4 2
y= x2 − 1 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3
5.3 Areas of Surfaces of Revolution

5.3.1 Revolution about x-axis
Example 3 : Cylindrical Shells Revolving About the x-Axis
√
The region bounded by the curve y= x the x-axis, and the
line x=4 is revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find
Example 1 Applying the Surface Area Formula
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve

√
y = 2 x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 , about the x-axis (Figure).
5.3.2 Revolution about y-axis
5.2 Lengths of Plane Curves

For a plane curve, the length of the curve can be found as
´q 2 2
(dx) + (dy)
For a parametric Curve. Example 2 Finding Area for Revolution about the y-Axis
The line segment x=1−y , 0≤y≤1 is revolved about the

y-axis to generate the cone in Figure . Find its lateral surface
area (which excludes the base area).
Example 1 : The Circumference of a Circle
Find the length of the circle of radius r dened parametrically

by
x = r cos t and y = r sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Example 2 Applying the Parametric Formula for Length of a
Curve
Find the length of the astroid
x = cos3 t, y = sin3 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

5.4. POLAR COORDINATES 37
5.3.3 Parametrized Curves
Example 3 Applying Surface Area Formula

5.3.5 The Theorems of Pappus
The standard parametrization of the circle of radius 1 centered
at the point (0, 1) in the xy-plane
x = cos t , y = 1 + sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Use this parametrization to nd the area of the surface swept
out by revolving the circle about the x-axis .
Example 5 Volume of a Torus

The volume of the torus (doughnut) generated by revolving a
circular disk of radius a about an axis in its plane at a distance
b≥a from its center (Figure )
Example 6 Locate the Centroid of a Semicircular Region
5.3.4 The Dierential Form
5.4 Polar Coordinates

In this section, we study polar coordinates and their relation
to Cartesian coordinates. While a point in the plane has just
one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it has innitely many pairs of
polar coordinates.
5.4.1 Denition of Polar Coordinates

To dene polar coordinates, we rst x an origin O (called the
Example 4 Using the Dierential Form for Surface Areas pole) and an initial ray from O . Then each point P can be
located by assigning to it a polar coordinate pair (r, θ) in which
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve
r gives the directed distance from O to P and gives the directed
1
y = x3 , 0 ≤ x ≤ about the x-axis (Figure). angle from the initial ray to ray OP.
2

Some properties
i) Polar Coordinates are not unique

2π 5π
iv) ≤θ≤ ( no restriction on r )
3 6
ii) Polar Coordinates can have -ve r-values 5.4.2 Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordi-
nates
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, x2 + y 2 = r2
Example 1 : Find all the polar coordinates of the point

π
P 2,
6
Example 2 : Graph the sets of points whose polar coordinates
satisfy the following conditions
π
i) 1≤r≤2 and 0≤θ≤
2
Example Find a polar equation for the circle

2
x2 + (y − 3) = 9
Ans. r = 6 sin θ
π Example Replace the following polar equations by equivalent

ii) −3 ≤ r ≤ 2 and θ=
4 Cartesian equations, and identify their graphs.
i) r cos θ = −4
ii) r2 = 4r cos θ
4
iii) r=
2 cos θ − sin θ
5.4.3 Graphing in Polar Coordinates

This section describes techniques for graphing equations in polar
coordinates.
π
iii) r≤0 and θ=
4 Symmetry

5.4. POLAR COORDINATES 39
Example : Find the area of the region in the plane enclosed

by the cardioid r = 2 (1 + cos θ)
5.4.4.2 Area Between Polar Curves (Area of the region

0 ≤ r1 (θ) ≤ r ≤ r2 (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β )
Example : A Cardioid
Graph the curve r = 1 − cos θ
´β 1 2
A= α 2
r2 − r12 dθ
Example : Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle
r=1 and outside the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ
5.4.4.3 Length of a Polar Curve

We can obtain a polar coordinate formula for the length of a
curve r = f (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β , by parametrizing the curve as
x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ , y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ , α ≤ θ ≤ β
The parametric length formula, then gives the length as
s
´β
2 2
dx dy
L= α
+ dθ
dθ dθ
5.4.4 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

The equation becomes
s
´β
2
dr
L= r2 + dθ
5.4.4.1 Area of the Fan-Shaped Region Between the α dθ
Origin and the Curve r = f (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β Example : Find the length of the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ
´β 1 2
A= α 2
r dθ

5.4.5 Area of a Surface of Revolution

To derive polar coordinate formulas for the area of a surface of
revolution, we parametrize the curve r = f (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β
with Equations above and apply the surface area equations for
parametrized curves .
Example : Find the area of the surface generated by revolving

the right-hand loop of the lemniscate r2 = cos 2θ about the y-
axis.

Chapter 6
Vectors
6.1 Scalars and Vectors increase of the x−axis. The unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ (ax , ay and
az ) are illustrated in Figure (a), and the components of A along
6.1.1 Scalar the coordinate axes are shown in Figure (b). The magnitude of
vector A is given by
A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. q
Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy,
A= A2x + A2y + A2z
electric potential, and population are scalars.
→
−
and the unit vector along A is given by
Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
6.1.2 Vector Â = q
A2x + A2y + A2z
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities include velocity, force, displacement, and
electric eld intensity. Another class of physical quantities is
6.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction
called tensors, of which scalars and vectors are special cases.
For most of the time, we shall be concerned with scalars and
Two vectors A and B can be added together to give another
vectors. To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it is cus-

vector C; that is, C = A + B
The vector addition is carried out component by component.
tomary to represent a vector by a letter with an arrow on top of
it, such as
→
−
A and
→
−
B, or by a letter in boldface type such as A Thus, if A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and B = (Bx ,By ,Bz ).
and B. A scalar is represented simply by a letter e.g., A, B,
C = (Ax + Bx )î + (Ay + By )ĵ + (Az + Bz )k̂
U, and V. Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as
D = A - B = A + (-B) = (Ax −Bx )î+(Ay −By )ĵ +(Az −Bz )k̂
6.2 Unit Vector

A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude
of A is a scalar written as A or |A|. A unit vector Â along A
is dened as a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its
direction is along A, that is,
→
− →
−
A A
Â = →− =
|A| A
→
−
Note that |Â| = 1 . Thus we may write A as
→
−
A = AÂ
→
−
which completely species A in terms of its magnitude A and
its direction Â.
→
−
A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be
represented as Graphically, vector addition and subtraction are obtained by
(Ax , Ay , Az ) or Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ either the parallelogram rule or the head-to-tail rule as portrayed

in Figures . The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any giveny
vectors A, B, and C, are summarized as follows:
where k and l are scalars.
6.4 Position and Distance Vectors

A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by (x, y,
where Ax , Ay and Az are called the components of A in the z).
x, y , and z directions respectively; î, ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors The position vector →
−
rp (or radius vector) of point P is as
in the x, y , and z directions, respectively. For example, î is a (he directed distance from the origin O to P: i.e.
dimensionless vector of magnitude one in the direction of the

→
−
rp = xî + y ĵ + z k̂

42 CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

where AB is the smaller angle between A and B. The result of
A B is called either the scalar product because it is scalar, or
the dot product due to the dot sign. If A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and
B = (Bx , By , Bz ), then

A B = AX BX + Ay By + AZ BZ which is obtained by mul-
tiplying A and B component by component. Two vectors A and
B
B are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) with each other
if A = 0.

Note that dot product obeys the following:
A B=B A
B C
(i) Commutative law:
A (B + C) = A A
A = |A|
(ii) Distributive law: +
A 2
= A
2
(iii) Also note that

î.ĵ = ĵ.k̂ = k̂.î = 0
î.î = ĵ.ĵ = k̂.k̂ = 1
The position vector of point P is useful in dening its position
in space. Point (3, 4, 5), for example, and its position vector
3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂ are shown in Figure . 6.5.2 Cross Product
The distance vector is the displacement from one point to
The cross product of two vectors A and B written as
→
− → −
A × B is a
another.
vector quantity whose magnitude is the area of the parallelogram
If two points P and Q are given by (xP , yP , zP ) and
formed by A and B and is in the direction of advance of a right-
(xQ , yQ , zQ ), the distance vector (or separation vector) is the
handed screw as A is turned into B.
−
r−
→
displacement from P to Q as shown in Figure ; that is, PQ = Thus
−
r→ −
→ →
− → −
Q − rP = (xQ − xP )î + (yQ − yP )ĵ + (zQ − zP )k̂ A × B = AB sin θAB n̂
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and
EXAMPLE If A = 10i - 4j + 6k and B = 2i + j, nd:
B. The direction of n̂ is taken as the direction of the right thumb
(a) the component of A along j,
when the ngers of the right hand rotate from A to B as shown
(b) the magnitude of 3A - B, in Figure .
The vector multiplication is also called vector product because
(c) a unit vector along A + 2B.
the result is a vector. IfA = (Ax , Ay , Az ) B = (Bx , By , Bz ) then
EXAMPLE

Points P and Q are located at (0, 2, 4) and ( - 3 î ĵ k̂
, 1, 5). Calculate
→
− →
−
A × B = Ax Ay Az = (Ay Bz − Az By ) î +
(a) The position vector P
Bx By Bz
(b) The distance vector from P to Q (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ĵ + (Ax By − Ay Bx ) k̂

which is obtained by "crossing" terms in cyclic permutation,
(c) The distance between P and Q
hence the name cross product.
(d) A vector parallel to PQ with magntude of 10
EXAMPLE A river ows southeast at 10 km/hr and a boat

ows upon it with its bow pointed in the direction of travel.
A man walks upon the deck at 2 km/hr in a direction to
the right and perpendicular to the direction of the boat's
movement. Find the velocity of the man with respect to the
earth.
6.5 Vector Multiplication

When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is either a
scalar or a vector depending on how they are multiplied. Thus
there are two types of vector multiplication:
→
− →−
1. Scalar (or dot) product: A .B
→
− → −
2. Vector (or cross) product: A × B
Multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C can result in either:

→
− → − → −
3. Scalar triple product: A .( B . C )
or
→
− →
− → −
4. Vector triple product: A × (B × C )
6.5.1 Dot Product

The dot product of two vectors A and B, wrilten as A B . is
dened geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of A and
B and the cosine of the angle between them.
B
Thus: Note that the cross product has the following basic properties:
A = AB cos θAB (i) It is not commutative:

6.7. REVIEW QUESTIONS 43
→
− → − →
− → −
A × B 6= B × A (d) sin θQR
It is anticommutative: (e) P × (Q × R)
→
− → − →
− → −
A × B = −B × A (f ) A unit vector perpendicular to both Q and R
(ii) It is not associative: (g) The component of P along Q
→
− →
− → − →
− → − →
−
A × (B × C ) = ( A × B ) × C
EXAMPLE Derive the cosine formula
(iii) It is distributive:
→
− →
− → − →
− → − → − → − a = b + c2 − 2bc cos A
2 2
A × (B + C ) = A × B + A × C
(iv) A × A = 0
and the sine formula
Also note that sin A sin B sin C
= =
î × ĵ = k̂ a b c
ĵ × k̂ = î using dot product and cross product, respectively.
k×ˆ î = ĵ
EXAMPLE Show that points P1 (5, 2, -4), P2 (1, 1, 2), and
P3 (-3, 0, 8) all lie on a straight line. Determine the shortest
6.5.3 Scalar Triple Product distance between the line and point P4 (3, - 1 , 0).
Given three vectors A, B, and C, we dene the scalar triple

product as
→
− → − → − → − →
− → − → − → − → − 6.7 Review Questions
A. B × C = B. C × A = C . A × B
→
− →
− Q1: Identify which of the following quantities is not a vector:
obtained in cyclic permutation. If A = (Ax , Ay , Az ), B =
→
−
(Bx , By , Bz ), and C = (Cx , Cy , Cz ), then A (B X C) is the (a) force,
volume of a parallelepiped having A, B, and C as edges and is (b) momentum,

easily obtained by nding the determinant of the 3 X 3 matrix
(c) acceleration,
formed by A, B, and C;
that is, (d) work,

Ax Ay Az (e) weight.

A. (B × C) = Bx By Bz
Q2:

Cx Cy Cz Which of the following is not a scalar eld?
Since the result of this vector multiplication is scalar, eq. is (a) Displacement of a mosquito in space
called the scalar triple product.
(b) Light intensity in a drawing room
6.5.4 Vector Triple Product (c) Temperature distribution in your classroom
(d) Atmospheric pressure in a given region

For vectors A, B, and C, we dene the vector tiple product as
→
− →
− → − →
− →− →− →
− →− →

−
A × (B × C ) = B ( A C ) − C ( A B ) (e) Humidity of a city
Q3: The rectangular coordinate systems shown in Figure are
6.6 Components of a Vector right-handed except:
A direct application of vector product is its use in determining

the projection (or component) of a vector in a given direction.
The projection can be scalar or vector. Given a vector A, we
dene the scalar component AB of A along vector B as
→
−
AB = A cos θAB = A .B̂
The vector component AB of A along B is simply the scalar
component in eq. multiplied by a unit vector along B; that is,
−→ →
−
AB = AB B̂ = A .B̂ B̂
Q4: Which of these is correct?
(a) A × A = |A|2
( b ) A×B+B×A=0
(c)
A B C=B C A
(d) ˆ ĵ = k̂
i.
EXAMPLE Given vectors A = 3i + 4j + k and B = 2j - 5k, (e) k̂ = î − ĵ where k̂ is a unit vector.
nd the angle between A and B.
Q5: Which of the following identities is not valid?
EXAMPLE Three eld quantities are given by P = 2i - k, Q
(a) a(b + c) = ab + bc
= 2i - j + 2k , R = 2i - 3j + k
(b) a×(b + c) = a × b + a × c
Determine
(c)
a b=b a
c(a × b) = −b(a × c)
(P + Q) × (P − Q)

(a)
(d)
(b) Q R × P
(c) PQ × R (e) Â.B̂ = cos θAB

Q6: Which of the following statements are meaningless? 6.8 PROBLEMS

(a) AB + 2 A=0 Q1 Find the unit vector along the line joining point (2, 4, 4) to
(b) AB + 5 = 2 A point ( - 3 , 2, 2).
(c) A(A + B) + 2 = 0 Q2 Let A = 2i + 5j - 3k , B = 3i - 4j, and C = i + j + k.

(d) A A + B B = 0
(a) Determine A + 2B.
(b) Calculate |A - 5C|.

Q7: Let F = 2i - 6j + 10k and G = i + Gyj + 5k. If F and G (c) For what values of k is |kB| = 2?
have the same unit vector, Gy is
(d) Find (A × B)/(A B).
(a) 6
Q3 If
(b) 0
A = 2i + j - 3k
(c) - 3 B=j-k
(d) 6 C = 3i + 5j + 7k
Determine:
Q8 Given that A = i + αj + k and B = αi + j + k, if A and
B are normal to each other, α is
(a) A - 2B + C
(b) C - 4(A + B)
(a) - 2 2A − 3B
(c)
|C|
(b) 1
(d)
1

A C − |B|2
1 1
(c) -1/2
(e) B × ( A + C)
2 3 4
(d) 2
Q4 If the position vectors of points T and S are 3i - 2j + k and
(e) 0 1.9 4i - 6j + 2k, respectively, nd:
(a) the coordinates of T and S,

Q9: The component of 6i + 2j - 3k along 3i - 4j is
(b) the distance vector from T to S,
(a) -12i - 9j - 3k
(c) the distance between T and S.
(b) 30i - 40j

Q5 If
(c) 10/7 A = 5i + 3j +2k
(d) 2 B = -i + 4j +6k
(e) 10 C = 8i +2j,
nd the values of α and β such that αA + βB + C is parallel
Q10: Given A = - 6i + 3j + 2k , the projection of A along j is to the y-axis.
(a) -12 Q6 Given vectors
(b) - 4 A = αi + j + 4k
(c) 3
B = 3i + β j - 6k
C = 5i - 2j + γ k,
(d) 7
determine α , β and γ such that the vectors are mutually
(e) 12 orthogonal.
Answers: Q7 (a) Show that

(A B)2 + (A × B)2 = (AB)2
1. d,
(b) Show that
j×k k×i i×j

2. a, i= , j= , k=
i.j × k j.k × i k.i × j
3. b,e, Q8 Given that
P = 2i - j - 2k
4. b,
Q = 4i + 3j + 2k
5. a, R = -i + j + 2k
nd:
6. b,c,
(a) | P + Q - R|,
7. (b)
P Q × R,

b,
(c) Q × P R,
8. b, (d) (P × Q) (Q × R),
(e) (P × Q) × (Q × R),
9. d,
(f ) cos θP R ,
10. c. (g) sin θP Q .

6.8. PROBLEMS 45
Q9 Given vectors T = 2i - 6j + 3k and S = i + 2j + k, nd:

(a) the scalar projection of T on S, (b) the vector projection
of S on T, (c) the smaller angle between T and S.
Q10 If A = -i + 6j + 5k and B = i + 2j + 3k , nd: (a)

the scalar projections of A on B, (b) the vector projection
of B on A, (c) the unit vector perpendicular to the plane
containing A and B.
Q11 Calculate the angles that vector H = 3i + 5j - 8k makes

with the x - , y - , and z-axes.
Q12 Find the triple scalar product of P, Q, and R given that

P = 2i - j + k ,
Q=i+j+k
Q21 Given A = x2 yi − yzj + yz 2 k, determine:
and
(a) The magnitude of A at point T(2, -1,3)
R = 2i, + 3k
(b) The distance vector from T to 5 if S is 5.6 units away
Q13 Simplify the following expressions:

from T and in the same direction as A at T
(c) The position vector of S
(a) A × (A × B)
Q22 E and F are vector elds given by E = 2xi + j + yzk and
(b) A × [A × (A × B)]
F = xyiy 2 j + xyzk. Determine:
Q14 (a) | E | a t ( l , 2 , 3)

Show that the dot and cross in the triple scalar product
may be interchanged, i.e., A (B × C) = (A × B) C. (b) The component of E along F at (1, 2, 3)
(c) A vector perpendicular to both E and F at (0, 1 , - 3 )
Q15 Points P1 (l, 2, 3) , P2 (-5, 2, 0), and P3 (2, 7, -3) form a
whose magnitude is unity
triangle in space. Calculate the area of the triangle.
Q16 The vertices of a triangle are located at (4, 1, -3), ( - 2 , 5,

4), and (0,1,6). Find the three angles of the triangle.
Q17 Points P, Q, and R are located at ( - 1 , 4, 8), ( 2 , -

1 , 3), and ( - 1 , 2, 3), respectively. Determine: (a) the
distance between P and Q, (b) the distance vector from P
to R, (c) the angle between QP and QR, (d) the area of
triangle PQR, (e) the perimeter of triangle PQR.
*Q18 If r is the position vector of the point (x, y, z) and A is

a constant vector, show that:
(a) (r − A) A = 0 is the equation of a constant plane
(b) (r - A) r = 0 is the equation of a sphere

(c) Also show that the result of part (a) is of the form Ax
+ By + Cz + D = 0 where D = −(A2 + B 2 + C 2 ), and that
of part (b) is of the form x + y2 + z 2 = r2 .
2
*Q19 (a) Prove that P = cosθ1 i + sinθ1 j and Q = cosθ2 i +

sinθ2 j are unit vectors in the xy-plane respectively making
angles θ1 and θ2 with the x-axis.
(b) By means of dot product, obtain the formula for

cos(θ2 − θ1 ) . By similarly formulating P and Q, obtain
the formula for cos(θ2 − θ1 ).
1
(c) If θ is the angle between P and Q, nd |P - Q| in terms
2
of θ .
Q20 Consider a rigid body rotating with a constant angular

velocity w radians per second about a xed axis through O
as in Figure . Let r be the distance vector from O to P,
the position of a particle in the body. The velocity u of the
body at P is|u| = dω = |r| sin θ|ω| or u =ω × r . If the rigid
body is rotating with 3 radians per second about an axis
parallel to i - 2j + 2k and passing through point (2, 3, 1),
determine the velocity of the body at (1, 3,4).


Chapter 7
Coordinate Systems
7.1 Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
(ρ, φ, z)
The circular cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient
whenever we are dealing with problems having cylindrical sym-
metry.
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (ρ, φ, z )
and is as shown in Figure .
Cartesian to Cylindrical
ρ=
p
x2 + y 2
y
φ = tan−1
x
z=z
Cylindrical to Cartesian
x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ
z=z

Observe Figure closely and note how we dene each space The relationships between î, ĵ, k̂ and ρ̂, φ̂, k̂ are obtained
variable: ρ is the radius of the cylinder passing through P or the geometrically from the following Figure.
radial distance from the z-axis: φ, called the azimuthal angle is
measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane; and z is the same as
in the Cartesian system. The ranges of the variables are
0≤ρ<∞
0 ≤ φ < 2π
−∞ < z < ∞
→
−
A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be written as
(Aρ , Aφ , Az ) or Aρ ρb + Aφ φb + Az b
k
where ρ b , φb and b k are the unit vectors in the ρ, φ, and z-
directions as illustrated in Figure.
→
− 12
The magnitude of A is = A2ρ + A2φ + A2z

Notice that the unit vectors ρ b, φb, and b
k are mutually perpen- ρ̂, φ̂, k̂ → î, ĵ, k̂
dicular because our coordinate system is orthogonal;ρ b points in
î = cos φρ̂ − sin φφ̂
the direction of increasing ρ ,φ b in the direction of increasing φ,
ĵ = sin φρ̂ + cos φφ̂
and b k in the positive z-direction. Thus,
k̂ = k̂
ρ̂.ρ̂ = φ̂.φ̂ = k̂.k̂ = 1
î, ĵ, k̂ → ρ̂, φ̂, k̂
ρ̂.φ̂ = φ̂.k̂ = k̂.ρ̂ = 0
ρ̂×φ̂ = k̂ ρ̂ = cos φî + sin φĵ
φ̂ × k̂ = ρ̂ φ̂ = − sin φî + cos φĵ
k̂ × ρ̂ = φ̂ k̂ = k̂
where eqs. are obtained in cyclic permutation. Finally, the relationships between (Ax , Ay , Az ) and (Aρ , Aφ ,
The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of the Carte- Az ) are obtained by simply substituting equations and collecting
sian coordinate system and those of the cylindrical system terms. Thus
→
(ρ, φ, z ) are easily obtained from Figure. A = (Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ) ρ̂ + (−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ) φ̂ + Az k̂

48 CHAPTER 7. COORDINATE SYSTEMS
or The space variables (x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinates can be

Aρ = Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ related to variables (r, θ, φ) of a spherical coordinate system.
Aφ = −Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ From Figure it is easy to notice that
Az = Az
In matrix form, we have the transformation of vector A from
(Ax ,
 Ay , 
Az ) 
to (Aρ , Aφ , Az ) as
 
Aρ cos φ sin φ 0 Ax
 Aφ  =  − sin φ cos φ 0   Ay 
Az 0 0 1 Az
The inverse of the transformation (Aρ , Aφ , Az )→(Ax , Ay , Az )
is obtained as
   −1  
Ax cos φ sin φ 0 Aρ
 Ay  =  − sin φ cos φ 0   Aφ 
Az 0 0 1 Az
or
    
Ax cos φ − sin φ 0 Aρ
 Ay  =  sin φ cos φ 0   Aφ 
Az 0 0 1 Az
An alternative way of obtaining above equation is using the p
dot product. For example: r= x2 +py2 + z2 ,
  
x2 + y 2
î.ρ̂ î.φ̂ î.k̂
 
Ax ρ̂ θ = tan−1
 Ay  =  ĵ.ρ̂ ĵ.φ̂ ĵ.k̂ 
  φ̂  z
 y
Az k̂.ρ̂
ˆ
ˆ.φk k̂.k̂ k̂ φ = tan−1
x
or
x = r cos θ cos φ
7.2 Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, φ) y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ
The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when deal- The unit vectors i , j , k and r̂ , θ̂ , φ̂ are related as follows :
ing with problems having a degree of spherical symmetry. i = sin θ cos φr̂ + cos θ cos φθ̂ − sin φφ̂
j = sin θ sin φr̂ + cos θ sin φθ̂ + cos φφ̂
k = cos θr̂ − sin θθ̂
or
r̂ = sin θ cos φi + sin θ sin φj + cos θk
θ̂ = cos θ cos φi + cos θ sin φj − sin θk
φ̂ = − sin φi + cos φj
The components of vector A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and A =
(Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) are related by substituting equations and collect-
ing terms. Thus,
A = (Ax sin θ cos φ + Ay sin θ sin φ + Az cos θ) r̂ +
(Ax cos θ cos φ + Ay cos θ sin φ − Az sin θ) θ̂ +
(−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ) φ̂
and from this, we obtain
Ar = Ax sin θ cos φ + Ay sin θ sin φ + Az cos θ
Aθ = Ax cos θ cos φ + Ay cos θ sin φ − Az sin θ
From Figure , we notice that r is dened as the distance from Aφ = −Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ
the origin to point P or the radius of a sphere centered at the In matrix form, the (Ax , Ay , Az ) −→ (Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) vector
origin and passing through P; θ (called the colatitude) is the transformation is performed according to
angle between the z-axis and the position vector of P; and φ is
measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in cylindri-
cal coordinates). According to these denitions, the ranges of
the variables are
0≤r<∞
0≤θ≤π
0 ≤ φ < 2π The inverse transformation(Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) −→ (Ax , Ay , Az ) is
→
− similarly obtained. Thus,
A vector A in spherical coordinates may be written as
(Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) or Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aφ φ̂ where r̂,θ̂ and φ̂ are unit
vectors along the r- , θ− and φ− directions. The magnitude of
→
−
A is
→
− 1
| A | = (A2r + A2θ + A2φ ) 2
The unit vectors r̂ , θ̂ and φ̂ are mutually orthogonal; r̂ being
directed along the radius or in the direction of increasing r, θ̂ in Alternatively, we may obtain above eqs. using the dot product.
the direction of increasing θ, and φ̂ in the direction of increasing For example,
φ.
    
Thus, Ar r̂.i r̂.j r̂.k Ax
r̂.r̂ = θ̂.θ̂ = φ̂.φ̂ = 1  Aθ  =  θ̂.i θ̂.j θ̂.k   Ay 
r̂.θ̂ = θ̂.φ̂ = φ̂.r̂ = 0 Aφ φ̂.i φ̂.j φ̂.k Az
r̂ × θ̂ = φ̂
θ̂ × φ̂ = r̂
φ̂ × r̂ = θ̂

Chapter 8
Vector Calculus
8.1 Dierential Length , Area and Vol- Dierential normal area is given by
ume −
→
dS = ρdφdz ρ̂/dρdz φ̂/ρdρdφk̂
Dierential elements in length, area, and volume are useful in
vector calculus. They are dened in the Cartesian, cylindrical,
and spherical coordinate systems.
8.1.1 Cartesian Coordinates

Dierential Displacement
→
−
dl = dxî + dy ĵ + dz k̂
Dierential normal area is given by
−
→
dS = dydz î/dxdz ĵ/dxdy k̂ Dierential volume is given by
dv = ρdρdφdz
Dierential volume is given by
dv = dxdydz
8.1.3 Spherical Coordinates

The dierential displacement is
→
−
dl = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdφφ̂
−dS→ = r 2
sin θdθdφr̂/r sin θdrdφθ̂/rdrdθφ̂
→
− −
→
Notice that dl and dS are vectors while , dv is a scalar.
8.1.2 Cylindrical Coordinates

Dierential displacement is given by
→
−
dl = dρρ̂ + ρdφφ̂ + dz k̂ dv = r 2
sin θdrdθdφ

50 CHAPTER 8. VECTOR CALCULUS
If the path of integration is a closed curve such as abca in

Figure , eq. becomes a closed contour integral
¸
L
A dl
which is called the circulation of A around L.
Q1: Consider the object shown in Figure . Calculate
Given a vector eld A, continuous in a region containing the

(a) The distance BC
smooth surface S, we dene the surface integral or the ux of A

(b) The distance CD through S as
´
(c) The surface area ABCD
ϕ= S
A dS
(d) The surface area ABO
(e) The surface area AOFD
(f ) The volume ABDCFO
which is referred to as the net outward ux of A from S. No-

tice that a closed path denes an open surface whereas a closed
surface denes a volume.
We dene the integral
´
v
ρv dv
as the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the volume v. The
physical meaning of a line, surface, or volume integral depends
on the nature of the physical quantity represented by A or ρv .
→ →
Q: Given that F = x2bi + xy ĵ − y 2 k̂ , Find the circulation of F
Q2: Refer to Figure ; disregard the dierential lengths and
around the (closed) path shown in Fig.
° ° ° °
imagine that the object is part of a spherical shell. It may
3 ≤ r ≤ 5 , 60 ≤ θ ≤ 90 , 45 ≤ φ ≤ 60
°
be described as
°
where surface r = 3 is the same as AEHD, surface θ = 60
is AEFB, and surface φ = 45 is ABCD. Calculate
(a) The distance DH
(b) The distance FG
(c) The surface area AEHD
(d) The surface area ABDC
(e) The volume of the object
8.2 Line, Surface, And Volume Inte-

grals
The familiar concept of integration will now be extended to cases
when the integrand involves a vector. By a line we mean the path
along a curve in space. We shall use terms such as line, curve,
Q:

and contour interchangeably.
´ Calculate the circulation of A = ρ cos φρ̂ + z sin φk̂ around
The line integral L
A dl is the integral of thc tangential the edge L of the wedge dened by 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 2 , 0 ≤ φ ≤ 60o
component of A along curve L. , z=0 and shown in Figure .

8.5. DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND DIVERGENCE THEORM 51
is a maximum when θ l
= 0, that is, when d is in the direction of
G. Hence,

dV dV
= =G
dl max
dn
where dV/dn is the normal derivative. Thus G has its mag-
nitude and direction as those of the maximum rate of change of
V. By denition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore
→
− ∂V ∂V ∂V
grad V = ∇V = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
→
− ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
∇V = ρ̂ + φ̂ + k̂
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
→
− ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇V = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Q: Determine the gradient of the following elds and compute
its value at the specied point.
8.3 Del Operator a) V = e(2x+3y) cos 5z, (0.1, −0.2, 0.4)

→
− b) T = 5ρe−2z sin φ, (2, π/3, 0)
The del operator, written ∇, is the vector dierential operator.
In Cartesian coordinates,
sin θ sin φ
c) Q= , (1, π/6, π/2)
→
− ∂ ∂ ∂ r2
∇= î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z Q: Find the angle at which line x = y = 2z intersects the ellip-
This vector dierential operator, otherwise known as the gra-
soid x2 + y 2 + 2z 2 = 10 .
dient operator, is not a vector in itself, but when it operates on
a scalar function, for example, a vector ensues. The operator is Q: Calculate the angle between the normals to the surfaces
useful in dening x2 y + z = 3 and x ln z − y 2 = −4 at the point of inter-
→
−
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written, as ∇V section (−1, 2, 1) .
2. The divergence of a vector A, written as ∇

→
− → −
→
− →
−
A
3. The
4. The
curl of a vector A, written as ∇ × A
2
Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇ V
8.5 Divergence of a Vector And Diver-
The del operator in cylindrical coordinates gence Theorm
→
− ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= ρ̂ + φ̂ + k̂

We have noticed that the net outow of the ux of a vector eld
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z ¸
The del operator in spherical coordinates is A from a closed surface S is obtained from the integral A dS .
→
−
∇=
∂
r̂ +
1 ∂
θ̂ +
1 ∂
φ̂
The divergence of A at a given point P is thc outward ux
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
Hence, ¸
8.4 Gradient of a Scalar div
→
−
A = ∇.A = lim
4v→0
S
A.dS
4v
The gradient of a scalar eld V is a vcctor that represents both
the magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of
increase of V.
A mathematical expression for the gradient can be obtained
by evaluating the dierence in the eld dV between points Pl
and P2 of Figure where V1 , V2 , and V3 are contours on which V
is constant. From calculus,
where 4v is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in

which P is located. Physically, we may regard the divergence of
the vector eld A at a given point as a measure of how much the
eld diverges or emanates from that point.
Q: Determine the divergence of this vector eld:
P = x2 yz î + xz k̂
Q: Determine the divergence of the following vector eld and

evaluate it at the specied points.
A = yzi + 4xyj + yk at (1, - 2 , 3 )
Q: If G(r) =10e
−2z
(ρρ̂ + k̂) , determine the ux of G
out of the entire surface of the cylinder ρ = 1, 0 ≤
z ≤1. Conrm the result using the
divergence
l
where d is the dierential displacement from P1, to P2 and θ →− 1 ∂ 1 ∂A ∂A
theorem ∇.A = (ρAρ ) + + .
is the angle between G and dl. From eq. , we notice that dV/dl ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z

52 CHAPTER 8. VECTOR CALCULUS
8.6 Curl of a Vector And Stroke's The- makes no sense. Rather, ∇2 A is dened as the gradient of the
orm divergence of A minus the curl of the curl of A. That is,
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude

is the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area lends
to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area
when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.
That is,
¸
8.8 Classication of Vector Fields
→
− A.dl
Curl A = ∇ ×A= lim n̂ A vector eld is uniquely characterized by its divergence and
4S→0 4S
curl. Neither the divergence nor curl of a vector eld is sucient
where the area 4S is bounded by the curve L and an is the
to completely describe the eld. All vector elds can be classied
unit vector normal to the surface 4S and is determined using
in terms of their vanishing or nonvanishing divergence or curl as
the right-hand rule.
follows:
The physical signicance of the curl of a vector eld is evi-
dent in eq. above; the curl provides the maximum value of the
circulation of the eld per unit area (or circulation density) and
indicates the direction along which this maximum value occurs.
The curl of a vector eld A at a point P may be regarded as a
measure of the circulation or how much the eld curls around
P. For example, Figure (a) shows that the curl of a vector eld
around P is directed out of the page. Figure (b) shows a vector
eld with zero curl.
A vector eld A is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless)
if
→
−

∇ A = 0.
A vector eld A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if
→
−
∇ × A = 0.
Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector Field

A around a (closed) path L is equal lo the surface integral of the
curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L. (see Figure )
→
−
provided that A and ∇ × A are continuous on S.
8.7 Laplacian of a Scalar

The Laplacian of a scalar eld V, written as ∇2 V is the diver-
gence of the gradient of V.
A scalar eld V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its
Laplacian vanishes in that region. In other words, if
∇2 V = 0
is satised in the region, the solution for V in eq. is harmonic
(it is of the form of sine or cosine).
We have only considered the Laplacian of a scalar. Since the
Laplacian operator ∇2 is a scalar operator, it is also possible to
dene the Laplacian of a vector A. In this context, ∇2 A should
not be viewed as the divergence of the gradient of A, which

Index
Application of Derivatives, 21 Limits using Series expansion, 18
Approximations, 23 Line Integral , 50
Area Between Polar Curves, 39 Linear dierential equations, 30
Area between Two Curves, 30 Logarithmic Dierentiation, 12
Area of a curve dened in polar co-ordinates, 39
Area of a Surface of Revolution, 40 Maxima and Minima, 23
Area under the curve, 29 Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Dierential Equa-
Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates, 39 tions, 30
Areas of Parametrized Curves, 37

Partial Derivatives, 10
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution, 36
Polar Coordinates, 37
Average and Instantaneous Speed, 14
Position and Distance Vectors, 41
Average Rate of Change and Secant Lines, 14
Potential Field, 52
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates, 47

Rate of Change, 21
Components of a Vector, 43
Relation between Polar and Cartesian Coordinates, 38
Cross Product, 42
Curl of a Vector, 52
Scalar, 41
Scalar Triple Product, 43
Denite Integral, 28
Solenoidal Field, 52
Denition of Polar Coordinates, 37
Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method, 33
Del Operator, 51
Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method, 34
Derivatives, 5
Spherical Coordinates, 48
Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions, 8
Stroke's Theorm, 52
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions, 9
Surface Area for Revolution about x-axis, 36
Derivatives of Trigonometric functions, 7
Surface area for Revolution about y-axis, 36
Dierential Equations, 30
Surface Integral, 50
Dierential equations with variables separable, 30
Dierential Length , Area and Volume, 49
Tangents and Normals, 22
Dierentials, 10
The Chain Rule, 9
Dierentiation of Implicit functions, 10
The Dierential Form for Surface Areas, 37
Dierentiation of Parametric functions, 11
The Epsilon-Delta Denition, 17
Divergence Of a Vector, 51
The Product Rule of dierentiation, 6
Divergence Theorm, 51
The Quotient Rule for dierentiation, 7
Dot Product, 42
The Sandwich Theorem, 16
The Theorems of Pappus, 37
Elements in Cartesian Coordinates, 49
Elements in Cylindrical Coordinates, 49
Unit Vector, 41
Elements in Spherical Coordinates, 49
Vector, 41
Flux, 50
Vector Addition, 41
Formation of a Dierential Equation, 30
Vector Multiplication, 42
Vector Subtraction, 41
Gradient of a Scalar, 51
Volumes by Cylindrical Shells, 35
Graphing in Polar Coordinates, 38
Volumes by Slicing and Rotation About an Axis, 33
Higher order derivatives, 11

Homogeneous dierential equations, 30
Increasing and Decreasing Functions, 21

Integrals, 25
Integration by Partial Fractions, 27
Integration by Parts, 27
Integration by substitution, 25
Irrotational Field, 52
Laplacian Of a Scalar, 52
Length of a Polar Curve, 39
Lengths of Plane Curves, 36
Limit Laws, 16
Limit of a sequence, 17
Limits, 13


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A Complete Course in Physics(Mathematical Tools)

March 11, 2011

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

3 © Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

1.1 Preliminaries a) f (x) = x

b) f (x) = 5 number also like π .]

5 © Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

b) f (x) = 3x7 − 5x4 + x3 Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

* Using the above rule,

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

⇒ f (x) = g (x) .h (x) * Applying the rule, we get the

⇒ f / (x) = g / (x) .h (x) + h/ (x) .g (x) d (1 − 2x) 2

c) f / (x) = 2 (3x + 2) + 3 (2x + 1)

 f / g − g/ f Mathematics for +2.

(1 + 2x) 2 cos − x . (−1) = − sin x

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

1.5 The Chain Rule 1.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonomet-

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

Proof. We have y = cosec−1 x ∂f 1

We dene a function of more than one variables with the help of

Let f (x, y, z, t) = x2 y 3 z 4 + t . Now the value of this function  

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

1.10 Dierentiation of Parametric manner by further dierentiating the derivatives of y .

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

1.12 Logarithmic Dierentia-

 log a pq = loga p + loga q

Q: Dierentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

Rule(1) For any positive integer n , cos (2x − 1)

13 © Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

2.1 Rate of Change and Limits

[ The limiting case of average value gives the deriva-

Example-2 The Average Growth Rate of a Laboratory Popu-

(a) Figure shows how a population of fruit ies (Drosophila)

2.1.2 Average and Instantaneous Speed

Example-1: Finding an Average Speed

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

though f (1) is not dened, It is clear , that we can make the

the distance s traversed by the point as a function of the time t.

2.1.3 Behaviour of a function near a point Exercise

factors: c) lim g (x)

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

6. Power Rule : If r and s are integers with no common factor

2.2.2 The Sandwich Theorem

a. Estimate the slopes of the secants P Q1 , P Q2 , P Q3 and

Explore the rate of change of function for a very small in-

2.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Application

2. Dierence Rule : lim (f (x) − g (x)) = L − M . i.e. The

3. Product Rule : lim (f (x) .g (x)) = L.M i.e. The limit of a

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

2.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit b) xn =

2.5 Some important Techniques

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

2.5.1 Exercises Q: Find the limits:

Q: Find the limits:

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

1 − cos x + 2 sin x − sin3 x − x2 + 3x4

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

© Rajat Kalia | Alpha Classes

increasing when the length of an edge is 10 centimetres ?

f / g − g/ f Mathematics for +2.

We dene a function of more than one variables with the help of

Let f (x, y, z, t) = x2 y 3 z 4 + t . Now the value of this function

1.10 Dierentiation of Parametric manner by further dierentiating the derivatives of y .

1.12 Logarithmic Dierentia-

log a pq = loga p + loga q

Q: Dierentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

(a) Figure shows how a population of fruit ies (Drosophila)

though f (1) is not dened, It is clear , that we can make the

2. Dierence Rule : lim (f (x) − g (x)) = L − M . i.e. The

2.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit b) xn =

Q8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on ination, is

Denition1[ First Derivative Test ] Let f be a function dened

(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f ´(c) = 0 and f (c) >

7. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given xed circle,

´ sin xdx = − cos x + C x = g (t)

´ cosec xdx = − cot x + C

4.8 Denite Integral 18.

6. Find the area of the region in the rst quadrant enclosed by

4.12.1 Formation of a Dierential Equation Example

Example Form the dierential equation representing the family

Consequently, the denition of volume gives