About the Author

Dr AS Bhalla (MA Cantab; Ph.D Manchester)

is a former Fellow of Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge, UK. His recent publications include
the Royal Tombs of India: 13th to 18th Century
(Mapin, 2009); and Poverty and Exclusion of
Minorities in China and India (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2013).

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To Praveen, Ranjan and Arman

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 A. S. Bhalla
BUDDHIST ART IN ASIA

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5
Copyright © A. S. Bhalla (2014)

The right of A. S. Bhalla to be identified as

author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with section 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the publishers.

Any person who commits any unauthorized act

in relation to this publication may be liable to
criminal prosecution and civil claims for
damages.

A CIP catalogue record for this title is available

from the British Library.

ISBN 9781784550608

www.austinmacauley.com

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First Published (2014)
Austin Macauley Publishers Ltd.
25 Canada Square
Canary Wharf
London
E14 5LB

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 Acknowledgments

The publisher and author acknowledge the following for their

help and copyright clearance:

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) (New Delhi) for Figs.

33 and 34 (Chapter 6) taken from Ajanta Murals: An Album
of Eighty-five Reproductions in Colour edited by A. Ghosh
(New Delhi, 1987) and for Fig. 39 supplied by the ASI.

Attinger SA of Neuchâtel (Switzerland) for Fig. 59 (Chapter

9) taken from Thailande: Art et religion (Neuchâtel, 1974),
© Audio-Visual Department (DAV) of the Library of the City
of Chaux-de-Fonds, Fernand Perret Fund.

Terence Faircloth, Atelier Teee, Inc., California for Fig. 58

(Chapter 9) downloaded from the
website:sacreddestinations.com.

Dr John Listopad of California State University Sacramento

for Fig. 49 (Chapter 8) taken from Art from Thailand edited
by Robert L. Brown (Mumbai, Marg Publications, December
1999).

British Museum, London, for Figs. 9, 10 and 11 (Chapter 2)

and Figs. 30, 31 and 32 (Chapter 5), © Trustees of the British

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Museum.

Kolkata Museum for Fig. 29 (Chapter 5), taken by the

author.

Lahore Museum (Pakistan) for Fig. 6 (Chapter 2) taken by

Ranjan Bhalla.

Oriental Museum, Lisbon (Portugal) and the Berardo

Collection for Fig.1, taken by the author.

Wikipedia for Fig. 12 (Chapter 2).

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 Contents

List of Figures and Tables

Preface
Chapter 1
Buddhism in India and Abroad
Chapter 2
Buddhist Art in Asia
Chapter 3
Bodhgaya: The Seat of Enlightenment
Chapter 4
Sarnath: Siteof the First Sermon
Chapter 5
The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati
Chapter 6
The Cave Temples of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle
Chapter 7
The Temples and Sculptures of Angkor
Chapter 8
The Temples and Paintings of Ayutthaya
Chapter 9
The Temples of Bangkok
Glossary
Bibliography
Illustration Credits
Index

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 L i s t o f F i g u r e s and T abl e s

1. Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri, China

2. Sarnath stupas, India
3. San Fa Si pagodas, Dali, China
4. A stupa, Wat Arun, Bangkok, Thailand
5. A Japanese pagoda, Nikko Toshogu Shrine
6. An emaciated Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan
7. A standing Buddha, Sarnath, India
8. A Khmer Buddha, Angkor Thom, Cambodia
9. Buddha footprints, Amaravati, India
10. A medallion showing worship of Buddha
relics, Amaravati, India
11 A relief showing worshippers, a throne and
Buddha’s feet, Amaravati, India
12. A rock painting from Sirigiya, Sri Lanka
13. Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia
14. Stone carvings, Banteay Srei
15. Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya
16. Granite railing, Bodhgaya Museum
17. Current railing around the temple
18. Daijokyo Buddha of Japan, Bodhgaya
19. Great Buddha, Kamakura, Japan
20. Tibetan temple and monastery, Bodhgaya
21. A Buddha statue and tantric decorations,
Bhutanese temple
22. Clay carvings, Bhutanese temple
23. Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath
24. Floral and geometric patterns on the Dhamekh
stupa

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25. A decorated pediment, Sarnath
26. Round stone pillars, Sarnath
27. Great Stupa, Sanchi
28. Northern gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi
29. A Bharhut yaksi
30. A limestone pillar showing the conversion of
Nanda, Amaravati
31. Great Departure of Prince Siddharatha,
Amaravati
32. Floral decoration on a limestone pillar, Amaravati
33. Round floral decorations, Ajanta
34. A close-up of an apsara, Ajanta
35. Carvings on the facade of Cave 19, Ajanta
36. Nagaraja and his consort, facade of Cave 19,
Ajanta
37. Chaitya interior with a standing Buddha, Ajanta
38. Facade of Cave 10 (Carpenter’s cave), Ellora
39. A loving couple on the facade of the Karle
monastery
40. A naga hood, Angkor Thom
41. Nagas on a pediment, Banteay Srei
42. General view of Angkor Wat
43. Painted ceiling and columns, Angkor Wat
44. A group of dancing apsaras, Angkor Wat
45. Demon gods, Angkor Thom
46. Bodhisattvas as guardians, Angkor Thom
47. Khmer army marching into battle, Bayon
48. A devata from the central sanctuary, Bayon
49. A jataka scene on a wall painting, Wat
Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
50. Wat Mahathat behind a meditating Buddha,
Ayutthaya
51. Khmer-style central tower, Wat Ratchburana,
Ayutthaya
52. Stupas of Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya

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 53. Golden Buddha statue in royal attire, Wat
Na Phra Men, Ayutthaya
54. A close-up of the reclining Buddha, Wat Po,
Bangkok
55. Buddha’s feet with mother-of-pearl inlay,
Wat Po, Bangkok
56. Wat Arun from the river, Bangkok
57. Temple guardians, Wat Arun, Bangkok
58. General view of Wat Phra Keo, Bangkok
59. A mural painting depicting a scene from
Buddha’s life, Bangkok

Tables

Table 2.1
Ancient Indian dynasties and patronage of Buddhist art

Table 4.1
Differences between Sarnath and Mathura images of Buddha

Table 5.1
Characteristics of the railings in Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati
and Bodhgaya

Table 7.1
Temples of Angkor

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 Pr e fac e

Buddhism, which originated in India in the sixth century BC,

faded into near oblivion by the thirteenth century. However,
it spread to other countries in Asia, and along with it,
Buddhist art. Tracing the Indian influence on Buddhist art in
Asia is a central theme of the book.
Why did Buddhism disappear in India? This question has
not yet found a satisfactory answer. Some scholars and
historians believe that Buddhism was so tolerant of other
faiths that it was gradually reabsorbed by the Hindu
tradition. It may have lasted as long as it received royal
patronage during Ashoka’s reign and that of his successors.
This religion was also popular among the mercantile
community which provided financial support to the Buddhist
temples and monasteries. The decline of the mercantile
community may have lowered the status of Buddhism. Lack
of resources to sustain a new religion may have further
contributed to its downfall. The arrival of Islam in India in
the thirteenth century was perhaps the final blow to
Buddhism.
Chapter 1 presents a brief history of Buddhism in South
Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia as a background to a
discussion of monuments (temples, monasteries, stupas),
sculpture (Buddha statues, medallions and relief panels) as
well as paintings in Ajanta, Bodhgaya, Ellora, Karle Sarnath
and Sanchi in India, Angkor in Cambodia, and Ayutthaya
and Bangkok in Thailand. It examines reasons for the spread
and later downfall of Buddhism in India and its expansion in
countries such as Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Sri Lanka
and Thailand.
Chapter 2 discusses the patronage of Buddhist art by

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kings, rich merchants and ordinary people as well as Indian
influence on Buddhist art in South Asia and the rest of Asia
particularly Southeast Asia (that is, Cambodia, Indonesia and
Thailand). There are wide variations in the features of
Buddhist art (especially Buddha sculptures) across countries
and regions. We examine whether these differences are due
to history, culture, legends or geography.
Early conservative form of Buddhism did not present Buddha
in a human form. His presence was shown by such symbols
as the Wheel of Law, lotus, a tree, footprints, a stupa and an
empty throne. However, later the form of Buddhism broke
away from the above symbolism and allowed Buddha’s
human embodiment for worship. Buddha sculptures grew
rapidly throughout Asia and replaced the earlier symbols.
Chapter 3 on Bodhgaya discusses its importance as a
Buddhist holy place where Buddha attained enlightenment.
It is a small town of international significance. It contains
Buddhist temples and monasteries built by Bhutan, Burma
(Myanmar), China, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand and Tibet
(China), which represent different styles of architecture.
Similarly, Buddhist sculptures vary from temple to temple.
Sarnath is another important Buddhist holy place where
Buddha delivered his first sermon. At the end of the first
sermon, five monks became the first members of sangha
(order) in search of dharma (truth). Chapter 4 discusses and
illustrates the Dhamekh stupa, the only surviving monument
as well as the ruins of monasteries and stone pillars.
In Chapter 5, the railing pillars of Sanchi (Madhya
Pradesh) are compared with those in Bharhut (Madhya
Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) and Bodhgaya
(Bihar). Sanchi is known for the Great Stupa and its richly-
decorated gateways. Although the Bharhut and Amaravati
stupas have not survived, their railings preserved in the
National Museum in Kolkata and the British Museum in
London respectively, offer a rich source of information on

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Buddhist art.
Chapter 6 discusses Ajanta, Ellora and Karle rock-cut
temples in Maharashtra. The Ajanta mural paintings are
some of the oldest Indian paintings to have survived. The
themes of these paintings and sculptures are discussed and
illustrated.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the Khmer temples of Angkor Wat
and Angkor Thom. Angkor was the seat of Khmer kings from
the ninth to thirteenth century. King Y asorvarman I moved
his capital to Angkor and built Hindu temples devoted first to
Shiva and later to Vishnu. Later, these temples became places
of Buddha worship. Buddhist art is discussed notably, bas
reliefs of devatas, heavenly nymphs as well as Buddha
sculptures which are displayed in abundance in the various
temples.
Chapters 8 and 9 deal with Thailand where Buddhism
influenced art from the first century AD onwards. The two
chapters discuss temples, sculptures and paintings in
Ayutthaya and Bangkok respectively as well as the Ayutthaya
and Bangkok Schools of art.
The Indian influence on Buddhist art pervaded South Asia
(in Burma, Ceylon and Nepal, for example) and Southeast
Asia (in Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand). Different
chapters of the book provide concrete examples of this
influence in architecture, sculpture and paintings.
Most illustrations in the book are based on my fieldwork
in the various Buddhist holy places covered in the book.
I owe a debt of gratitude to several friends and relatives,
notably, Ingvar Å hman, for the scanning of rare
photographs; my two sons, Arman Bhalla and Ranjan
Bhalla, for supplying photographs of Angkor Wat and Angkor
Thom in Cambodia and Ayutthaya in Thailand; Sandra
Zysset for providing photographs of Buddhas from Japan:
and Anjali Ghate for willingly offering assistance in library
searches.

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 I would like to thank the Archaeological Survey of India,
New Delhi, and a number of museums for permission to use
illustrations, notably, the British Museum in London, the
Oriental Museum in Lisbon, National Museum Kolkata in
India and the Lahore Museum in Pakistan.
Finally, I am grateful to the staff of the following libraries
in Geneva and Cambridge for their valuable assistance in the
course of my research work: Library of the Museum of
Ethnography,Geneva;Library of Art and Archaeology of the
City of Geneva; India Office Section of the British Library,
London and the Cambridge University Library.

Commugny, Switzerland
A.S. Bhalla

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 C h ap t e r 1

Buddhism in India and Abroad

Buddhist religion was a driving force behind the evolution of

what is commonly viewed as Buddhist art—architecture,
sculpture and painting. While one may quibble about
whether religion can stimulate art or art can be defined in
religious terms, there is no denying the fact that much of
Buddhist art, mainly sculpture, centres around Buddha, his
life before birth, after nirvana and the religion he founded.
Buddhism originated in India in the fifth or sixth century
BC. Hinduism was the prevailing religion at that time which
believed in sacrificial rituals, transmigration of soul and
karmas.
Gautama Siddhartha, later Lord Buddha, was the founder
of Buddhism. He was born in around 563 BC in a southern
clan of Sakyas in Nepal, bordering India. He came from a
wealthy family and grew up in the midst of comforts of life.
Since his childhood, Gautama was known to be
contemplative. A Brahmin predicted that he would become a
saint by renouncing the world. Therefore, his father was
particularly keen to keep his son away from any discomforts.
He was married at the age of sixteen and was blessed with a
son, Rahula.
Gautama was disillusioned with family and social life,
and soon decided to abandon it. At the age of twenty-nine, he
left his home, wife and son. He rode away on his horse,
Kanthaka, accompanied by his charioteer, Channa. This
event is known as the Great Departure. He was deeply
influenced by the sight of misery of a decrepit man, a sick

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man and a dead man.
Buddha learned Y oga, a meditative discipline, and
practised it while searching for the Truth. He attained
enlightenment (or bodhi) under a pipal tree in Gaya (later
called Bodhgaya, see Chapter 3) in Bihar in about 525 BC.

Birth, Principles and Types of Buddhism

Buddhism originated in the northeast of India, bordering UP
and Bihar, what is now Nepal, as a reaction to Hindu idol
worship, rituals and caste hierarchy.
During Buddha’s life time (approximately 563–480 BC),
India was replete with small religious movements centred
around a few well-known and charismatic yogis. People were
increasingly dissatisfied with the Hindu practices of rituals
and sacrifices. This is when tri-ratna (three jewels) emerged
involving Buddha, Dharma (the doctrine) and Sangha (the
community). Buddha himself spent the first seven years as a
yogi. But at the end of this period, he realised that this was
not the right path to salvation. This is when he adopted the
middle path between self-indulgence and self-mortification.

The Middle Path and Four Noble Truths

Buddha decided to teach Dharma to others for their

salvation. He delivered the first sermon in Sarnath (see
Chapter 4) which is called ‘setting the Wheel of Law in
motion’. It enunciated Four Noble Truths about:

Suffering (dukkha)
The cause of suffering (samudaya) which
originates within us from the craving for
pleasure.

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 The removal of the cause of suffering (nirodha),
and
The path leading to the removal of the cause of
suffering (marga).

Suffering can be eliminated by following a middle path,

defined as the Eightfold Path for the attainment of salvation
or release from rebirths (nirvana).

The purification of the soul and the elimination of

suffering and misery requires:

Continual meditation
Right mode of seeing things
Right thinking
Right speech
Right action
Right mode of living
Right effort in every mode of being
Right mindfulness

The adoption of the Eightfold Path involved the creation

of such institutions as the Buddhist Order or sangha,
Buddhist councils and monasteries. The sangha was created
with the core membership of the first five disciples of Buddha.
It soon accepted others in its fold, for example, Y asa, the son
of a wealthy banker from Varanasi, his parents and lay
devotees.
The sangha rapidly grew due to the simplicity of local
dialects in which the Buddhist message of equality and
charity was preached. A number of rules governing the new
Order were introduced.
Initially, only monks were accepted by the Order.
However, nuns were also admitted in due course. It was
possible for women to be ordained if they agreed to follow

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stringent rules.
In the early days of Buddhism, those who gave up family
life started wandering and living on alms as mendicants.
They adopted a guru and started wandering with him.
During the rainy season (vassa) from July through August,
they stayed at fixed retreats in villages. After Buddha’s death,
rain retreats were replaced by more permanent monasteries
called viharas.

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Different Types of Buddhism

Buddha died at the age of eighty. After his death, Buddhism

and his doctrine developed in three different directions—
Theravada, and Tantra. About 100 years after Buddha’s
death, divisions began to appear in the Buddhist Sangha
(Council). It was perhaps a consequence of a rapid growth of
the Order from a rather small number of monks to a large
community. In this context, the Third Buddhist Council at
Pataliputra (present-day Patna) in c250 BC was quite
significant. At this conference, the Theravada Buddhists
attempted to exclude dissidents from the Buddhist Order. It
was also at this Council that the Buddhist canon (Tripitaka)
was completed and it was decided to send missionaries to
Southeast Asian countries. At this stage, there were two main
schools (1) A conservative group which adhered strictly to the
original principles and practices of Buddhism and (2) a more
liberal school which offered greater freedom. Subsequently,
the liberal form of Buddhism started incorporating Hindu
Tantric rituals which may have eventually led to its decline.
The three types of Buddhism are briefly discussed below.

1. Theravada Buddhism (Hinayana or Lesser

Vehicle): It is the oldest and original form of
Buddhism that adhered to the teachings of
Buddha. It had three main elements:
The ‘sphere of desire’ (kamadhatu).
The ‘sphere of material form’ (rupadhatu);
animals, demons, ghosts and goods.
The ‘fear of the formless’ (arupadhatu).

At the Third Council, a controversy arose between the

reformists and the early Theravidans over the reality of states

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of consciousness (cittas). The former group believed that
these states actually existed whereas the latter condemned
this view. The former sect at this stage decided to leave the
Ganges Valley and move to Madhura in the northwest. It is
in Madhura that a more reformed school of Buddhism or
Greater Vehicle developed.
Theravada believes that an ideal form of Buddhism is
reached when an ascetic attains nirvana through his own
efforts. It lays greater emphasis on his Dharma than on
Buddha himself. It also believes that an ascetic and a layman
have very different roles to play in religion as well as society.

2. Buddhism: This adaptation of the original form

of Buddhism was presumably meant to bring a
larger number of followers within its fold. It
spread to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Southeast Asia
after the gradual disappearance of Buddhism in
India. It believes in Buddha as a transcendent
being who multiplies himself. In several temples
in and outside India, a large number of Buddha
statues are found in different forms, especially in
Southeast Asian countries which adopted the
form of Buddhism.

Unlike the Theravada form of Buddhism, focuses more

on Buddha and Bodhisattvas (Buddhas-to-be) than on
Buddha’s doctrine (Dharma). This is evidenced by the
existence of a large number of Bodhisattva images, for
example in Ajanta in India and Angkor Thom in Cambodia
(see Chapters 6 and 7) as well as in China. Figure 1 of
Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri date back to the Jin
or Y uan dynasties of the thirteenth century. There was also a
practice in China of carving them in stone. Often
Bodhisattvas are adorned with garments and jewels unlike
Buddha images which are invariably very simple.

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Fig. 1 Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri, China

Under Buddhism, Buddha is seen as one of many

Buddhas who appeared in different universes. While
Theravada Buddhists believe that a Buddhist can achieve
salvation on his own by following the Eightfold Path, the
followers believe in turning to Bodhisattvas.

3. Tantrism (or Vajrayana): This form of Buddhism

is associated with deities, for example, the
goddess of fertility, magical rites, geometrical
symbols, formulae and diagrams and even sexual
freedom (sexual orgies are known to have been
allowed). In early stages, Tantrism appeared in

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 both Hinduism and Buddhism. The objective of
this form of esoteric belief and practice was to
attain a state of mystical union of a deity with his
consort. Hence the symbolism of sexual union
was a way of realising an ultimate mystical
experience. Morals, celibacy and asceticism were
rejected in favour of indulgence of the senses.
This form of Buddhism became open to abuse
and misinterpretation of the true tenets of
Buddhism. That is why it is considered by some
critics as a degeneration of true Buddhism. It
spread to Ceylon, India, Nepal and Tibet.

This form of Buddhism is said to be a simplification of the

Hindu Vedic cults. It accepts spouses of male Bodhisattvas as
Taras or Saviouresses (Thapar, 1990:261-2). Revered as a
goddess, Tara was the female equivalent of the Boddhisattva
Avalokitesvara who became important in Tibet. In sixth-
century Indian art, Tara first appears along with
Avalokitesvara as the Mother of all Buddhas. The mother
image was respected, as a woman is the source of all
creation. The fifth century witnessed the emergence of a new
cult worshipping female deities such as the goddess of
fertility. This may have been the precursor of Tantrism,
which developed in the sixth century and centred on magical
formulae and symbols as well as worship of a mother image
as the source of all creation.

Spread of Buddhism in India

Several factors account for the rapid spread of Buddhism and

its doctrine. This religion was open to all and did not
recognise caste differences (an important feature of the
Indian society at that time). The only differences recognised

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by Buddha were those that derived from diverse moral
maturity of individuals. However, this could not have been
the only reason for a new religion to survive Hindu critics
and prosper. Royal patronage of the Mauryan, Gupta and
Sunga kings as well as financial support from the mercantile
community must have also played an important part in the
propagation of the new religion.
The rapid spread of Buddhism in India is associated with
the conversion of Mauryan King Ashoka to the Buddhist
doctrine and principles after the battle of Kalinga (in present-
day Orissa) in 260 BC. The battle for the supremacy of the
trade routes to South India involved a lot of bloodshed, the
deaths of a large number of people and the displacement of
those who survived. The king felt permanent remorse and
horror after the bloody battle. He decided to adopt Buddhism
because it preached peace and non-violence.
Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, founder of the
Mauryan dynasty in India (322 BC to 185 BC), is known to
be the earliest and most well-known of the patrons of
Buddhism in India and the rest of Asia. He was a Hindu
when he ascended the throne and was converted to
Buddhism much later, after the battle of Kalinga, as noted
above. One scholar (for example, Thapar, 1963) believes that
Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism was a way to attract
support from non-orthodox elements. Apparently, his rise to
power was not without difficulties. He did not receive whole-
hearted support from the orthodox Brahmanic elements.
The Sunga kings took over after the fall of the Mauryan
Empire. In 185 BC, Pushyamitra murdered the last Maurya
king and established the Sunga dynasty (185-72 BC).
Although the first Sunga king is said to have persecuted
Buddhists, the kings who followed him either tolerated or
actually promoted Buddhism. Controversy surrounds the
belief that the first Sunga king actively persecuted Buddhism.
It is known that he was a Brahmin and as such may not

26
have been enthusiastic about Buddhism. But both religions
were practised during the Sunga dynasty.
There is some historical evidence to suggest that the
orthodox Sunga kings were tolerant of Buddhism and that
this religion prospered during the Sunga Empire. The
following two inscriptions found at the Mahabodhi temple in
Bodhgaya suggest royal support:

‘The gift of Nagadevi, the wife of King

Brahmamitra’.
‘The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons
and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of
Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace
shrine’ (Barua, 1934).

The Gupta period (fourth to seventh century), the golden

age of India as it is sometimes called, saw Buddhism flourish
further. The two Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hsien[1] and Hsuan
Tsang[2], who visited India in the fifth and seventh century
respectively, testified that both Hinayana and forms of
Buddhism had prospered in the Gupta Empire.
During the Gupta period, Buddhism had spread beyond
India, into China, Southeast Asia and Central Asia. Buddhism
drove out the more orthodox Hinayana form. This period also
witnessed the development of Tantrism. It is also during this
period that the King of Ceylon sought permission from King
Samudragupta to build a Buddhist monastery in Gaya. As
discussed in chapter 6 on Ajanta and Ellora, this period also
witnessed the construction of rock-cut Buddhist shrines and
temples in the Deccan. The literature of this period frequently
mentions the Buddhist wall paintings of Ajanta cave temples.
To conclude, the royal court continued to accept both
Hinduism and Buddhism. Even when some kings practised
Hinduism (they were Brahmins) they did not oppose
Buddhism and the construction of its temples and

27
monasteries.
Even before the advent of the Mauryan dynasty,
Hinduism (or more appropriately, Brahmanism) had
developed a complex system of rituals and caste beliefs. It
had become a religion of the high-caste princes and priests,
and possibly wealthier members of the commercial class. The
lower castes were either marginalised or excluded. The
merchant class (vaishyas) became economically and
financially prosperous with the opening of trade to Southeast
Asia and West Asia. Building of the road infrastructure by
Ashoka must have helped such trade. In the north, Indo-
Greek and later Indo-Roman connections opened the trade
route with West Asia and the Mediterranean. Settlement of
Indian traders in Cambodia and Thailand must also have
encouraged the expansion of trade with that part of Asia. It is
logical that the merchant class would be attracted to
Buddhism which did not recognise the caste system and thus
offered social mobility to anyone who adopted it. Adoption of
Buddhism by this class may have been a kind of resentment
against the caste-ridden Hindu orthodoxy. Buddhism may
have also been more popular with the Greeks and Romans
due to its egalitarian principles and greater degree of
openness.

Decline of Buddhism in India

During the Gupta Empire both Buddhism and Hinduism

prospered at the same time. Buddhism, a more recent religion
than Hinduism, did not believe in the traditional Hindu
thought of ‘ultimate reality in things’. Buddha believed in the
impermanency of everything. Unlike Hindus, Buddhists do
not believe in soul or atman. They argue that nothing within
us is metaphysically real. They believe in the theory of the
non-existence of an eternal I, or atman (anatta). Buddhism

28
does not recognise caste, social class or ethnic origin. But
caste is the cornerstone of Hindu religion. Buddhism preaches
celibacy for monks and nuns. Were these differences not
strong enough for Buddhism to hold its own ground? What
accounts for the decline of Buddhism in India and its spread
in the rest of Asia?
Scholars and historians do not agree on the contributing
factors. A popular belief is that Buddhism became so tolerant
of other faiths that it was reabsorbed by the Hindu tradition.
In respect of both worship and rituals, it ‘had compromised
with the brahmanical religion to such an extent that it could
almost have been regarded as a sect of the latter’ (Thapar,
1990:159). This argument does not seem to be all that
convincing considering that Hinduism and Buddhism happily
coexisted for several centuries. Many Hindu kings who
practised Hinduism continued to patronise Buddhist art and
architecture not only in India but also in Southeast Asia,
particularly in Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand.
Why would the two religions prosper side by side in
Southeast Asia but not in India? Indeed, Hinduism was
strong in Cambodia before King Suryavarma VII adopted
Buddhism. This is amply visible in Angkor Wat bas-reliefs of
scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata, not to speak of
the celestial Hindu deities, devatas and apsaras. Perhaps the
roots of Hinduism were not as strong abroad to dominate
Buddhism? In both India and Southeast Asia, Buddhism
went through different adaptations and phases which must
have weakened it vis-à-vis Hinduism.
Buddhism lasted as long as it received royal patronage
during the reign of Ashoka and his successors. It was also
popular among the mercantile community which provided
financial support to the Buddhist temples and monasteries
(see Chapter 2). The decline of this community may have
lowered the status of Buddhism. A lack of resources to sustain
this young religion may have contributed to its downfall in

29
India. The arrival of Islam in India in the thirteenth century
was perhaps the final blow to Buddhism. Muslim invaders
destroyed the Buddhist monasteries in many parts of India,
which may have led to the exodus of Buddhists from eastern
India to Southeast Asia. However, Muslim invasions cannot
be a primary explanation for the decline of Buddhism in
India. After all, both Hinduism and Jainism survived the
Muslim onslaught.
Another explanation may be that Tantric Buddhism was
regarded by many true Buddhists and non-Buddhists as a
degenerate form which brought a bad name to Buddhism.
Internal causes of the decline of Buddhism were perhaps as
important as the external ones. Buddhism relied too heavily
on costly monastic institutions enjoying royal patronage but
not popular support. Buddhist monasteries remained isolated
from the surrounding village communities (The
Encyclopaedia of Religion, 1987:380).
Hindu Brahmin priests had a strong hold on kings who
were generally very religious at that time. The kings turned to
royal priests for ceremonies, rituals and good omens. With
the spread of Buddhism, the royal priests lost their power and
influence and must have resented this situation. They would
make every effort to ensure that Hinduism and its ritual
practices were reinstated.

Spread of Buddhism to Asia

The Mauryan kings, especially Ashoka, were largely
responsible for the spread of Buddhism in South Asia
(Burma, Ceylon and Nepal) and Southeast Asia (Cambodia
and Thailand).
In the third century BC, Ashoka sent missionaries to
Ceylon and Southeast Asia. There is historical evidence
(chronicles of Ceylon) of close relations between the

30
Mauryan kingdom and the kingdom of King Tissa of Ceylon.
The chronicles note that Ashoka sent to the Ceylon king a
branch of the original Bodhi tree (pipal) under which Buddha
attained enlightenment. The tree is known to have survived
in Ceylon although it was cut in India by an anti-Buddhist
fanatic (Thapar, 1990:75).
Theravada Buddhism, which spread to Southeast Asia in
the early eleventh century, also took roots in Ceylon. In the
beginning, it had to struggle against entrenched Hinduism,
Tantrism and various forms of practised there at that time.
Although rather conservative, Theravada Buddhism of
Ceylon was flexible and accommodating. It accepted the
worship of Hindu gods as well as local spirits. The Tamil
kings may have been partly responsible for this flexibility.
Missionaries played an important role in the spread of
Buddhism outside India, which took hold in Ceylon with the
arrival of King Ashoka’s son, Mahinda and his companions.
The king sent them there as missionaries to propagate
Buddhism. Mahinda and his companions were successful in
converting King Tissa and many nobles to Buddhism. Many
monasteries were built during the king’s reign. After King
Tissa’s death in around 207 BC, the country was taken over
by a Tamil king from South India (Elara) who was a Hindu.
He was opposed to Buddhism and threatened to absorb the
new religion into Hinduism. It is only when Dutthagamani, a
descendant of King Tissa, overthrew the Tamil king that
Buddhism was revived in Ceylon.
In Burma, Buddhism was established by the fifth century.
It was spread by the Ceylonese missionaries. Both Theravada
and forms were practised. Theravada was popular in the
north and in the south.
During the reign of King Anawrahta (1044-77) the north
and south of Burma were united. Theravada Buddhism
received royal patronage during this period and remained
popular until Burma’s independence in 1948. The tradition of

31
the councils was preserved. In 1961, Buddhism became the
state religion. However, religion lost its political influence
soon after General Ne Win took over the country. The Army’s
programme of modernisation and a political framework of
moderate socialism weakened the religious influence on the
affairs of the state.
The Mon in the south of Burma, the first to be influenced
by Buddhism, were influential in converting the Burmese
people to Theravada form of Buddhism. Tantrism flourished
in upper Burma at this time. However, controversy arose
about ordination when Upper and Lower Burma were united
during the reign of King Anawrahta. One school believed that
the ordination dating back to Ashoka’s missionaries in the
second century BC was still valid. Another believed in the
ordination in the line of succession established by the
Sinhalese monastery of Mahavihara. Finally, King
Dhammazedi (1472-92) decided in favour of the latter.
Buddhism also spread to the Himalayan kingdoms of
Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim. Buddha was born in Lumbini in
Nepal, but Buddhist religion developed there much later. The
Indian form of Buddhism based on Sanskrit texts continues
to be used in rituals in Nepal. Inscriptions provide evidence of
the existence of Buddhist monasteries in the country during
the fifth century. By the eighth century, Nepal had fallen
under the Tibetan cultural influence which is visible even
today in such symbols as prayer wheels. In Bhutan, a Tibetan
Lama introduced Buddhism in the seventeenth century.
Tibetans also introduced the religion in Sikkim which they
usurped in the seventeenth century.
Buddhism spread to Central Asia through northern India.
However, not much is known about who brought Buddhism
to this region. Did King Kanishka’s missionaries spread the
religion there? A son of Ashoka is believed to have founded
the kingdom of Khotan in around 240 BC and his grandson
introduced Buddhism there. In around the first century BC,

32
Buddhism was practised in Eastern Turkistan which had
several Indian colonies. Buddhism must have declined in
Central Asia after the spread of Islam in the seventh century.
Buddhism was brought to Tibet from India in the seventh
century. So the Indian influence was to be expected. But the
form of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan art were also
influenced by China and Central Asia.
Buddhism in Tibet was ‘a curious mixture of shamanism.
Tantrism and Indian Madhyamika gradually became the
core of what came to be known erroneously as Lamaism, the
religion of the “superior ones” (The New Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1981a:411).[3] It represented a synthesis of and
Vajrayana types prevalent in the north of India during the
seventh to eleventh century. While the former stressed a
gradual process of understanding an established doctrine, the
latter preached the use of mystical means to achieve quicker
results. The Buddhist religion also adopted some practices of
the Bon cult (which believes in local divinities and divine
kingship) that prevailed at the time of the advent of
Buddhism. The Bon cult favoured Tantric principles,
performed rituals and sacrificed animals.
In the eighth century, Indian monks went to Tibet to
preach Buddhism. Clearly, their major task was first to
subdue the Bon spirits that were being practised. During the
tenth and eleventh centuries, Indian monks went to Tibet to
translate sacred Buddhist texts. Rivalry between different
groups of monks following different masters developed in the
seventeenth century. It was a case of gaining political power
rather than religious supremacy.[4] The Theravada form of
Buddhism in Cambodia was perhaps introduced there by
Ceylonese monks. There is evidence of frequent contacts
between Ceylon and Cambodia.[5] Chinese influence spread
to North Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand through
merchants and missionaries.
The Khmer kingdoms of Chenla (sixth century) and

33
Angkor (ninth century) inherited many features of Buddhism
from Funan. At the time of its arrival, Hinduism was the
state religion. First, Shiva was worshipped and later Vishnu.
Buddhism was practised at the same time. First, the
Hinayana form was introduced. Later in the fifth century,
under King Kamdinya Jayavarman, Hinduism and
Buddhism began to be practised.
Shiva worship declined in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries and Buddhism and Vaishnav Hinduism became
stronger (the existence of Vaishnu temple at Angkor Wat
bears testimony to this). Buddhism was declared the state
religion under King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215) whose
reign represents the heyday of the Khmer Empire.
However, when the Thai captured Angkor Wat in 1431,
the Mon started spreading Theravada Buddhism (1200-
1350). The Khmer conversion to Theravada Buddhism was
completed by the time of the Thai capture of Angkor.
In Thailand, Theravada Buddhism is the state religion.
During the reign of King Chulalongkorn (1873-1910),
Buddhism was considered to be a peaceful religion good for
the unity of the country. The Thai came into contact with the
form in China in the ninth century. Later during the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, Thailand was swept by the reformed
Sinhalese form of Theravada Buddhism which had been
spreading fast through Southeast Asia. In the thirteenth
century, two Thai kingdoms were established in Sukhotai and
Chiengmai. A powerful Thai kingdom emerged in 1350 in
Ayutthaya. By the sixteenth century, Chiengmai had become
the leading centre of Theravada Buddhism. The Khmer
people at this time followed Brahmanic Hindu tradition,
some elements of which were absorbed by the Thai in
Ayutthaya. King Rama I (1782-1809), who established the
kingdom in Bangkok, also followed this tradition. The
kingdom of Bangkok became the state of Thailand after
Ayutthaya fell into the hands of the Burmese in 1769.

34
 At present, there are two Buddhist sects in Thailand. First,
a larger sect or Mahanikaya, and second, a sect of the
followers of Dhamma (Dhammayuttika-Nikaya). The king
names a patriarch who is accepted by the heads of the two
sects. The sangha is state-directed and carries out such social
functions as education, public works and the administration
of religious property.
In Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where
both Theravada and (mainly Zen and Pure Land) forms of
Buddhism continue to be practised side by side. In Laos,
Buddhist statues of style date back to the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, suggesting that Buddhism arrived during this
period under the Khmer influence. However, in the
fourteenth century, Theravada form became more popular.
Different forms of Buddhism and Hinduism were found
in Indonesia before the thirteenth century when Islam had
established its roots there. As in Cambodia and Thailand, the
Indian influence travelled to Indonesia through ‘Brahmins
who were invited by Indonesian princes to dedicate temples
and explain their beliefs’ (Fahr-Becker, vol. I, 1998:326). The
Buddhist Srivijaya dynasty in Sumatra and the Shailendra
dynasty in Java bear testimony to the Indian influence (also
see Chapter 2). Hinduism continues to be practised on the
Indonesian island of Bali today even though Indonesia is a
predominantly Muslim country.
In China, historical records suggest that Buddhism was
known and practised as far back as the third century BC
when Ashoka ruled in India and promoted Buddhism far and
wide. It seems to have become popular during the Han
dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). There were close links between
Taoism (which was then practised) and Buddhism. Taoism
believed in magical practices and folk beliefs; it may have
been influenced by Buddhism which preached nirvana
through various ascetic practices.[6]
Buddhism prospered particularly well during the T’ang

35
dynasty (618-907) whose emperors favoured the religion.
They brought the Buddhist monasteries and the legal status
of monks under government control. Buddhist temples and
monasteries expanded rapidly. Many pilgrimages to India
were organised; several foreign monks visited India in the
seventh century and wrote about Bodhgaya and other
Buddhist centres.
During the Sung dynasty (960-1279), Buddhism spread
throughout China. It became popular because of its
pragmatism and worldly outlook compared with Buddhism
practised in India at that time. For example, monasteries
owned and operated oil presses, lent money and maintained
roads. The Indian-style sangha was reorganised from a
democratic institution to one controlled by the state.
Buddhism was brought to Korea from China in the fourth
century and it gradually spread to several kingdoms. The
unification of different kingdoms into one country led to the
adoption of the religion throughout the territory. Buddhism
began to decline during the Koryo period (935-1392). The
government gradually curtailed privileges offered to the
monks. Confucianism replaced Buddhism as the state
religion.
Korean refugees and craftsmen carried Buddhism to
Japan in the sixth century. Its introduction was not without
controversy. While the powerful Soga clan accepted it, others
rejected it out of a sense of nationalism. They felt that the
introduction of Buddha statues was an insult to local deities.
The fortunes of Buddhism were revived by Prince Shotoku
Taishi (573-621) who became regent in AD 593. He
introduced a ‘Seventeen Article Constitution’ which attempted
to harmonise Confucianism and Buddhism as a spiritual
foundation of the state.
Shinto was the dominant religion in Japan when
Buddhism arrived there. Those practising Shinto worshipped
the gods of the sky and the sun. Buddhism had to overcome

36
the scepticism of these followers. The spread of the new
religion was facilitated by the conversion of Prince Shotoku to
Buddhism as was the conversion of Emperor Ashoka in India
much earlier.
Buddhism became the state religion during the Nara
period (710-784). Nara, which is home to the Great Buddha
Statue, Daibutsu, became an important Buddhist centre.
Several Buddhist sects developed: Hinayana, Shingon and
Pure Land. In the thirteenth century, Zen Buddhism
(Chinese Ch’an) became popular, especially with the military.
Buddhism gradually incorporated some elements of
Shinto and Confucianism. Local divinities worshipped under
Shinto were accepted as incarnations of the Buddha. In turn,
in AD 767 an imperial decree announced that kami (sacred
objects and symbols of Shinto) were to guard the Law of the
Buddha. Buddhist monks were also permitted to officiate in
Shinto temples.
In the thirteenth century, Japan witnessed the emergence
of its own Buddhist monk, Nichiren (1222-82), who was
considered a prophet. He preached that salvation could be
achieved by reciting the Lotus Sutra. During the later periods,
Zen Buddhism became popular. Several schools of Zen
thought and practice developed. During the Tokugawa period
(1603-1867), Buddhism was promoted as the state religion.
Temples were used to register population in order to prevent
the spread of Christianity.[7]
The association of Buddhism with the Tokugawa regime
made it unpopular during the Meiji period (1868-1912)
particularly among the elite who wanted to bring back Shinto
as the state religion. This led to the separation of two
religions. Lands were confiscated from the Buddhist temples
and many Buddhist priests were dismissed.
Many new religions emerged in Japan during the inter-
war and post-war periods. This plurality of religions is rare if
not unknown in other Buddhist countries.

37
 Thus, it can be seen from the above brief account that
Buddhism spread far and wide in South Asia, Central Asia,
Southeast Asia and East Asia despite its disappearance from
India. But India continued to wield important influence in
these regions especially in Southeast Asia.
Indian Influence in Southeast Asia
From the very beginning of Christian era, the Indian
influence has been felt outside India particularly in Southeast
Asia. Indian seafarers went out in search of trade and
commerce despite Hindu strictures against travelling
overseas. There was a continuation of earlier contacts
between pre-Aryan India and Southeast and East Asia
(Groslier and Arthaud, 1957). The Indian expansion to
Southeast Asia was in sharp contrast to that of China
southwards.[8] René Gousset considers ‘Indian spiritual
colonies of Borobodur and Angkor’ constituting ‘India’s
greatest title to fame, her contribution to mankind’ (cited in
ibid.:16).
There is no consensus on why Indians moved outwards in
ancient times. No single explanation is satisfactory. The
following are several plausible reasons.

Internal population pressures in India.

Expansionist policies of South Indian states.
Political upheavals in northern India which
may have triggered exodus from India.
Emergence of Buddhism which was much
more tolerant and egalitarian than Hinduism.
Development of maritime technology and the
building of large ships.
Growth of trade and commerce. When trade
with the Mediterranean reached its peak,
Indians needed new sources of supply of spices,
gold, precious stones and perfumes which

38
 might have led them to Southeast Asia in
search of these goods. Combined with this was
Ashoka’s desire to spread the message of
Buddhism.

Buddhist sculpture, architecture and painting spread from

India to the Southeast and East Asia along with the spread of
Buddhist religion. Buddhist art is discussed in the following
chapters with special reference to Indian (Buddhist and
Hindu) influence on it. Chapter 2 discusses the subject in
general in India and the rest of Asia. Chapters 3 to 9 are
devoted to Buddhist sculpture, architecture and paintings,
particularly to the places of importance to Buddhist religion.

39
 C h ap t e r 2

Buddhist Art in Asia

Indian art is often said to be religious in the sense that it

represents a particular religion such as Hinduism or
Buddhism by depicting its gods, temples and other places of
worship. Some observers go even further and say that in
India art is religion and religion is art. However, strictly
speaking it may be more appropriate to speak of Indian art
that represents Hindu or Buddhist themes. The art form is
more a function of time and space than of religion per se. For
example, whether a piece of art or sculpture represents a
Hindu deity or Buddha does not change the form or type of
sculpture. For purposes of exposition, the term ‘Buddhist art
and architecture’ is often used, but one needs to bear in mind
this caveat.
Any art is generally defined in terms of architecture,
sculpture and painting. Buddhist architecture encompasses
stupas, prayer halls and temples. Buddhist temples in the old
Hindu tradition are rare in India. The two main examples of
such temples are Temple 17 in Sanchi (see Chapter 5) and
Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3). Simple
prayer halls (chaityas) provided places of worship and
monasteries (viharas) places of accommodation for monks.
As discussed below, stupas were the most common form of
Buddhist architecture in ancient India.
Temples, stupas and viharas were the main symbols of
Buddhist art during the early period. For example, the
Mahabodhi Temple, the Dhamekh Stupa (see Chapter 4) and

40
the Great Stupa in Sanchi (see Chapter 5) are some of the
earliest examples of Buddhist art and architecture which
remain intact until today. The Buddhist cave temples of
Ajanta and Ellora (see Chapter 6) dating back from the third
century BC to the sixth century AD depict the art of mural
painting, sculpture and stone carvings. Below we shall first
discuss the royal and non-royal patronage of Buddhist art
followed by its various aspects, namely, architecture,
sculpture and paintings.
The earliest Hindu and Buddhist monuments used wood
as the main building material which was later replaced by
brick, clay, stone and metal. Since wood is perishable, very
little of ancient structures remain in existence today. During
later periods, the use of stone became particularly popular.
Most buildings discussed in this book are of brick or stone.
Artisans, who were familiar with wood and clay, continued to
imitate wooden forms in stone, which is evident in many
buildings that have survived.

Patronage of Buddhist Art

Early Buddhist art was promoted by kings (such as Ashoka)

and rich merchants. A number of scholars (Dehejia and
Zimmer, for example) cite inscriptional evidence showing
that laymen and women also contributed to the building of
Buddhist monuments. There is no doubt that religious
devotion in a country such as India involved ordinary people
contributing financially and/or materially to holy places. But
lay sponsorship alone without any royal backing could not
explain such magnificent buildings as Sanchi stupas, toranas
and the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya.

41
 The three types of sponsorship by kings, merchants,
laymen and women are discussed below.

Royal Patronage

Royal patronage was an important factor explaining the

spread of Buddhist art in India and the rest of Asia. Table 2.1
describes the royal dynasties in India under which Buddhist
art prospered. Royal members of some dynasties practised
Hindu religion but tolerated Buddhism and promoted
Buddhist art by building or renovating monuments. Perhaps
royal patronage was motivated by the concern of the rulers
‘for the fortunes of their empire’ (Dehejia, 1997:112).

Table 2.1 Ancient Indian dynasties and patronage of Buddhist

art

Dynasty Period of Religion Monuments

reign supported
Maury a 3 2 1 -1 85
BC.
Ashoka 2 7 4 -2 3 7 Hinduism /Buddhism . Sarnath,Bodhgay a,
BC. Am arav ati, ear
stupas.
Sunga 1 85-7 2 BC. Hinduism . Sanchistupano.2 ,
Sarnath railings.
Andhra 2 2 0 BC-1 50 Hinduism . Bodhgay arailing;
(Satav ahana) AD. Bharhut gatewa
and railing; Bhaj
renov ation
Am arav ati;
decoration of th
gateway s in Sanchi
Kushana First-second Buddhism , Im ages of Buddh
century . Hinduism , and Bodhisattv a
Zoroastrianism . Sarnath; expansio

42
 of Dharm ajika stup
Gupta Fourth to Hinduism . Sarnath, Ajanta.
sev enth
century
Chaluky a Sixth to Hinduism . Ajanta wa
eighth paintings, Ellora.
century

Below we discuss the royal patronage of each dynasty.

Ashoka (Mauryan) Dynasty

Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty was the first important

patron of Buddhist art in India. According to legend, he built
84,000 Buddhist stupas in a single night (Rowland, 1953:40)
which must be a gross exaggeration. A more realistic number
seems to be a hundred or so. However, it is not unfair to say
that he did more for Buddhist art and religion (not only in
India but also in other parts of Asia and the Hellenistic
kingdoms) than any other royal figure.
Ashoka provided support for the building of temples,
stupas and monasteries. There is no trace of any stupas built
during the pre-Mauryan period, which suggests that he was
the first Mauryan emperor to have introduced them perhaps
as a way of unifying the empire. Historical records show that
he distributed the Buddha relics to a large number of stupas
built by him in all the principal towns of the empire.
Historic monuments of such holy Buddhist places as
Bodhgaya and Sarnath are associated with Ashoka’s name.
His stone and rock edicts are pieces of Buddhist art which
also offer historians useful insight into his religious
inclinations as well as economic and social life in his empire.
The edict pillars have survived more than the Buddhist
monuments (with the exception of stupas of Piprawa in
Nepal and Sanchi in India) which are largely ruined.

43
 It is suggested that Mauryan art was influenced by
Persian and Hellenic art. The lion capitals on top of the
Ashokan pillars reflected the ancient solar symbol in Persia,
Mesopotamia and Egypt long before Buddhism was born.
Rowland (Ibid.:43) concludes that ‘the idea of such memorial
columns is, of course, not Indian, but is yet another
derivation from the civilization of ancient Mesopotamia’.
Even if we accept the existence of foreign influence in the
Ashoka pillars, they were intended to convey an entirely
Indian Buddhist message of peace. However, Rowland may
be right in stating that the primary function of any religious
memorial built during Ashoka’s reign ‘was magical and
auspicious’, neither ‘decorative’ nor ‘architectural’ (p.45).
Of all the Buddhist monuments built by Ashoka, the
following may be cited as the most important: the Sarnath
stupa (Dhamekh); the Sanchi stupa I; and the Bodhgaya
temple. These are discussed in subsequent chapters.

Sunga Dynasty

Would the Sunga Brahmins have promoted Buddhist art in

the tradition of Ashoka? Historical accounts show that a good
deal of it (for example, the Bharhut stupa, gateway and
railing, the Sanchi gateways and the Amaravati stupa)
belong to the early period of the Sungas. How does one
reconcile this apparent paradox of Brahmins patronising
Buddhist art? It is quite likely that the successors of
Pushyamitra, though Hindus, were tolerant of Buddhism and
contributed to the construction of Buddhist monuments. This
view is supported by an inscription attributed to the Sungas
found at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodhgaya (Barua, 1934).
Several Buddhist monuments were built, renovated or
expanded during the Sanga dynasty, for example, Sanchi
Stupa no. 2. These monuments are discussed in Chapter 5.

44
Satavahana (Andhra) Dynasty

The Satavahana rulers (also known as Andhras) who ruled in

Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh from 230 BC to AD 220,
gave financial support for the building of Ajanta cave
monasteries and temples. They are also known to have
financed the four gateways to the Great Stupa in Sanchi. The
Amaravati Stupa built during the Andhra dynasty north of
Madras (Chennai) at the mouth of the river Krishna is one of
the most important examples of Buddhist art in South India.
This dynasty represents the ‘golden age of Buddhist art’
(Rowland, 1953:123).
Several Buddha statues of the Andhra period dating to the
second and third centuries have been found in Ceylon (Sri
Lanka) and Champa (modern Indo-China), which suggests
that the Satavahana kingdom had commercial and religious
contacts with neighbouring countries.

Kushana Dynasty

Images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas in Sarnath are

associated with the Kushana kings such as Kanishka who
made popular the human image of Buddha, replacing the
earlier symbolic representation. Kushanas may have
sponsored the production of the Mathura type of Buddha
image. Mathura was almost the second capital of the
Kushanas.

Gupta Dynasty

Buddhist art flourished further under the Gupta patronage

which is reflected in the Buddha statues in Sarnath (see
Chapter 4) and Buddhist rock-cut temples in Ajanta (for
example, Cave no. 19, see Chapter 6). Thapar (1990:157-8)
notes that the Buddha images discovered in Sarnath

45
represented ‘the highest achievement of classical sculpture.
They reflect a serenity and contentment which have come to
be associated with the religious atmosphere of the age’.
This period also witnessed the construction of rock-cut
Buddhist shrines and temples in the Deccan.
Not many buildings of the Gupta period have survived.
However, the following remain intact:

The Buddhist temples such as Temple 17

near the Great Stupa in Sanchi. It is a
simple temple with a flat roof.
The Ajanta cave temples, for example,
cave no. 19, a Buddhist sanctuary (see
Chapter 6) whose facade contains rich and
decorative sculpture of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas.
The Buddhist chaitya-hall in Karle
(Maharashtra), converted into a temple,
represents Buddhist sculpture in Western
India. It contains a statue of Buddha
flanked by the Bodhisattvas
Avalaokitesvara and Maitreya.
The Buddha images discovered in Sarnath,
for example, a statue of the preaching
Buddha with ornamental halo around
Buddha’s head is its main feature.
Metal statues and statuettes of Buddha, for
example, the colossal copper image of
Buddha from Sultanganj in the
Birmingham Museum in the UK.
Mural paintings of Ajanta temples (1, 2, 6,
17 and 19) (see Chapter 6), the Gupta
caves of Badami and paintings of Bagh.

Gupta art, sculpture and paintings provided prototypes

46
not only for India but also for Cambodia and Thailand where
Buddha statues have also been discovered (see Chapters 7 to
9). The Chinese pilgrims to India during the Gupta period
may have taken the Gupta style to China in the sixth and
seventh centuries.
That Buddhist art developed during the Gupta period
cannot be doubted. However, was it the result of an explicit
royal patronage of the Gupta rulers? One cannot be entirely
certain about this point. The promotion of art during the
period may have resulted from a combination of royal
patronage, patronage by wealthy merchants and by the
ordinary devotees of Buddhism.

Subsequent Dynasties

Pala kings, who ruled eastern India (eighth to twelfth

century), appeared to have continued promoting Buddhist art
even when Buddhism was in decline in the north. Chandra
kings of eastern Bengal (tenth to eleventh century) and
Bhaumas of Orissa (eighth to tenth century) were devout
Buddhists who patronised Buddhist monuments. However,
Buddhist building art witnessed a marked decline from the
twelfth century onwards in the wake of Muslim invasions.
In the Deccan, during the fifth and sixth centuries, the
Chalukya and Vakataka kings patronised early mural
paintings of Ajanta. They may have also supported the
construction of Buddhist prayer halls in Ellora.

Patronage of the Merchant Class

Wealthy merchants provided strong financial support to the

construction of monasteries, stupas and viharas. Inscriptions
on ancient Buddhist monuments show that they offered
individual and collective donations for the building of shrines.
What was the motivation behind the generosity of the

47
merchant class? First, it is important to note that India at
that time was quite prosperous which made philanthropy
possible. Secondly, religious donations may have been made
in the hope that donors would acquire better karmas in life
after death. This may partly explain why many Hindus
donated funds for Buddhist shrines even though they did not
practise the religion.

Patronage of Ordinary People

Contributions of ordinary people, Buddhists and non-

Buddhists alike, are known to have been made for the
building of Buddhist monuments in Amaravati, Sanchi and
Bharhut. Inscriptions show that a large number of ordinary
people as well as monks and nuns gave donations for their
construction. Dehejia (1992:67) notes that ‘Sanchi brings us
into contact with the everyday world of the housewife and
householder, the fisherman and gardener, the merchant and
banker, who left as many as 631 records of donations
inscribed in stone’. Only three out of the 631 records mention
royal patronage. She further adds: ‘Nuns and lay-women
were also significant donors with just under half the
donations’. This is particularly true of the building of
Amaravati stupa. Records of donations on inscriptions show
that ‘two-thirds of the gifts came from lay worshippers, of
whom a large proportion were women’ (Dehejia, 1997:75).
The remaining one-third came from monks and nuns. It is
surprising that there is hardly any mention of any royal
patronage for the construction of either Sanchi stupa or
Amaravati stupa.
Particularly problematic are the financial contributions of
monks and nuns who were not supposed to indulge in
material pursuits. They lived on alms which offered them a
very simple and modest living. So when and how did they
become wealthy enough to make donations, and where did

48
their wealth come from? What was the motivation of
ordinary men and women to finance art and sculpture?
Religious devotion? Or expectation of better karmas in life
after death? These questions deserve a systematic analysis.
The Buddhist religion must have become affluent to be
able to afford well-equipped and spacious monasteries for
monks and nuns who no longer lived on alms.[9] But does
this development suggest that Buddhism moved away from
the common people?
Having presented a general picture of the sponsorship of
Buddhist art, below we discuss its different aspects:
architecture, sculpture and painting.

Buddhist Art

Architecture

Buddhist architecture centres around stupas, monasteries and

prayer halls which are discussed below.
Stupas: One of the most common Buddhist monuments
is a commemorative mound which generally contains relics
of Buddha or his disciples. Many stupas were built to
commemorate Buddhist events.
A stupa consists of a hemispheric cupola/dome (or anda)
on a base encircled by a balustrade that may be intersected by
four gateways (toranas). A square rests on the cupola railing
or a balcony-like structure (harmika) from which rises a
shaft of metal or wood, supporting umbrellas (see Chapter 5).
The dome was intended to be a replica of the dome of
heaven, and the harmika at the top of the stupa mound may
typify the ‘Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods’ located at the
summit of the cosmic peak. Thus, the stupa is seen as a
cosmic diagram and perhaps also as representing the body of
Buddha after the attainment of nirvana.
In India, stupas are defined in terms of four categories;

49
 Sarrika: stupas built on the relics of
Buddha and his disciples and saints.
Paribhogika: stupas containing objects
(such as a begging bowl) used by Buddha.
Uddesika: stupas commemorating the life
of Buddha by narrating incidents.
Votive: small stupas built by pilgrims to
commemorate their visits to Buddhist
holy shrines (see Mitra, 1971).

The reliquary and votive stupas are distinguished by size

differences. The latter are generally small such as those at the
Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3). The Indian
stupas changed form over time and grew in size and height.

Some observers regard stupas as Buddhist tombs, but they

were more like sanctuaries for storing Buddha relics and as
places of worship for both kings and commoners.
Gateways to stupas and railings between them (see
Chapter 5) are stone imitations of earlier wooden portals
found at the entrances of old Indian towns. The panels and
the posts in the form of bas-reliefs depict jatakas from
Buddha’s various lives.
The forms of stupas vary across Asian countries. For
example, in India various shapes are found in Sarnath,
Bodhgaya and elsewhere (Fig. 2). In Myanmar, the stupa is
usually gilded and rests on a high base mounted by stairs. In
Cambodia the cupola is generally bell-shaped. In Tibet, one
finds stupas of many doors (sgo-mang) since they have
many chapels attached to them with frescoes depicting
various Tantric deities. The pagodas of China and Japan can
be described as ‘turreted stupas’. In China, various types of
pagodas have been found: wooden and masonry pagodas,
single-storeyed, multi-storeyed and multi-eaved pagodas.

50
Although the stupa in its original Indian form was known in
China, it was never transplanted there. It is unclear why. Fig.
3 shows the three quadrangular pagodas at the foot of Mount
Gangshan in the northwest of Dali in Y unnan (China). The
tallest of the three, Qianxun Pagoda, is nearly 70 metres
high, has 16 storeys and a hollow brick structure of beautiful
proportions. They were built in AD 836 during the Tang
Dynasty. The complex was an important Buddhist centre for
the Bai kingdom of Nanchao.

Fig. 2 Sarnath stupas, India

51
 Fig. 3 San Fa Si pagodas, Dali, China
In Thailand, the stupas, generally guarded by demons,
are highly decorated with blue ceramic tiles (Fig. 4).
However, the earlier ones in Ayutthaya (see Chapter 8) are
round at the bottom. They have a bell-shaped dome with a
tapering onion-like finial and are closer to the original Indian
form of votive stupas of Sarnath and Bodhgaya than the later
pagodas of Wat Arun in Bangkok. They also resemble
Burmese and Ceylonese pagodas. The Japanese pagodas
usually contain three storeys or five storeys and resemble
Chinese pagodas such as those in Dali. The pagoda at the
NikkoToshogu Shrine is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Fig.
5).

52
Fig. 4 A stupa, Wat Arun, Bangkok, Thailand

53
 Fig. 5 A Japanese pagoda, Nikko Toshogu Shrine

How does one explain different architectural styles of the

stupas? Does the stupa vary with the type of Buddhism:
Hinayana, and Vajrayana? Do they represent different styles

54
of architecture? It is plausible that the form of stupa is
determined by the type of Buddhism it represents. However,
it is equally likely that they also represent different functions
and styles of architecture.
Viharas. Initially, viharas were simple monastic
establishments for accommodating monks who were
expected to live a celibate life. The first viharas were
rectangular or square in shape, with cells built around a large
courtyard. They were intended as temporary retreats for
monks during the rainy season when it was not practical for
them to wander around in the forests. Sometimes stupas
were built in the centre of such a courtyard, serving as a
place of worship. At other times, special units called
dharamshalas were built for large assemblies of monks.
Indian viharas are examples of sculpture in stone more
than those of architecture. Their interiors are generally very
simple with two rows of columns dividing the sanctuary into
one main aisle and two small aisles.
With the passage of time, the architectural forms of
viharas underwent considerable changes depending on the
climatic and other requirements and traditions. For example,
viharas in Ajanta were cut into rocks which were generally
cooler (see Chapter 6). However, they were rather small in
size as the assemblies of monks at that time were still small.
Their size grew with a rapid growth of the number of monks
into large communities.
When the number of followers grew rapidly, a coherent
organisation was required for them to worship and practise
their faith as a community. The common folk started gifting
land for the construction of viharas. The construction of large
viharas (mahaviharas) received a major boost during the
reign of Ashoka in around 250 BC. Until then, Buddhism had
remained a parochial sect of monks living together.
Great monasteries grew in the fifth century AD when
they served as universities (for example, Nalanda near Patna

55
in Bihar), which attracted Buddhists from Tibet, China and
elsewhere in Asia. Hinduism was resurgent at this time and
these Buddhist institutions were open to its influence, which
may partly explain a gradual weakening of Buddhist religion
and its disappearance from India in the thirteenth century.
Until then, the viharas continued to serve two important
functions as centres of Buddhist learning, and as retreats for
meditation.
Chaityas. Chaityas are Buddhist prayer halls and temples
as in Ajanta. But they also refer to ‘sacred buildings or
temples generally consisting of a hall containing a sacred
object to be worshipped, such as a small stupa or a Buddha
image’ (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981a:396). A
chaitya is generally an apsidal hall with a central nave
flanked by aisles. The apse is usually covered by a half dome
with rows of pillars on either side. A stupa in the middle was
built for worship. The prayer halls are generally quite large to
accommodate large congregations of worshippers. Apart
from Ajanta, chaitya halls in India are found in Bhaja, Karla
and Bedsa in Maharashtra. Outside India, they are found in
Ceylon, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand. In Burma (for
example in Pagan) their designs were inspired by the
eleventh-century Indian design. The chaityas contained
sculptures and paintings describing the earlier incarnations of
Buddha (for example, in the Ananda temple in Pagan).
In the Ajanta chaitya halls, Buddha statues are found,
which were missing in the earlier chaityas built during
Ashoka’s reign from the third to first century BC. This earlier
period was one of conservative Buddhism (Hinayana or
Theravada) which did not deify Buddha. Instead, Buddha
was represented by symbols.
Temples. Not many Buddhist temples have survived the
ravages of time. Many perished because they were made of
wood. Only three temples are intact, namely, the Mahabodhi
temple in Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3), the Mulaganluti Temple

56
in Sarnath (see Chapter 4) and Temple no. 17 in Sanchi (see
Chapter 5).
With the arrival of Buddha images grew the need to
enshrine them in temples. There must have been many
Buddhist temples in ancient times. Hsuan Tsang claims to
have seen several temples in the seventh century when he
visited India. Many archaeological inscriptions also provide
evidence of their existence (Mitra, 1971:15).

Sculpture

Early Indian sculpture was invariably based on religious

themes, expressing folk art and religious cults dedicated to the
worship of supernatural powers. The fertility cults were very
popular and sculpture concerned with it showed such male
and female divinities as yaksas and yaksis (for example in
Sanchi and Bharhut). Invariably, the images of female
divinities (associated with fertility) showed big breasts and
wide hips suggestive of both beauty and abundance.
In the early stages of Buddhism, Buddha’s presence was
illustrated by the following symbols:

Lotus represented Buddha’s birth.

Footprints and an empty throne showed Buddha’s
presence.
Tree indicated Buddha’s enlightenment.
The Wheel of Law symbolised Buddha’s first sermon.
Stupa symbolised Buddha’s nirvana or salvation.

Historical records do not explain why Buddha’s body was

never shown in a human form. Perhaps this approach was
logical considering that Buddha had managed to shed his
body when he achieved nirvana. So why show it (Dehejia,
1997:54). There may also be another reason. Buddha’s
personification could have been construed as idol worship

57
similar to that under Hinduism against which early
Buddhism had rebelled. Therefore, the early form of religion
might have shied away from worshipping Buddha’s image.
In Buddhist art, sculpture consisted mainly of Buddha
statues, relief panels and medallions which are discussed
below.

Buddha and Bodhisattva Statues

Coins dating back to King Kanishka’s reign suggest the

creation of human Buddha between AD 78 and AD 101
(Ibid.:81). Buddha images first appeared in the second
century in Amaravati, a Buddhist centre in the Deccan.
Buddha images were also discovered in the Gandhara
region (northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan). The
sculptors of this region depicted Buddha like a Greco-Roman
deity, for example, with an Appollo-like face and Roman
toga-like robe, broad forehead, slender nose and the loose
knotted hair. A Gandhara statue of seated Buddha (Fig. 6)
shows his emaciated body resulting from his long and
unsuccessful ascetic experiences. On the other hand, Buddha
statues found in Mathura (UP) show him as a yaksa.

58
 Fig. 6 An emaciated Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan

Why the Greco-Roman Buddha? The Kushana kings did

not have any established artistic legacy in the Gandhara
region which may suggest why they turned to Bactrian
sculptors who were familiar only with the Greco-Roman

59
style. The statues of Greek gods were well-known during this
period. Secondly, India’s trading relations with the
Mediterranean basin in the first and second centuries may
partly explain Western influences. A head of Buddha
belonging to the second century Amaravati School shows
some Roman features (stylised curls on the head) and some
Dravidian Indian (for example, elongated face and long
distended earlobes). Gousset (1971), a French Oriental
Scholar, describes this Buddha head as a virtual ‘Statue-
Portrait of Ancient Rome’.
A large number of Buddha statues excavated in Sarnath
belong to the Mathura School of art rather than the
Gandhara School. One of the most well-preserved and
beautiful images of Buddha displayed in the Sarnath
Archaeological Museum shows him in a preaching position.
A halo behind the Buddha is richly carved with beautiful
floral patterns.
Buddha statues appeared in different forms and postures:
seated and meditating, standing (Fig. 7) and reclining. The
reclining posture (for example, in Thailand) symbolises the
end of his journey on Earth. The standing posture may
symbolise teaching or delivering sermons.
During the Gupta period workshops developed in
Mathura and Sarnath to produce Buddha statues which
showed him with a serene face and slightly smiling lips.
However, the earlier Buddha images pertaining to the
first century AD were not what one would expect of ‘the
meditative and compassionate’ Master. Instead, Buddha is
presented as ‘an energetic, earthy being radiating strength
and power’ (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981b:184).
The facial features of Buddha vary from country to
country as if the sculptors wanted to claim him as their own.
Thus the Khmer Buddha in Angkor Thom has thick lips (Fig.
8) (also see Chapter 7). The thick and large lips, flat noses
and square faces of the Khmer Buddha images are

60
indigenous features, quite different from the finer Indian
Buddha images. The four faces of Buddha on each of the
towers of the Bayon in Cambodia clearly depict these
features. Some scholars (for example, Bussagli, 1978c) believe
that they represent divine royalty in the form of Bodhisattva
Lokesvara, the symbol of universal compassion in Buddhist
philosophy. The size and massiveness of the Buddha statues is
intended to signify supreme power.

Fig. 7 A standing Buddha, Sarnath, India

61
 Fig. 8 A Khmer Buddha, Angkor Thom, Cambodia

Thailand has a large number of Buddha statues ranging

from miniatures to giant images in bronze, wood and stone.
The Thai Buddha image has smooth rounded body and face.
The seated cross-legged position of the Thai Buddha suggests
the Indian Amaravati heritage and the later Indian Gupta
art. Although the Thai model follows the Gupta idiom, it
tends to be more simplified and less massive.
The Sukhotai model of Buddha tried to follow the early

62
Ceylonese and Dvaravati tradition in sculpture. It may have
also been influenced by the Khmer and Mon features. A more
aesthetic Thai Buddha image is the U Thong model
(originally built in Ayutthaya) based on the original Indian
patterns.
From the thirteenth to seventeenth century, the Thai
kings tried to go back to the original tenets of Theravada
Buddhism by importing patterns of art from Ceylon. This was
the period when Siamese artists adhered to the original
principles without worrying about artistic considerations and
development. A large number of small Buddha images were
multiplied and stored in temples for worship (see Chapters 8
and 9).
Despite the mass production of Buddhas in Thailand, and
a resulting lack of originality, one finds masterpieces of
Buddha statues in the temples of Bangkok (for example, Figs.
54 and 55 of the reclining golden Buddha, Chapter 9).
Bodhisattva figures prominently in the Buddhist Jataka
stories about the previous lives of Buddha. It is a divine being
who has not yet attained nirvana and has postponed it to lead
a worldly life of compassion and sympathy for the suffering
human beings. He is not always presented in a human form.
For example, he appeared as a Golden Duck in Ajanta Cave
17.

Buddha Footprints

Buddha footprints have been discovered in Bodhgaya and

Amaravati (Fig. 9). Both footprints show the Wheel of Law
(dharmachakra) at the centre of Buddha’s feet. Other
auspicious symbols also appear, namely, tri-ratnas (the
Buddha, his teachings and the community of Buddhist
monks), curling svastikas above the toes, and the lotus buds
and flowers surrounding the footprints.

63
 Fig. 9 Buddha footprints, Amaravati, India © Trustees
of the British Museum, London
In India, the feet have long been the focus of respect.
They represent the grounding of the transcendent. Even
today, the lotus feet of gods and gurus continue to be revered.

Medallions

Medallions were a common form of sculpture in India,

especially on the railings of stupas (for example, in Bharhut

64
and Amaravati). As discussed in Chapter 5, many medallions
are found on cross-bars of stupa railings. In the Bharhut
stupa, they were generally round in the centre of the railing
and crescent-shaped at the top and bottom. The subject-
matter of medallions ranged from amorous couples to
goddesses and many included lotus flowers and jataka scenes
from Buddha’s earlier incarnations. One Amaravati
medallion depicts the Mandhata jataka about Buddha’s
previous life as a rich chakravartin (universal emperor) who
reigned over heaven and earth for a thousand years (Fig. 10).
He was still dissatisfied and continued to feel desire and
craving. It shows a scene of his courtly life with musicians
and dancing women. He came back to earth from heaven
and died. The medallion carries a message of Buddha’s
teaching that all desires lead to suffering and, therefore, need
to be controlled.

65
 Fig. 10 A medallion showing worship of Buddha
relics, Amaravati, India © Trustees of the British
Museum, London

Relief Panels

Relief panels were an important feature of the early and late

Buddhist art in India. They are found in Sanchi, Bharhut,
Amaravati, Sarnath and in Western India (Maharashtra, for
example). A relief panel shows Buddha worshippers around
an empty throne displaying Buddha’s feet (Fig. 11). An
important figure in the panel is that of a serpent king
(nagaraja) standing just behind the relic. The bottom half
shows several women who may belong to the legendary naga

66
kingdom.

Fig. 11 A relief panel showing worshippers, an empty

throne and Buddha’s feet, Amaravati, India ©
Trustees of the British Museum, London

67
 The rock-cut sculpture and relief panels of the West are
much less profuse than those in the north. The bas reliefs of
the Bhaja monastery are known to depict rain god Indra on
an elephant and the sun god Surya on a chariot. Unlike the
northern sculpture, they are not copies of wooden prototypes
but instead, they reflect the terra-cotta tradition of clay.

-------

Indian Buddhist architecture (more appropriately,

sculpture) is said to be as ‘conservative as the Indian social
and spiritual tradition’ (Zimmer, 1955:248). It evolved not by
eliminating the old elements but instead, as a new
superstructure on top of the old. This is shown in Sarnath,
Bodhgaya and other places (see Chapters 3 to 6).

Painting

Buddhist art consisted of mural paintings; the earliest ones in

India are associated with popular festivals during which
houses were decorated with paintings and streets with
painted banners. But much evidence of this art is now lost.
The surviving paintings are found in the Buddhist cave
temples of Ajanta the walls and ceilings of which were
covered with lavish painted decoration. Several painters and
workshops must have been employed to undertake such a
large-scale painting and decorative work.
The Ajanta murals were painted in tempera technique on
smooth plastered surfaces. First, the painters applied clay
mixed with rice husk and gum on the surfaces of walls and
ceilings. Then they applied a coating of lime plaster on these
surfaces. Thirdly, the colours and designs were applied on the
plaster. This technique of painting was well developed by the

68
end of the second century AD.[10]
Outside India, paintings in Buddhist chaityas are found in
Burma, Ceylon and Thailand. In Burma, the art of painting
is not as sophisticated and exquisite as found in the rest of
Southeast Asia. Paintings are not original and are confined
mainly to the shrines in Pagan. Rather schematic, they are
reminiscent of the eastern Indian Buddhist style. Some have
a sensuous Indian charm suggesting that they might have
been painted by Indian artists. Many older Burmese icons
have been gilded and repainted which diminishes their
vitality and exuberance.
A number of paintings have survived in Ceylon,
particularly in the rock of Sigiriya (Fig. 12) which are
reminiscent of the Ajanta murals in India. They date from
the sixth century AD and consist mainly of apsaras
showering flowers. More recent paintings of the twelfth or
thirteenth century, found in Polonnaruva, were inspired by
western Indian and southern Indian art.

69
 Fig. 12 A rock painting from Sirigiya, Ceylon (Sri
Lanka)

Not much is known about Buddhist paintings in

Thailand. They have some resemblance with Burmese
paintings found in Pagan. In these paintings one comes
across Khmer and Chinese influences besides the Burmese.
The Burmese influence is not surprising since Burma
conquered Siam in the eighteenth century when Thailand
might have adopted the Burmese ornamental style. Chinese
influence on Thai painting may be attributed to a large
Chinese expatriate community in Thailand (see Chapters 8
and 9).
There are several types of Thai painting of which murals
in Buddhist temples and monasteries are the most interesting.
The subjects of murals include jataka stories (for example,
Fig. 49, Chapter 8, and Fig. 59, Chapter 9), temptation of
Buddha by Mara and scenes of Hell. Other types include
those painted on cloth banners and wood. A third type of Thai
painting done on palm leaf generally illustrated sacred
manuscripts. Traditional Thai painting died out in the middle
of the nineteenth century when Western oil paintings were
introduced.

Indian Influence on South and Southeast

Asian Art
We discussed in Chapter 1 the spread of Buddhism from
India to Ceylon, Burma, Tibet, Cambodia and Thailand. The
Buddhist religion carried with it the knowledge and
techniques of Indian art and architecture of that period, for
example, fragments of Buddha statues of AD 300-400 based

70
on Indian prototypes discovered in Burma, Cambodia and
Thailand. Also in Java in the eighth century the central
kingdom of Shailendra built the Buddhist () and Hindu
monuments of Borobudur and Lara Jonggrang
(Prambanam). Indian merchants, craftsmen and artists also
travelled to Southeast Asia along with their works dealing,
inter alia, with religious themes.

South Asia

Nepal was perhaps one of the first countries outside India

where Ashoka introduced Buddhism which survived there
even after disappearing from India. But the form in which
Buddhism was practised in Nepal, namely, Tantrism, is
different from either Hinayana or (see Chapter 1). The three
main types of Buddhist art in Nepal consist of: (a) Palm leaf
painting resembling the Bengal school of painting during the
Pala dynasty; (b) Hanging scrolls with magic diagrams and
Buddhist gods and goddesses and (c) Bronze and copper
sculpture borrowed from the Indian Pala dynasty. Nepal
follows Tantrism which explains many female deities (such
as Taras) and goddesses in its sculpture. This form of
Buddhism represents a mixture of Hindu and Buddhist
elements. Thus, statues of goddesses contain many arms
showing extra power.
I n Ceylon, Indian influence in the construction of
Buddhist stupas and temples is documented in the Great
Chronicle or Mahavamsa. Rowland (1953:209) notes that
‘the inspiration for both sculpture and architecture came
from India; especially […] from the later Andhra civilization
of the eastern coast’. The ancient capital of Anuradhapura
contains several different types and forms of Ceylonese
dagobas: bell-shaped, lotus-shaped and bubble-shaped, which
were originally surrounded by Indian-style wooden railings
and toranas.

71
 The earliest Ceylonese sculpture (found in the Kantaka
Chaitya in Mihintale, for example) resembles the Indian
sculpture of Sanchi and Amaravati. The seated Buddha statue
discovered in Anuradhapura (the ancient capital of Ceylon)
recalls the Indian Sarnath School of the fifth and sixth
centuries in India. Also in Anuradhapura (fifth century), a
Ceylonese replica has been discovered of the semi-circular
stepping stone of the Amaravati stupa.
During the early period (the reign of Ashoka) Buddhist art
in Ceylon was inspired by that in North India. However, in
later centuries, South Indian dynasties and those of Bengal
had close relations with Ceylon which may explain South
Indian influence there. For example, in the Ruanweli dagoba
the standing figures of Buddha or Bodhisattva (probably of
the second century AD) are related to the Amaravati images
of the Deccan discussed in Chapter 5.
I n Burma, Buddhist art was influenced by the Indian.
There is evidence of Indians living in Burma from the first
century onwards. In the tenth century, Hindu temples were
built in Pagan such as Nat Hlaung Guyaung and Ngakye
Nadaun. The construction of stupas was undertaken later
when both Hinayana and Buddhism became popular. It is
believed that no less than 5,000 stupas (pagodas) were built
in Pagan during the reign of King Anawrahta and his
successors. Close relations were maintained between the
rulers of Burma and the Buddhist kingdoms of Bengal.
Chaityas similar to those found in Buddhist India are the
main shrines of Theravada Buddhism in Burma. Burmese
sculpture is also profoundly influenced by the Indian.
However, ‘the Burmese images have a grace not found in the
Indian images’ (Munsterberg, 1970:219).
Although inspired by the Indian model, the Burmese
stupas are somewhat different. They are more slender than
those found in India. Their tapering tops remind one of the
shikaras of the ancient Hindu temples.

72
 Several examples of the Indian influence on Burmese art
are worth noting:

A copy of the Mahabodhi temple in Pagan;

it was dedicated in 1215.
The Schwesandaw Buddhist chaitya in
Pagan (eleventh century). It had Indian-
style brick carvings which are now covered
by white plaster.
T h e Ananda Temple in Pagan which is
believed to have been built byIndian
Buddhists during the reign of King
Kyanzittha (1084-1112). The reliefs in the
temple depict the jataka scenes from
Buddha’s life.
Burmese paintings of the early period were
influenced by the Tantric paintings of
Bengal, which is particularly true of the
thirteenth-century wall paintings.

Connections between India and Burma may have been

broken after the disappearance of Buddhism in India in the
thirteenth century. This is the period when the Burmese style
of art emerged. While it had remnants of Indian influence, it
developed its own character of folk art which generally lacked
in expression.
Buddhism also spread to Afghanistan (ancient Bactria
north of Gandhara). Two sites of Buddhist sculpture there
include (a) Bamiyan where two giant statues of Buddha in
the rocks were destroyed by the Taliban several years ago and
(b) Hadda (near modern Jalalabad) where Greco-Buddhist
statues have been found. Unlike the Gandhara sculpture, that
found in Hadda is closer to the Indian sculpture in its
sensuousness.
From Afghanistan Buddhism spread to Central Asia and

73
later to the Far East. Central Asia was an important trade
route between China and the Roman Empire and between
China, India and Iran, which may partly explain Greco-
Roman and Persian influences on the Buddhist art and
sculpture in India.

Rest of Asia

As discussed in Chapter 7 on Angkor, Indian architecture and

mythology greatly influenced Khmer/Cambodian temple art
and architecture. In Cambodia, both Hindu and Buddhist
influences on art are noticeable. Pre-Khmer art and
architecture (fifth to seventh century) is Indian in origin. The
Shiva temple of Bayang on a hilltop could pass for an Indian
temple of Gupta or Pallava period. Other examples of the
Indian derivation include the gestures and postures of
statues. The gods and demons, gandharvas, apsaras, nagas
and asuras in Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom appear in
almost the same forms as the Indian counterparts. The nagas
and apsaras are based on the Hindu mythology (for more
details see Chapter 7). While Hindus worshipped naga
(serpent) gods, Buddhism did not particularly favour them.
The Khmer ruled Cambodia from the tenth to thirteenth
century. Hindu and Buddhist carvings were produced in
Cambodia even before the tenth century when Khmer kings
came to power. Examples of these are to be found in such
shrines as Banteay Srei of the eighth century (Figs. 13 and
14). The profuse sculpture of this shrine is a fine example of
Hindu art outside India. Cambodian sculpture is not
voluptuous like the Indian, although it was inspired by it.
Apsaras and gods and goddesses found in Angkor Wat and
Angkor Thom are of a cylindrical shape and more in keeping
with the traditions of conservative Buddhism which did not

74
appreciate sensuousness.

Fig. 13 Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia

75
 Fig. 14 Stone carvings, Banteay Srei

While Angkor Wat sculpture is of a uniformly high

quality (particularly the apsaras, gods and goddesses, royal
processions and Khmer armies on the march, not to speak of
the battle scenes from the Indian epics), those of Angkor
Thom are not of consistently good quality. One reason may
be that king Jayavarman VII built too many temples in a
very short time. However, some art critics argue that ‘the
images at this site (Angkor Thom) are among the greatest of

76
all Buddhist icons, equaling the finest statues found, either in
India or in the Far East’ (Ibid.:242). This statement probably
refers to the images of the Bodhisattvas on the four sides of
the Angkor Thom towers.
Although Cambodian sculpture is derived from the
Indian, its style is distinctly indigenous. As discussed above,
the features of Cambodian Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (thick
lips and flat faces, for example) are clearly Khmer in style
and character.
In Cambodia, there is hardly any difference between
Hindu and Buddhist art. As Angkor Wat bears testimony,
both religions existed side by side. The lack of any differences
may be due to the fact that the same sculptors were involved
in carvings for both religions.
Cambodian art declined in the thirteenth century when
the Thai defeated the Khmer rulers.
The stupas of Thailand are quite different from those in
India in both shape and decoration. But they have a lot in
common with the Burmese and Ceylonese pagodas,
especially the ones dating back to the Ayutthaya period.
Therefore, one wonders whether their construction was
inspired by Indian architecture.
A Thai scholar notes: ‘A careful comparison of the Indian
stupa and the Pra Chedi or Thai stupa leaves no doubt that
the latter was considerably influenced by the style of the
Indian stupa though the influence was indirect’
(Jermsawatdi, 1979:108). The Thai stupa is based on the
original Indian prototype of Sanchi and Bharhut. However, it
did not imitate the Indian prototype in all respects, which
may explain why it looks different.
In sculpture, the sixth-century Thai Buddha images
resemble the prototypes of the Indian Gupta period (for
example, Buddha statues found in Ayutthaya, see Chapter 8).
Thai Buddha images also appear in simplified sheath-like
robes which must have been inspired by the Gupta images of

77
Buddha in Sarnath and Ajanta. However, the Indian system
of proportions was not followed. The heads of the Thai
Buddha images are too big in relation to the body.
The nature and extent of the Indian influence on Thai art
and sculpture depends on the period considered. There are
five distinct phases of this art:

Dvaravati Phase (sixth to twelfth

century): This was Mon art (inspired
by the Gupta art in India) more than
Thai. The Mon lived in Burma and
Thailand (or Siam) before the Thai
came from southwest China.
Lopburi Phase (twelfth century): This
phase relates to the Khmer conquest
of Thailand. Although Indian
principles were followed, this art was
less sensuous than Indian. Lopburi
statues of Buddha are broader, flatter
and less pronounced in linear detail
than the Dvaravati (Mon) statues.
Sukhotai Phase (thirteenth century):
This represents the first phase of true
Thai art. Iconography of this phase is
derived from Indian sources but the
images are distinctly Thai. Their
features are no longer like those of the
Burmese (Mon) and the Khmer as
during the earlier phases. The truly
Thai forms are more elongated,
elegant and sophisticated with
protuberance on the top of the head.
Their elegance and refinement is
shown by delicate hands and slender
arms (for example, Ayutthaya

78
 images, see Chapter 8).
Ayutthaya Phase (fourteenth to
eighteenth century): This phase
represents the extension of national
Thai art which began under the
Sukhotai phase (see Chapter 8).
During this phase, the painting of
manuscripts suggests the Indian
influence. The Triphoum, a
manuscript devoted to Buddhist
cosmology, contains scenes of jatakas
in which the figures of gods and
goddesses are similar in style to those
in the Indian Ajanta paintings.
Bangkok Phase (eighteenth to
twentieth century): This phase relates
to the Chakra dynasty and Rama
kings (see Chapter 9). There is less
Indian influence in this phase than
during the earlier phases. The Thai
style of painting during this period
was influenced more by the Chinese
and Western styles than the Indian.
However, Thai Buddhist sculpture
was inspired by the Gandhara School
during this period especially during
the reigns of Rama V and Rama VI.
The Thai sculptors attempted to
humanise the Buddha image.

Craftsmen may have been imported from India.

Dvaravati sculpture of Thailand resembles such Indian styles
as Amaravati and Gupta which flourished at the same time.
This art centred on Theravada Buddhism. Excavations have
shown assembly halls, bases of stupas, terra-cotta figures and

79
fragments of decorative designs.
Indian art and culture of Dvaravati came to Western
Thailand via Burma and the three Pagodas Pass during the
eighth century when the Takuapa-Chaiya trans-peninsula
route was opened. Three routes brought Indians to Thailand
from: (1) the Amaravati region in South India, (2) the
ancient port of Tamluk on the Hooghly River in Bengal, East
India, and (3) the port of Kanchi (Tamil Nadu) during the
Pallava rule. Jermasawatdi (1979:63) notes that:
The Thai workmanship was based on ‘the examples of the
art of Amaravati from South India. But it was mainly
indebted both in iconography and sculptural style to the
Gupta and post-Gupta art of India as seen in the cave
temples of Ajanta, Kanheri and Ellora.
Dvaravati was the kingdom of Mon people, which
explains the Mon features of the Thai and the Khmer images
of Buddha, for example, lips turned outwards, downward-
curved eyelids marked by double channels. The Dvaravati
images of Buddha may have provided prototypes/models for
the later Khmer Buddhas in Cambodia.
In the eleventh century, the Indian influence may have
waned when the Khmer captured Dvaravati. At this point,
Khmer art may have replaced Indian. From the thirteenth to
seventeenth century, the Siam city of Sukhotai was the main
source and inspiration for Theravada Buddhist art and
culture. The Thai kings turned to Ceylon for the supply of
Buddhist monks and perhaps also craftsmen besides sculptors
and architects.
I n Java and other parts of present-day Indonesia, old
Buddhist and Hindu relics have been discovered which may
belong to the ancient kingdoms of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and
Shailendra (Java). The tjandis (religious structures) during
this period (seventh to thirteenth century) were built on the
basis of Indian prototypes. Borobudur is one of the most well-
known examples of the Buddhist tjandis. Built around 800 by

80
an Indian Shailendra king, it is a step-pyramid style Buddhist
stupa with several square terraces. The top three terraces are
circular and the summit has a bell-shaped circular stupa.
Each terrace is lined with relief sculptures and the niches
once contained Buddha statues.
Borobudur sculpture represents Indian Gupta art, which
is not surprising since the Shailendra kings originated in
India. But the statues found there have local Java
features.[11] Besides, the building material used is a black
volcanic stone not found in India. Furthermore, the forms of
statues are also softer and gentler than those of the Gupta
carvers.
In Borobudur many reliefs show figures of women
(allowed by Buddhism) reflecting ordinary Javanese life of
this period. These are very different from the Indian female
forms which show exuberance, sensuousness and
extravagance. The Javanese female figures are the ordinary
Javanese women without any spiritual powers and
symbolism.
Many cult images of Buddha and Buddhist deities have
been discovered in Indonesia. These are close to the images of
early Pala period in Bihar (India) which would suggest close
relations between Java and northeastern India, the home of
Buddhism.
Although inspired by Indian art, Javan art and sculpture
is quite different. It deals with everyday life unlike Indian art
which is shrouded in superhuman mystery.

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 C h ap t e r 3

Bodhgaya: The Seat of Enlightenment

Bodhgaya, a small village in Bihar (India), is situated 13

kilometres south of Gaya (a holy city for the Hindus). It is a
sacred place for the Buddhists. Perhaps this name was given
to the place in the eighteenth century in order to distinguish it
from Gaya. At the time of Buddha’s enlightenment, the
village was called ‘Uruvela’. In the second century BC, it was
known by different names such as Sambodhi, Mahabodhi or
Vajrasana.
Buddha attained enlightenment in Bodhgaya after
deserting married life and the comforts of home. Therefore, it
is the most important of the four Buddhist holy sites.[12] At
the time of his death Buddha wished his followers to pay
pilgrimage to these places including Bodhgaya. However,
there is no evidence of any religious shrine in Bodhgaya
before the third century BC. At that time, the only shrine was
the Bodhi tree under which Buddha had attained
enlightenment. The earliest structure in the form of a
religious shrine is said to date from Ashoka’s reign which is
suggested by the polished surface of the stone slab found
under the tree and the floral motifs on it.
Not much is known about the early history of Bodhgaya
as a place of Buddha worship. Scholars have tried to piece
together an account based largely on pilgrims from abroad
such as Fa Hsien and Hsuan Tsang from China. Fa Hsien
notes having seen three monasteries (in which Ceylonese
monks are known to have lived) in Bodhgaya when he visited

82
it. His descriptions are rather general and do not point to any
particular religious shrine. Later in the seventh century,
Hsuan Tsang visited Bodhgaya. He describes how Ashoka
and his wife destroyed the Bodhi tree before the emperor
adopted Buddhism as his religion. According to legend, the
tree did not die but instead its branches and leaves shone in
flames. Having seen this miracle, Ashoka repented and
decided to bathe the tree roots in milk and the tree
regenerated in less than a day. At this point, he built a brick
enclosure around the tree.
Both the Chinese pilgrims saw the Bodhi tree as well as
several structures (shrines and viharas) and statues when
they visited Bodhgaya. It remains unclear how many
structures that they saw have survived.
Other visitors from abroad were two Buddhist monks,
Mahanama and Upa (sena), envoys of King Meghavarna of
Ceylon sent to the court of Indian King Samudragupta to
seek permission to build guest houses in Bodhgaya for the
Ceylonese Buddhist pilgrims (Thakur, 1995:33).
In 1234, a Tibetan monk, Dharmavamin, visited
Bodhgaya, when Buddhist monks frequently travelled
between Tibet and India. Many Tibetans studied at Nalanda
University in India. Dharmavamin notes a strong influence
of Ceylonese monks in Bodhgaya in the thirteenth century,
perhaps just before the Muslim conquest and destruction of
Buddhist holy places. These Hinayana monks were in charge
of the worship at the Mahabodhi Temple.
Sculpture prospered in Bodhgaya during the reign of the
Pala kings who ruled Bihar and Bengal from the eighth to
thirteenth century. A large number of attractive sculptures
dating from this period have been discovered which depict the
figures of Buddha sitting under the Bodhi tree as well as those
of the Bodhisattvas.
An inscription dating to 1305 records a visit by a Burmese
delegation to Bodhgaya sent by the king of Upper Burma to

83
repair the temple and other structures, which were
presumably destroyed or damaged by the Muslim invasion.
The Burmese involvement in repair and maintenance
continued well into the nineteenth century when the King of
Burma sought permission from the Government of India for
the restoration of the temple and the construction of a
monastery for Buddhist monks.
Historical accounts do not make clear whether the
Bodhgaya temple suffered from normal disrepair over time or
it was destroyed by the Muslim invaders. Many Buddhist
monks fled Bodhgaya perhaps out of fear of an imminent
invasion.
Bodhgaya was deserted in the sixteenth century. During
this period when Buddhism had practically disappeared here,
a mahant, a follower of the eighth century philosopher,
Shankaracharya who worshipped Shiva, wandered to
Bodhgaya and established a monastery there. That is how
Hindu worship started in Bodhgaya. Evidence of Shiva
worship has also been discovered on the railings.
Furthermore, an eighth-century inscription records the
construction of a Shiva lingam in Bodhgaya (Asher,
2008:17).
In the nineteenth century, a number of European visitors
to Bodhgaya noted that the structures and the temple were
dilapidated. For example, in 1811 Buchanan-Hamilton[13]
described the site as ‘now mostly reduced to irregular heaps of
bricks and stones […] and the Mahabodhi temple is rapidly
hastening to decay’ (cited in ibid.:19). This sorry state of
affairs may have led the British Government to commission
repairs of the Mahabodhi Temple.[14]
Bodhgaya of today is a small town of international
significance for the Buddhists throughout the world. In fact,
most of the village is occupied by international Buddhist
temples, guest houses and monasteries built by governments
and non-governmental organizations from Bhutan, Burma

84
(Myanmar), Japan, Thailand and Tibet. The Japanese
contribution to Bodhgaya and the surrounding road
infrastructure is particularly significant. In 1989, the
Japanese Buddhist Society from Nagoya built the Giant
Buddha Statue here. There are the also Japanese temples,
namely, Indosan Nipponji temple, Daijokyo temple, a
Japanese monastery and international hotels and guest
houses for visiting Buddhists.
Bodhgaya is inhabited by thousands of Buddhist monks
who participate in prayers every day. Every year from
November to February, a large number of exiled Tibetans
including the Dalai Lama visit Bodhgaya to attend an
international Buddhist conference and pray at the
Mahabodhi Temple.

Buddhist Monuments
The Mahabodhi Temple

The temple is a dominant hallmark of the village of

Bodhgaya the exact date of the construction of which is not
known. It is believed that Ashoka built a shrine of sandstone
throne on the site (Vajrasana) consisting of a canopy
supported by four pillars. An old Burmese inscription also
ascribes its construction to Ashoka. Cunningham (1892)
came across some remains of the shrine while renovating the
temple floor which may belong to the Ashoka shrine.
According to him, the temple was built in around AD 450
(Fig. 15). He was guided by two considerations. First, when
Fa Hsien visited Bodhgaya he mentioned the existence of the
temple and the Bodhi tree at the site. Secondly, the ‘straight
sides of the temple’ like ‘a square truncated pyramid’ suggest
an earlier period. The medieval temples in India and
elsewhere had slightly bulging sides.

85
86
87
 Fig. 15 Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya

In the seventh century Hsuan Tsang saw the Bodhi tree,

Vajrasana and the grand Mahabodhi Temple.
The present temple is ‘built exactly over the remains of
Ashoka’s Temple, so that the original Vajrasana Throne still
retains its old position of Buddha’s seat, and the reputed
centre of the Universe’. He gave the following account of the
Mahabodhi Temple:

It is built up of bluish bricks with plaster. It presents

several tiers of niches, each of which holds a gilded
statue of Buddha.
On all four sides the walls are covered with beautiful
sculpture, festoons of pearls, figures of rishis. On its
summit there is a gilt copper amalaka fruit.
(cited in GOI,
2002:7)

Hsuan Tsang also describes the front portico of the temple

(added later) as a pavilion of three storeys. He observes that
Ashoka built a high stone wall (or a railing) surrounding the
holy pipal tree the remnants of which are found in the
Bodhgaya Museum (Fig. 16). During the Gupta period, the
railing was enlarged with the addition of new granite posts
and cross-bars. The railing is built of unpolished coarse
granite and depicts such Buddhist scenes as jatakas, stupas
and lotus flowers. Fig. 17 shows the railing as it stands today.

88
Fig. 16 Granite railing, Bodhgaya Museum

89
Fig. 17 Current railing around the Mahabodhi Temple

90
 Many Buddha images, which used to be displayed in the
temple niches, were destroyed by anti-Buddhist elements.
One side of the exterior temple wall is known as the ‘Cloister
Walk’ or ‘Cankamana’ where Buddha is alleged to have
walked up and down during the third week after his
enlightenment.
The temple includes two parts: (1) the Temple building
and (2) the Lotus Pond (or Muchalinda Pond). At the steps
leading to the Temple, one finds a pillar marking the spot of
Ajpala Nigrodh (pipal) tree under which Buddha meditated in
the fifth week after attaining enlightenment. On a raised area
to the right is the Animeshlochan Chaitya (Prayer Hall)
where Buddha meditated during the second week after
enlightenment. Also in the vicinity are several votive stupas
built by kings, princes, noblemen and even lay persons. A
small shrine with a standing Buddha contains his footprints
carved in black stone, presumably dating back to the third
century BC when Ashoka declared Buddhism a state religion.
He commissioned the construction of several such footprints
in a large number of places in his kingdom.
A gateway leading to the temple was originally built by
Ashoka in the third century BC but was later rebuilt. A door
leads to a small hall beyond which is the sanctum displaying
a gilded statue of Buddha. Another hall contains a second
Buddha. Prayers take place in both halls.
A pathway from the temple leads to the Lotus Pond
which forms an integral part of the Temple Complex.
Pilgrims to Bodhgaya take this route to visit the Temple. It is
believed that Buddha spent the sixth week after
enlightenment here at the Pond. A violent storm broke out
while Buddha was still meditating. The Naga king of Lake
Muchalanda came out to protect him with his hood
(Ibid.:12).
Historical records show that the temple was used for

91
worship in the fourteenth century, long after the Muslim
conquest of northern India. But a Tibetan monk’s account
suggests that local monks at the temple feared the worst and
fled. He notes that the place was deserted when he reached
Vajrasana in 1234 (Roerich and Altekar, 1959:64). There
were very few monks left here at the time. Y et, Hsuan Tsang
who visited the temple six centuries earlier reported 1,000
monks living at the site.
The temple underwent several renovations: one of the
most significant ones was undertaken by the Burmese in the
thirteenth century. Later, the Ceylonese Buddhists restored it
with the financial assistance of the Buddhists of Japan. The
temple structure standing today was restored by the
Archaeological Survey of India in the late nineteenth-
century.
It is built entirely of brick and is one of the earliest
surviving brick temples in India. The central tower of the
temple (50 metres high) is surrounded by four smaller towers
built in the same architectural style. It rests on a low
basement with mouldings decorated with honey suckle
design and two geese on either side. Above the basement are
several recessed niches in which images of seated or standing
Buddhas were kept. There were more mouldings and chaitya
niches at the higher levels. The curvilinear temple tower in
the Hindu tradition rises above the mouldings and niches. It
is surmounted by amalaka and kalasha (pinnacle), the
hallmarks of traditional Hindu temples.
Medallions have been discovered at the temple site
showing: (i) A Bodhi tree with umbrellas and garlands, (ii)
the Wheel of Law (Dharmachakra), and (iii) Tri-ratna (or
three gems), that is, Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.

International Temples, Statues and

Monasteries
92
Bodhgaya is one of the few Indian villages of historical
importance with a vast international presence of tourists,
Buddhists and resident monks in temples and monasteries.
Many monuments in Bodhgaya are financed and managed
by governmental and non-governmental organisations from
Asian countries/areas such as Bhutan, Burma, Japan, Sri
Lanka, Thailand and Tibet. These organisations also
contribute financially and materially to the renovation and
maintenance of the Temple, which is managed by an
International Advisory Board consisting of representatives of
the following countries/areas: Bhutan, Cambodia, Japan,
Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim (India) and South Korea.
Although different Asian countries mentioned above
follow different forms of Buddhism, they all hold Bodhgaya
as a sacred place for worship and pilgrimage. This is
evidenced by thousands of Buddhist pilgrims from Asian
countries visiting Bodhgaya every year. Hsuan Tsang noted
the importance of Bodhgaya in the following words:
‘Bodhgaya may be said to be the cradle of Buddhism. To the
devout Buddhist there is no place of greater importance and
sanctity’ (GOI, 2002:4). This opinion expressed in the
seventh century remains equally valid today.
Below we discuss the various international temples,
statues and monasteries built in Bodhgaya by foreign
countries over the past several years.

Japanese Buddhist Monuments

The Great Buddha Statue

The tall Buddha statue built by Daijokyo of Japan was

inaugurated by the Dalai Lama in November 1989 (Fig. 18).
It is the first statue of its kind ever built in India. It took

93
seven years to build involving the use of 120,000 masons.
Built of sandstone and red granite, it is similar to the statue of
the Great Buddha of Kamakura, Japan (Fig. 19). Only a
slight variation in the head gear is noticeable. The statue
represents Lord Buddha in meditation (dhyana mudra)
seated on a lotus in open air. The ten statuettes lining both
sides of the path leading to the statue are his disciples
protecting their Lord.[15]

Fig. 18 Daijokyo Buddha of Japan, Bodhgaya

94
 Fig. 19 Great Buddha, Kamakura, Japan

Daijokyo is a Buddhist organisation founded in Japan

over ninety years ago by the Most Revered Ms Tatsuko
Sugiyama. Its main goal is to apply the Buddhist principle of
‘training through practice’. Of all the Buddhist scriptures
Daijokyo reveres the Lotus Sutra as the most sacred text
which is considered to contain ‘Three Virtuous Practices’,
namely: (a) Compassion or Dana (Jihi), (b) Honesty or Sila
(Makoto); (c) Patience or Ksanti (Kannin). Daijokyo preaches
that every Buddhist should follow these three practices in
everyday life.

95
Daijokyo Temple/Monastery

The temple, a three-storey pagoda, was built in 1983 with the

construction of its main building, Shakado. It has the Main
Hall on the first floor where the principal images of the
Eternal Sakyamuni along with four attendants are displayed.
The Founder’s Hall on the second floor contains a bronze bust
of Tatsuko Sugiyama, the founder of Daijokyo. The Reliquary
Hall on the third floor contains the holy relics of Buddha.
Everyone regardless of religion, creed, colour or nationality is
welcome to visit the temple.
The monastery is a symbol of the philosophy and practice
of Japanese Zen Buddhism in India (see Chapter 1).

Indosan Nippon Japanese Temple

The temple, carved out of wood in typical Japanese

architectural style, was built in 1972. Its gardens contain a
Bell of Peace and other pagodas. It is one of the 15 Bells of
Peace placed in 15 countries around the world by the World
Peace Bell Association.[16] The temple contains many
beautiful Japanese paintings, depicting scenes from Buddha’s
life, for example, Buddha’s pregnant mother, Maya, and the
newly born Buddha. The temple has simple bronze and
wooden Buddhas for public worship.
The Japanese Buddhist temples in Bodhgaya are
remarkable for their simplicity, cleanliness and serenity. They
present a striking contrast to the rich, colourful and rather
garish Bhutanese and Tibetan temples and monasteries.

__________________

96
 Why would the Japanese government and non-
governmental organisations maintain several Buddhists
shrines and monuments in a remote part of India so far from
Japan? The motivation seems to come from devotion to
Buddhism, and India is the home of this religion. Secondly,
Bodhgaya is known as the holiest of all places for Buddhists
where Gautama attained enlightenment and became Lord
Buddha. Finally, the motivation for the Japanese presence
may also come from the teachings of Tatsuko Sugiyama who
pledged that she would be ‘the sun to light the Embudai,
interpreted as the ‘world in which mankind lives’ or in this
particular case, Bodhgaya, the birth of Buddhism. The term
‘be the sun’ is defined as ‘saving (poor) people’.

Tibetan Temple and Monastery

Buddhist monks from Tibet are omnipresent in Bodhgaya.

They have a monastery and a temple besides a market, which
is, in fact, the only major market in Bodhgaya. The Tibetan
monastery is the oldest and the largest in Bodhgaya (Fig. 20).
The monastery complex includes a colourful Buddhist temple
and a special Wheel of Law.

97
 Fig. 20 Tibetan temple and monastery, Bodhgaya

It was established in 1934 long before Tibet became a part

of the People’s Republic of China. It is decorated with Tibetan
scriptures, thankas and other objects. It acts as a meditation
centre and has a prayer hall for the large community of
Tibetan refugees in India.

Chinese Temple and Monastery

The Chinese monastery, located close to the Mahabodhi

Temple complex, was built in 1945 in the Chinese
architectural style. The Chinese temple in the monastery was

98
built in 1997 by the Chinese government and the Buddhist
monks. It replaced an older structure.

Bhutanese Temple and Monastery

Bhutan has one of the most colourful monasteries and

temples in Bodhgaya (Fig. 21). Some Tantric decorations are
found in the temple interior. The monastery is unique as the
wall decorations contain peculiar clay carvings depicting
various aspects of Buddhism and Buddha’s life (Fig. 22).

99
Fig. 21 A Buddha statue and tantric decorations,
Bhutanese temple

100
 Fig. 22 Clay carvings, Bhutanese temple

Thai Monastery and Temple

The monastery/temple was built in 1957 by the Government

of Thailand at the invitation of the Government of India to
celebrate the Buddha Jayanti. It is supported by the Thai
Royal Embassy in New Delhi and is managed by Thai monks
on the spot.
The temple inside the monastery is modelled on Wat
Benjamabophit, a nineteenth-century temple in Bangkok. It
contains a golden Buddha in the main Hall. There is also a
walking Buddha in the grounds of the monastery.

101
 C h ap t e r 4

Sarnath: Site of the First Sermon

Sarnath,[17] a suburb of Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) about 10

kilometres away, is the place where Buddha delivered his first
sermon to his five disciples, namely, Kaundinya, Bashpa,
Bhadrika, Mahanaman, and Ashvajit It is here that he
preached the doctrine of peace. Buddha’s first sermon,
delivered in a Deer Park, referred to the Wheel of Law
(Dharmachakra). According to legend, in an earlier
incarnation Buddha was a Bodhisattva in the guise of the
lord of a herd of deer roaming in the Park. The name Sarnath
derives from the Deer Park or Saranganatha, the Lord of the
Deer.
The ancient names of Sarnath include Mrigadava,
Migadaya, Rishipattana and Isipatana. Buddha mentioned
the last as one of the four holy places of pilgrimage for
Buddhists, the other three being: Bodhgaya, Sanchi and
Kushinagar.
Buddha came to Sarnath from Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3)
after his enlightenment there. Apparently, his disciples and
other followers persuaded him to narrate his experiences in
Bodhgaya and to establish the first Buddhist order (sangha)
there. Y asa, the son of a wealthy banker of Varanasi and his
54 friends, were converted to Buddhism in Sarnath.
Not much is known about the history of Sarnath except
information obtained through archaeological excavations
and accounts of Fa Hsien and Hsuan Tsang. Fa Hsien notes
that he saw four stupas and four monasteries in Sarnath.

102
Hsuan Tsang saw 30 monasteries accommodating 3,000
monks and displaying a life-sized brass statue of Buddha
turning the Wheel of Law. Their accounts suggest that the
heyday of Sarnath was from the third to seventh century (AD
250-650). This is confirmed by the discovery of sculptures
discovered there.
Hsuan Tsang’s account reads:

In the great enclosure is a vihara about 200 feet

high; above the roof is a golden-covered figure of the
Amra […] or mango fruit.
The foundations of the building are of stone, and
the stairs also: but the towers and niches are of brick.
The niches are arranged on the four sides in hundred
successive lines, and in each niche is a golden figure of
Buddha. In the middle of the vihara is a figure of
Buddha made up of native copper (teou-shin). It is the
size of life and he is represented as turning the wheel of
law (preaching). To the southwest of the vihara, is a
stone stupa built by Ashoka-raja. Although the
foundations have given way, there are still 100 feet or
more of the wall remaining. In front of the building is
a stone pillar about 70 feet high. The stone is
altogether as bright as jade. It is glistening and sparkles
like light; and all those who pray fervently before it see
from time to time, according to their petitions, figures
with good or bad signs. It was here that Tathagata,
having arrived at enlightenment, began to turn the
wheel of law.

(cited in the Benares District

Gazetteer, 1922)

The monuments seen by the Chinese pilgrims have now

disappeared but their historical account of that period is a

103
testimony to the significance of Sarnath as an important
Buddhist religious centre. Buddhism must have prospered in
Sarnath because of its proximity to Benaras (Varanasi) where
kings and wealthy merchants sponsored many Buddhist
monuments (see Chapter 2).
Sarnath thrived during the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka’s
edicts mention that the king visited Sarnath and other
Buddhist holy places and built several stupas and monasteries
to mark his devotion and respect for Buddha and Buddhism.
For example, the original Dhamekh stupa there was built by
Ashoka. Superstructures were built on top of the stupa in
later centuries.
The Dhamekh stupa (or Dharmachakra) is the only
surviving monument; the others are largely in ruins. The
main ruins at the archaeological site include: Dharmarajika
Stupa (to the west of Shamika stupa); lower portions of the
Ashoka Pillar (the capital with four lions which once had a
wheel on top of the lions; is displayed in the Sarnath
Museum); the Bodhi tree and the ruins of railings and pillars.
Modern buildings at the site include: the
Mulangandhakuti vihara (built in 1931 by the International
Mahabodhi Society) and Sri Digambar Jain Temple built in
1824.
In the thirteenth century Sarnath faded into oblivion after
the decline of Buddhism.[18]. It is not clear whether the
Muslim invaders in the twelfth century onwards destroyed
the Sarnath monuments to propagate Islam. The Gazetteer
of Benares for 1922 notes that Sarnath (in the outskirts of
Benares) thrived until AD 1194 when iconoclastic Muslims
under Qutb-ud-din Aibak devastated the place. It was
deserted by the monks and local population.
It is not until the archaeological excavations in Sarnath
by Cunningham (1835-6), that interest in Sarnath and
Buddhist ruins was revived. In 1834, Cunningham visited the
Sarnath site and arranged its renovation in a systematic

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fashion. Subsequent excavations were undertaken by other
archaeologists namely, Kittoe, Horne, Oertal, Marshall,
Hargreaves and Sahni.[19]
It appears that all different types of Buddhism discussed
in Chapter 1 were worshipped here at one time or another.
During Ashoka’s reign, the conservative Hinayana Buddhism
was practised under which Buddha had not yet been deified;
no Buddha images existed during this period (see Chapter 2).
The first Buddha images in Sarnath must have appeared
during the phase of Buddhism. A stone inscription records
that in 1058, a Buddhist monk gifted a copy of the Prajna-
paramita Sutra to the largest monastery in Sarnath,
suggesting activity there at that time. It is probable that
Tantrism was also practised in Sarnath at some stage as is
suggested by the discovery of statues of Heruka and Arya
Tara goddesses.

Royal Patronage
Chapter 2 discussed three types of patronage of Buddhist art:
royal patronage, patronage by rich merchants and patronage
by ordinary men and women. There are traces and historical
evidence of such patronage for the construction of Sarnath
monuments. The royal patronage extends to several
dynasties, namely, Mauryas, Sungas, Kushanas and Guptas.
For example, the earliest monuments such as
Dharmarajika stupa and monasteries were built by Ashoka,
as noted above. Other monuments attributed to him include
the Ashoka pillar (only the lower portion is in situ) and the
monolithic railing of the Chunar sandstone which was found
buried in the foundations of the Main Shrine.[20] The carved
railing pillars (Fig. 26) are attributed to the Sunga dynasty
which ruled during the second to first century BC.
Both Kushana and Pala kings are known to have provided

105
support to Buddhism in Sarnath. The Kushana kings were
responsible for the expansion of the Dharmajika stupa. Some
Buddha statues (for example, a colossal image of standing
Buddha of red sandstone under a stone umbrella) and
Bodhisattvas are also attributed to them.
The earlier Gupta kings must have also patronised
Buddhist monuments in Sarnath as the Dhamekh stupa was
renovated and rebuilt during the Gupta period. Their other
contributions included the construction of the original
Mulgandhakuti Temple, several stupas and monasteries,
carving of a large number of Buddha images and the Sarnath
School of art (see below). Inscriptions on several Buddha
statues discovered in Sarnath testify to their origin in the
Gupta period when Sarnath was an important centre of
Buddhist sculpture.

The Sarnath School of Art

Ever since the archaeological excavations in Sarnath, a
distinctive and independent style of art has been recognised
which is confined mainly to sculpture. Some of the finest
examples of this art are the Capital of the Ashoka Pillar and
the railing surrounding the Dharmarajika stupa.
Persian and Hellenic influences are reflected in the use of
shiny stone polish to preserve the Ashoka Pillar. However,
despite the possible use of foreign techniques, the carvings on
the sculptures were done and the scriptures written by a
Buddhist monk who must have been well-versed in Buddhist
texts.
The Sarnath School lasted from AD 350 to 650, a period

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reflecting India’s Golden Age which overlaps with the Gupta
dynasty (see Table 2.1, Chapter 2). Its influence spread to
other parts of India as well as to such other Asian countries
as Cambodia, Ceylon and Thailand (formerly, Siam). It
rivalled that of Mathura and both schools were known for
Buddha sculptures. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica
(1981b:189) claims that the Mathura School was more
prolific in its output than the Sarnath and Sanchi Schools. It
further notes that ‘much of their sculpture (Sarnath and
Sanchi) was imported from Mathura, and the few images
they produced locally were strongly influenced by Mathura
work’.
The standard Mathura type of Buddha image is the one
produced in Mathura and displayed in the Sarnath
Archaeological Museum. A seated Buddha (also known as the
Katra Buddha) is another example of the Mathura School.
Both these images are known to have strongly influenced the
Sarnath School of sculpture.
However, despite the Mathura influences on the Sarnath
School, there were wide differences between the two styles of
sculpture which are summarised in Table 4.1

Table 4.1 Differences between Sarnath and Mathura images

of Buddha

Sarnath style Mathura style

Round and supple limbs. Flat and Mongolian features.
Absence of drapery on Folds of drapery on images.
images; replaced by close-
fitting and transparent
robes.
Bodhisattvas of the period No sign of Bodhisattva
received special attention in images.
sculpture.

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 Carving of richly decorated Hardly any halos around
halos around Buddha Buddha images.
images.
Buddha body slightly Rigidity in the position of
broken on its axis to impart Buddha figure.
certain litheness and
moving quality (Rowland,
1953:141).
Significant influence on Some influence on Buddhist
Buddhist sculpture in South sculpture in Southeast Asia
and Southeast Asia (Ceylon, (in Thailand, for example).
Cambodia and Thailand).
The elegant and graceful Buddha sculptures of the
Sarnath School are displayed in the Sakyasimha gallery in the
Archaeological Museum of Sarnath. The statue of the
preaching Buddha in this gallery is one of the most important
and graceful images.
The truly independent and distinctive Buddha images of
the Sarnath School may have developed in the fifth century
AD. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (Ibid.: 192-3)
recognises this distinctiveness in the following words:

This famous centre of Indian art (Sarnath) developed a

sweeter and more elegant version of the Buddha image than
Mathura’s.
Instead of the rather strict frontal posture, the weight of
the body is thrown more on one leg, […]. This lends a certain
movement to the figure, so that it does not quite possess the
static, steadfast quality of Mathura […]. The (Sarnath)
images have great refinement even if they do not possess the
strength of Mathura.

Examples of Buddhist Art

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Dhamekh Stupa

The Dhamekh stupa, still standing today, was probably built

in around AD 500 to replace the earlier stupa at the site. Its
upper part is built of redbrick whereas the base is built of
stone (Figs. 23 and 24). Apparently, the basement has
survived from the Ashoka period. Large-sized bricks
discovered below the stone drum may belong to an earlier
structure, possibly that built by Ashoka.

Fig. 23 Dhamekh stupa, Sarnath

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Fig. 24 Floral and geometric patterns on the Dhamekh
stupa
Earlier the stupa was called Dharma Chakra according to
an inscription dated AD 1026 discovered at the archaeological
site. Searching for the relic casket, Cunningham bore a
vertical shaft through the centre of the stupa down to its
foundation. Local villagers had told him about a tomb of
some prince in ancient times. He found a slab dating back to
the sixth or seventh century with an inscription in Brahmi
script. He also found a foundation of original stupa made of
Mauryan bricks.
The foundation of the stupa consists of a circular stone
drum. About six metres above the base, eight niches were
discovered which displayed Buddha statues. Below these
niches are stone carvings depicting geometrical designs,
svastika, floral patterns and human figures as well as those of
birds (Fig. 24). These carvings show designs and features
common during the Gupta period.

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 It is unclear who built the current Dhamekh stupa and
for what purpose. Some scholars (such as Rowland,
1953:134) believe that it was intended ‘to commemorate the
ordaining of his successor, Maitreya’.

Dharmarajika Stupa

This stupa lies in ruins. It underwent several enlargements till

the twelfth century, which shows its importance in the
Buddhist art and religion.
The stupa once concealed a green marble casket
containing human bones and precious objects such as pearls
and gold leaf. It was destroyed at the end of the eighteenth
century. It is not clear how and why it was destroyed. The
casket is believed to have been stolen but it is not known
when or by whom. One view is that Jagat Singh, a Rajput
Maharaja who ruled from 1658 to 1684, destroyed it in 1794
(Sahni, 1923:17). Why would he demolish the stupa and
throw away the casket in the river Ganges? Presumably, as a
Hindu he did not like the Buddhist relics. He may have
destroyed it to acquire building materials for his own
construction projects. The Gazetteer of Benares District for
1922 notes that Jonathan Duncan, Resident of Benares, who
built a new bridge over the Varna River, used some building
materials obtained from the dismantled buildings.
Apart from the casket, an inscribed Buddha image was
also discovered the base of which is displayed in the Sarnath
Archaeological Museum. The inscription notes that in AD
1026 during the reign of king Mahipala of Gauda (Bengal),
two brothers (Sthirapala and Vasantapala) restored the Deer
Park as well as the Ashoka stupa (presumably the
Dharmarajika stupa). However, there is no clear-cut
historical evidence to support this view.
The stupa was a hemispherical dome made of bricks with
a drum (medhi) forming its base. The dome was surmounted

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by several umbrellas (chhatris) presumably to provide shade
to the Buddha statues. The chhatris may have been set
within a square railing.[21]
Apparently, the stupa was surrounded by a railing of
Chunar sandstone not much of which remains intact. It is
believed that a few richly-carved pillars, still standing near
the main Stupa, belong to this railing.

Monasteries

The tradition of monasteries in Sarnath dates back to the

reign of Ashoka in the third century BC. Fa Hsien saw two
monasteries with monks in residence. Hsuan Tsang also saw
several monasteries as noted above. Marshall discovered
‘three monasteries of the late Kushana period and a fourth
and extensive building which was constructed upon the ruins
of the three monasteries in the late medieval period.
The largest monastery was built in the twelfth century by
Kumaradevi, the wife of King Govindachandra who ruled
Benares from 1114 to 1154. Not much is left of this and other
monasteries which may have been destroyed by the Muslim
invaders in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Did the segment of pediments discovered in the Sarnath
ruins (Fig. 25) belong to these monasteries? In the literature
there is no clear-cut answer to this question.

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 Fig. 25 A decorated pediment, Sarnath

Stone Pillars

Sarnath was not known during the Sunga dynasty although

a few railing pillars belonging to this period have been
discovered in good condition (Fig. 26). These pillars may have
belonged to the various monasteries in Sarnath which are
believed to have been destroyed either by the Muslim
invaders or by a fire. Another theory is that these pillars
formed a part of ancient railings surrounding the Ashoka
Pillar or other monuments. The carvings on the pillars
suggest that they belong to the Gupta period.

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 Fig. 26 Round stone pillars, Sarnath

Mulaghanakuti Temple

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The temple, built in 1931 (presumably on the foundations of
the original temple of the Gupta period) by the Mahabodhi
Society, contains some relics of Buddha. Dharmapala, a
devout Buddhist and his disciples from Ceylon, were
responsible for its construction. In 1891 he decided to build a
Buddhist shrine on a piece of land which he had bought. The
temple was subsequently expanded with the purchase of
additional plots of land by other Buddhists from Ceylon.
The design of the temple is reminiscent of the Mahabodhi
temple in Bodhgaya. It differs from the latter in that it has a
long hall with a colonnaded passage in front. A gilded bell at
the entrance of the Temple is a gift of the Buddhist Society of
Japan.
The temple is simple in design without any elaborate
decorations. However, there are some interesting frescoes on
its walls. One painting by a Japanese artist (Kosetsu Nosu)
depicts scenes from Buddha’s life.
The temple contains some authentic Buddha relics found
in Taxila (North Western Frontier Province, NWFP,
Pakistan).

Monument of the Five Disciples

In front of the Mulaghanaluti Temple is a monument

dedicated to the first five disciples of Buddha.

Buddha Statues

A large number of Buddha statues were discovered at the

archaeological site in Sarnath. Some are displayed in the
Sarnath Archaeological Museum and others in the Kolkata
National Museum.

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 C h ap t e r 5

The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and

Amaravati

Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati are known for the three

most important stupas dating back to the Ashoka period. The
Great Stupa (or Stupa I) in Sanchi is the only surviving
stupa; the other two are in ruins. The remains of the last two
monuments are displayed in national museums in Kolkata,
Chennai and London.
Sanchi is situated at a distance of 70 kilometres from
Bhopal in the rural hinterland of Madhya Pradesh. The
discovery of ancient Buddhist ruins there suggests that the
place was an important centre of Buddhism. Y et it was not
associated with Buddha’s life in any way. There is no
historical record showing that Buddha ever visited Sanchi or
its neighbourhood. Why did Buddhists choose this site for
worship and meditation? There may be several plausible
reasons. First, Sanchi was very close to Vidisha (or Vidishagiri
in ancient days), an important religious centre for Hindu
worship. Secondly, it was an important trading centre at the
confluence of Bes and Betwa Rivers. Rich merchants lived in
and near Vidisha who may have been attracted by egalitarian
Buddhism. Thirdly, the relics of Buddhist monks – Sariputta
and Mugallana—were brought here, suggesting that this was
a holy place for Buddhists.
The Sanchi stupas and railings are associated with Ashoka
which would suggest that this place was of some importance
during his reign. At a young age Ashoka spent several years

116
in Ujjain as the Viceroy of Malwa. He took keen interest in
Sanchi where he commissioned the construction of the Great
Stupa, one of the most well-preserved of all stupas in India.
He married a Devi of Vidisha and his son Mahinda (or
Mahindra according to some authors) spent some time in a
Sanchi monastery built by his mother, which further
reinforces the Buddhist credentials of Sanchi (Valisinha,
1948:192).
After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, Sanchi was
associated with successive kingdoms, namely, the Sungas
(185-72 BC) and the early Andhras (or Satavahanas) (72-25
BC) who ruled the Deccan. The four gateways and the
railings around the Great Stupa were added during the reign
of the Andhras.
Sanchi remained an important Buddhist centre until the
eleventh century when it became deserted and forgotten till
1818 when General Mark Taylor, a British officer, discovered
it. Historical records do not throw any light on why it was
deserted. Neither do the archaeological excavations give any
clue about its fate. Was Sanchi’s decay caused by Muslim
invasions as in the case of Sarnath discussed in Chapter 4? Or
was it because of the remoteness of the place? The
remoteness of a hilly area covered by forests may also explain
why the monuments discovered there are in a very good
condition. It was in 1912 when Sir John Marshall, the then
Director-General of ASI, ordered restoration work at the
Buddhist site in Sanchi.

The Ashoka Empire collapsed in the second century BC

when the Sungas (and later Guptas) took over. However, it is
believed that in the third century BC Ashoka had built in
Sanchi an earthen stupa at the same site as the Great Stupa.
Later, the Sunga kings built the Great Stupa in the second
century BC on the site. The Andhras built the Stupa gateways
(toranas). Thus, Buddhist art in Sanchi spans four dynasties:

117
Maurya, Sunga, Andhra and Gupta.
The gateways depict animals, birds, foliage, flowers and
plants as well as incidents from Buddha’s life. Male and
female divinities in the forms of yaksas and yaksis appear on
the gateways around the Great Stupa as well as among other
pieces of art.
Religious themes invariably dominated Indian sculpture
during the reign of Ashoka, which is understandable since
Ashoka adopted Buddhism and followed it during the rest of
his life.
We discuss below the Great Stupa and other monuments.

The Great Sanchi Stupa

The Great Stupa standing today was built by a Sunga king
who rebuilt the original Ashoka stupa, enlarged it and
decorated it with balustrades, staircases and harmika on the
top (Fig. 27). The gateways were added later. The Sunga king
is known to have commissioned intricate carvings on the
gateways during the first century BC.

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 Fig. 27 Great Stupa, Sanchi

It is one of the oldest stone structures to be found in

India. In its original form, it was a simple brick structure
crowned by a chhatri, symbolising Buddha’s high rank.
Sometime in the second century BC, the Ashoka stupa
was destroyed presumably for acquiring building materials.
Historical accounts do not give any indication of either the
name of the culprit or his motive to destroy it. Marshall
(1918:36) suggests that the culprit may have been the Sunga
king, Pushyamitra, who ruled at this time. He was an
ambitious commander-in-chief of the Mauryas who
ascended the throne by assassinating Brihadratha, the last
Mauryan king. He was known for his hostility towards
Buddhism. Therefore, it is plausible that he ordered the
destruction of a Buddhist monument which he saw as an
eyesore.

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 Who ordered the restoration of the Great Stupa and when
is shrouded in mystery. Marshall believes that Pushyamitra’s
son, Agnimitra, may have restored it. What was his
motivation to do so? Was he favourably inclined towards
Buddhism? Or was he a Buddhist himself? The fact that
Pushyamitra’s successors in the Sunga dynasty built other
Buddhist monuments such as the Bharhut stupa suggests
that the subsequent Sunga kings not only tolerated Buddhism
but actively promoted it.
Equally difficult to decipher is how and when the
Buddhist establishment in Sanchi came to an end. No
Buddhist monuments here were found in the thirteenth
century although some Hindu Brahmanical plaques have
been discovered. One may conclude that Hinduism was in
the ascendancy during the period and Buddhism was in
decline.

Four Gateways and Railing

The four richly carved gateways with attached railings are

the main attractions of the Great Stupa. The first was the
Southern gateway followed by the Northern, Eastern and
Western gateways respectively. Each of the four gateways
illustrates the events of Buddha’s life with rich and elaborate
carvings. Apparently, the uppermost architraves of each
gateway originally contained a carving of the Wheel of Law.
All are now destroyed except a portion of the wheel which is
still intact on the top of the Northern gateway (Fig. 28).

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Fig. 28 Northern gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi

The Southern gateway, the oldest of the four, illustrates

the birth of Gautama Siddhartha as described in the jataka
tales. Four lions figure on each pillar supporting the
architraves.
Th e Northern gateway with a portion of the Wheel of
Law illustrates a miracle associated with Buddha and
numerous other scenes of his earlier life. Other scenes include
a monkey offering a bowl of honey to Buddha who is
symbolised by a stupa. Elephants support the architraves
above the columns and horses with riders fill the gaps
between them.
The Eastern gateway shows young Gautama leaving his
father’s house on a horse and relinquishing worldly life. There
is no human body on the horse, only empty space under an

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umbrella. As noted above, Buddha was not personified in
flesh and blood but in the form of symbols in the early stages
of Buddhism.
The Western Gateway depicts pot-bellied dwarfs
supporting its architraves. Scenes on the pillars include the
temptation of Mara, and Buddha in seven different
incarnations: three represented by stupas and four by Bodhi
tree. It also shows Buddha delivering his first sermon in
Sarnath.
There is some controversy concerning the timing of the
gateways’ construction. Were the four gateways built over a
prolonged period? The name of the patron, Balamitra,
appears in both the oldest and the latest gateway which
suggests that it may not have taken too long before all the
four gateways were built.
Sculptures on the gateways include figures of animals, for
example, elephants, horses, lions, deer, water buffaloes and
monkeys. There are also birds. The Indian natural landscape
is depicted by ornamental trees, waterfalls, pools, mountains
and rivers. But perhaps the most beautiful figures are those of
the yaksis who serve as brackets for the lowest architraves of
the gateways.
The sensuous and amorous scenes on the gateways are
inconsistent with Buddha’s teachings of simple and non-
sensuous life for the attainment of enlightenment. Could this
incongruity be due to a lack of any control of the subject
matter of the structure and its quality? Sanchi sculpture did
not enjoy any royal patronage. It was sponsored by donations
of the common folk (see Chapter 2) which may explain a
lack of adherence to any strict standards.
Notwithstanding the above, the Sanchi gateway sculpture
‘is marked by its rhythm, symmetry, decorative beauty and
perfect handling of the floral and plant motifs’ (Mitra,
2003:38).

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Yaksas and Yaksis

Images of yaksas and yaksis are an important feature of the

gateway sculpture. They are deities from the Indian Hindu
tradition usually standing on a pedestal of lotus flower or on
an elephant (as in Bharhut) and representing kings and
queens. They often appear side by side with nagas, another
example of the Hindu mythology which predates the Aryan
traditions.
Som e yaksis are seen as tree goddesses (like dryads in
Greek mythology). Tree and serpent worship is associated
with ancient pre-Aryan religion. The yaksi resting on tree
branches may symbolise not only the life and fertility of trees
but also the fact that Buddha attained enlightenment under a
tree.
T h e yaksis of the north (as in Bharhut, Sanchi and
Mathura) are different from those in the South where they
are carved in metal rather than stone. Could the differences
in metalworking and stone-working techniques explain
differences in the shape of yaksis? It seems more plausible
that the South Indian yaksis depict a different ethnic group,
namely, Dravidians, who are slimmer, more slender and less
voluptuous than the North Indian yaksis.

Other Monuments in Sanchi

Temples

The pillars in front of the Southern gateway of the Great

Stupa are the remains of a monastery, a chaitya hall or a
temple (known as Temple 18). The building resembles the
rock-cut chaitya halls in Karle caves in Maharashtra. The
main difference between the two lies in the nature of the

123
apse. Unlike the cave temple of Karle, the apse in Temple 18
is surrounded by a solid wall instead of columns. Windows
may have been provided to let in light in the temple’s free-
standing structure. However, today nothing remains of these
windows (Marshall, 1918).
The chaitya-griha is built on a raised platform with pillars
on the sides and the front. The standing pillars are square in
shape and slightly tapering towards the top. They rest on
stone foundations instead of sinking in the ground. There is a
front porch approached by a flight of steps. There was a stupa
within the apse of the temple: in 1851, General Frederick
Charles Maisey allegedly found its remains.
Temple 18 may have been built in the seventh century AD
(in around AD 650) by a Sunga king. There is some evidence
that it is built on an earlier structure. A series of floors have
been discovered below the floor of the apse, which would
suggest an earlier building.
Temple 17 near Temple 18, one of the earliest Buddhist
temples dating back to the fourth century AD, has simple
architecture – a flat roof and a porch with four pillars in
front. The front pillars are carved but the interior is quite
plain.
Although an unpretentious building, it represents an
intellectual dimension of Gupta art whose characteristic
features, namely well-balanced proportions and
ornamentation of the exterior, have been likened to those of
the Athenian architecture of Acropolis, for example
(Ibid.:105). Despite these similarities, it is unlikely that the
Gupta artists copied the temple from western prototypes.
Marshall (Ibid:106) notes that ‘this little shrine, in fact
reflects in its every stone the temperament of the people and
of the epoch which produced it, an epoch which was
primarily creative and not imitative’.
Close to Temple 17 is the statue of a fertility goddess with
a disfigured face.

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 There are two more temples. Temple 31 is built on a high
platform and consists of a plain pillared chamber with a flat
roof. It contains a large Buddha seated on a lotus throne.
Temple 40, an apsidal chaitya hall, was until recently buried
underground. According to Marshall, it resembled the rock
chaitya halls of Bhaja (Maharashtra) in western India. The
charred remains of timber found near it suggest that it was
built of wood and may have been destroyed by a fire.
It dates back to the Mauryan period. Its style of
architecture and the carvings on pillars in the early Brahmi
script suggest that it was built around the first century BC or
even earlier.
Later buildings include a monastery/temple known as
Temple 45 which contained ornamental doorways and a
Buddha with an oval halo.

Stupas

There are two stupas, numbered 2 and 3, situated not far

from the Great Stupa. A striking feature of stupa 2 is the
surrounding circular stone balustrade which is decorated
with hundreds of round and semi-circular medallions. It is
older than the Great Stupa.
Stupa 3 is situated in the northeast of the Great Stupa. Its
hemispherical dome is crowned with a polished stone
umbrella which is of special religious significance because it
contained the relics of two well-known Buddha disciples,
namely, Sariputta and Mugallana. Its architecture suggests
that it may have been built some time during 150-140 BC.
The stupa has only one gateway unlike the Great Stupa,
which has four. One architrave of the gateway shows fertility
goddesses, demons and floral patterns. Another shows
worshippers and Bodhi trees symbolic of Buddha’s presence.
Stupas 2 and 3 are similar in architectural style except

125
that the former does not have any gateway decorating any of
its four entrances. There is a sharp contrast in stupas 1 and 3
between the plainness of the dome surface and the profuse
decoration of gateways and railings.
A combination of local folk art (expressed in yaksas and
yaksis and images of many donors) and Buddha’s teachings
are found on all the three stupas discussed above.

Ashoka Pillar

As in Sarnath, Sanchi has an Ashoka Pillar with four lions

which was probably built in the third century BC. However,
this pillar is different from that in Sarnath in that the lions
are not supporting the Wheel of Law.

Bharhut Stupa and Railings

Bharhut, where the stupa was discovered, is about 14
kilometres from the Satna railway station in Madhya
Pradesh. It was built by the Sunga kings.
In 1873, during his first visit to Bharhut, Cunningham
(1879:4) saw a flat-topped mound with the ruins of a small
Buddhist vihara and three pillars of a railing and connecting
rails or cross-bars. On his second visit, accompanied by
Beglar, his assistant, he managed to salvage some portion of
the railings and the Eastern gateway from the site.[22] They
dug up the space inside the railings and found portions of the
stupa covered with plaster on the outside. Realising that these
objects would not be safe in Bharhut, they were moved to the
National Museum in Kolkata.
Reliefs on the Bharhut stupa dating back to the middle of
the second century BC, are perhaps the earliest and among
the most important pieces of Buddhist art. Sivaramamurti

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(1978a:61) notes: ‘No other monument in India, except the
rail from Amaravati, has provided such a wealth of scenes
from the Jatakas, as well as scenes from the life of the
Buddha, as the rail from Bharhut.’
The Bharhut gateways and railings imitate the wooden
structures and sculpture popular during that period. The
tradition of wooden sculpture found in Bharhut must have
preceded the Bharhut stupa. No traces of it have survived
which is not surprising since wood rots and does not last as
long as stone.

The Bharhut railing sculpture consists of the following:

Yaksas and yaksis.

Medallions containing amorous couples,
overflowing pots of flowers and other symbols of
abundance.
Jataka tales of Buddha’s life.
Lotus motifs and other crescent-shaped
decorations of flowers, jewels and fruits.

The four stupa gateways are characterized by:

Square posts with capitals supporting a triple

architrave.
Voluted ends (in the shape of a spiral, scroll-
shaped ornament).
Top crowned with Buddhist symbols.
Bracket figures in the form of y aksis provide
additional supports (see The New Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1981b:187).

127
 Bharhut sculpture symbolises different forms of
abundance, for example, overflowing flower pots, lotus
flower, buds and leaves, clothes, jewellery and fruit. This style
of sculpture spread to different parts of north India. For
example, it is found in Mathura in UP and Bodhgaya in
Bihar as the remains of monuments there suggest.
Cunningham discovered two posts, which led him to
believe in the existence of an outer railing built at a later date.
However, Mitra (1971:93) argues that ‘the stylistic
considerations of the figures on these posts do not suggest a
much later date for them as postulated by Cunningham’. He
believes that the ‘pieces of the railing formed part of the
balustrade around the upper processional path above the
drum of the stupa’.
Unlike the Sanchi stupa, very few scenes from the jatakas
are found in the Bharhut stupa railings which have round
and semi-circular medallions. Many railings have full
medallions in the middle (for example, the monkey chief and
the king of Varanasi) and a half medallion on the top and the
bottom.
The reliefs on the pillars include several yaksis whose
names are indicated as well as those of donors who financed
their construction. Six yaksas and yaksis were discovered at
different entrances to the stupa courtyard (Fig. 29). Only one
gateway to the Bharhut stupa was discovered. The gateways
were added many years later by Dhanabhuti, the grandson of
King Visvadeva during the reign of the Sungas (Ibid.: 95).

128
 Fig. 29 A Bharhut yaksi

Archaeological and historical evidence suggests that the

art work of the Bharhut stupa was financed through
collective donations of Buddhists. A large number of names
and sometimes even donor figures appear in its sculpture (as
is the case in the Karle rock temple).

129
Amaravati Stupa and Railing
There is controversy about the date of origin of the
Amaravati stupa. Some observers (for example, Knox, 1992)
believe that it is the oldest of the three stupas, built in the
third century BC during the reign of Ashoka. Others (Barrett,
1954; Dehejia, 1997) claim that it dates back to the first
century AD. However, one thing is clear: there was a
Buddhist monument in Amaravati before the Andhra rule.
Sarkar and Nainar (1992) note that the history of Amaravati
stupa (or Maha-chaitya) extended over a millennium. They
believe that its first phase dates back to the Ashoka period
when Mahadeva was sent as a missionary to the Amaravati
region who may have laid the foundations of a Buddhist
complex which developed much later. This view finds
archaeological support in the discovery of a fragment of a
polished pillar bearing an Ashokan edict.
The expansion and reconstruction of the Amaravati stupa
was completed in AD 200 during the reign of the Andhras.
The subsequent periods witnessed expansion, renovation and
replacement of the granite railing by a limestone railing.[23]
The railings, pillars and stupa drum are richly decorated. All
relate to Buddha’s life in one way or another.
The Amaravati Stupa is considered one of the most
important examples of Buddhist art in South India. In the
nineteenth century, it was discovered by European
archaeologists who could only conjecture what it might have
looked like. It is believed to have been quite similar to the
Great Stupa of Sanchi in size, decoration and other
architectural features. The casing slab of the stupa is
displayed in the Chennai Museum. The cross-bars and the
medallions on the gateways and railings are displayed in the
British Museum, London.
Excavations at the site in the eighteenth and nineteenth

130
centuries suggest that a large number of sculptures were
stolen and were used in various local building projects. Little
is known about the exact location of various artefacts as no
detailed records were kept. Notwithstanding, scholars have
speculated about the form and location of the original stupa
and its railings. It is believed that the original dome of pale
green limestone was painted with bright colours. Fragments
of plaster garlands discovered at the site probably belong to
the upper portions of the dome. In those days during
festivals, garlands of vines and flowers were used to decorate
buildings.
The excavations have led to the discovery of the
following artefacts:

Drum of the brick stupa.

Circular alignment of the railing.
Railing pillars depicting scenes from
Buddha’s life.
Round medallions (presumably on the
railings as in the Bharhut stupa) with
carvings of the jatakas Mandhata, for
example).
Drum slabs showing Buddha and
Bodhisattvas, stupas and lions.
Relief panels.
Statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

Various pillars and drum slabs illustrate stories from

Buddha’s life. For example, one limestone pillar (Fig. 30)
depicts the conversion to Buddhism of Buddha’s half brother,
Sundarananda (or Nanda). The figure under the roof
supported by columns is that of Sundari, Nanda’s consort.
The relief shows Nanda looking back at his wife, Sundari, to
suggest that he was leaving her reluctantly. The pillar is also

131
carved on the reverse; carvings on the back depict Buddha’s
life including enlightenment. A lime stone drum slab shows
the scene of the Great Departure (Fig. 31). Another pillar
shows detail of floral decorations (Fig. 32).

132
Fig. 30 A limestone pillar showing the conversion of
Nanda, Amaravati
©Trustees of the British Museum, London

133
Fig. 31 Great departure of Prince Siddharatha,
Amaravati

134
©Trustees of the British Museum, London

135
Fig. 32 Details of floral patterns on a railing pillar,
Amaravati
©Trustees of the British Museum, London

136
 Some Amaravati reliefs reflect non-Indian elements.
Others, based on North Indian style, are indigenous. Zimmer
(1955:81) remarks:‘…with its fluid, masterful handwriting
and the suppleness of its gracefully restless forms, Amaravati
stands at the threshold of the golden age of the Gupta period
and is a true forerunner of the brilliant achievements of the
subsequent Middle and South Indian styles’.

Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and

Bodhgaya: A Comparison

Amaravati and Sanchi sculptures represent the early Indian

tradition of art. During this early phase, the main emphasis
was on landscape and animal motifs. A deliberate attempt
was made not to crowd the scenes with human figures which
appeared later during the mature period of Amaravati
sculpture.
The Great Stupa in Sanchi carried to perfection the
Bharhut style of sculpture. But there are differences between
the narrative reliefs of Bharhut and those of Sanchi (see
Table 5.1). In the Sanchi stupa the reliefs show greater depth
and more crowded composition on the four gateways, for
example. The Bharhut railing is carved on both sides whereas
the Sanchi railing is bare. While the figures show no emotion
(they look sad and indifferent) in the Bharhut stupa, those of
the Sanchi stupa look happy and animated as is shown by
vivid gestures and movement. Although the yaksi goddesses
are the same in Sanchi and Bharhut, in the former they are
shown in a very different style. There is greater concern here
for the charms of the body.

Table 5.1 Characteristics of the railings in Sanchi, Bharhut,

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 Amaravati and Bodhgaya

Sanchi Bharhut Amaravat i Bodhgay a

(Madhy a (Madhy a (Andhra (Bihar)
Pradesh) Pradesh) Pradesh)
Origin Maury as Sungas Andhras Maury as
(third (m iddle of (second (second
century BC); second century AD). century BC).
toranas added century BC).
around the
m iddle of the
first century
BC.
Quality of Adv ance ov er Good but Very good. Inferior
sculpture Bharhut. heav y . Bharhut an
Sanchi.
Carv ings No carv ings Carv ings on Carv ings on Som e
on railing (bare). both sides. both sides. carv ings.
Shape of Round. Square. Square, Square,
railings rectangular. rectangular.
Ty pes of The Wheel, The Wheel, Lotus flower, The Whee
m otifs the tree, the turbaned anim als, statues,
stupa. yaksas, hum an figures, yaksas,
scenes from Buddhist scenes fro
Buddha’s legends. Buddha’s life
life.

There is one major difference between the monuments in

Sanchi and those in Bharhut. While the former remained
most well-preserved (perhaps thanks to thick forests, remote
hilly location and sand storms which covered them for
centuries), those in Bharhut were destroyed and looted by the
local villagers. Also very few jataka carvings were discovered
on the railings or pillars of the Bharhut stupa whereas those
of the Sanchi stupa are full of jatakas narrating Buddha’s
earlier incarnations.
However, there are also similarities. In both Sanchi and

138
Bharhut stupas, the compositions are similar, and they are
arranged in horizontal rows. They both show the sculptor’s
love and eye for detail. Cunningham (1879:11) notes that the
Bharhut railings ‘are of the same pattern as those of the
Buddhist Railings at Buddha Gaya, Bhilsa and Mathura’.
The styles of Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Bodhgaya
(Mahabodhi Temple) are compared in Table 5.1. Although all
four belong to more or less the same period the style of
Bodhgaya is of much poorer quality. Bodhgaya scultpture
lacks the ‘rich proliferation’ found in others.[24]
The differences in the quality of workmanship of the
different types of railings may be explained by the artisans’
professional experience and qualifications. The Sanchi stupa
received royal patronage of the kings who hired highly
trained artisans. On the other hand, the railings built in
Bodhgaya and Bharhut may have been the work of
individual artisans who did not enjoy any royal patronage or
may not have possessed the requisite skills. They may have
worked happily out of religious zeal and devotion.
Inscriptions on some sculptures note the names of ordinary
citizens as well as monks and nuns who made donations.

Concluding Remarks
In this chapter, we have discussed three of the finest Buddhist
monuments from ancient India: Sanchi, Bharhut and
Amaravati. While the first two are located in the north of
India, the third is located in the south.
A comparison of the three stupas shows that sculpture of
all three is of very high artistic quality although that of
Sanchi tends to be a bit heavy. Their sculpture is superior to
that of Bodhgaya discussed in Chapter 3. Y et the four types of
sculpture and stupas belong to more or less the same period.
Although there is controversy about the origin of the

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three stupas, all three are generally attributed to Ashoka of
the Mauryan Empire which collapsed in the early years of the
second century BC. With this collapse, Buddhist art and
sculpture also disappeared.
Sculpture of the mid -second century BC is quite different
from that of the third century BC. As is shown by the
discoveries in Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Mathura and Sanchi,
several schools of art and sculpture developed in northern
India. For example, in the third century BC figures carved in
the round medallions of stone or metal were quite popular.
However, this type of sculpture seems to have disappeared in
the second century BC.

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 C h ap t e r 6

The Cave Temples of Ajanta, Ellora and

Karle

Ajanta, Ellora and Karle in Maharashtra, situated near

Aurangabad, are known for the rock-hewn temples and
monasteries dating back to centuries before Christ and
extending into the seventh and ninth centuries.
While Ajanta temples are entirely Buddhist (30 cave
temples including two unfinished ones),[25] those in Ellora
have 12 Buddhist temples/viharas, and a few Jain and Hindu
temples. The earliest in Ajanta are caves 9 and 10 dating back
to the first and second centuries BC (others in Ajanta were
built in the fifth and sixth centuries). The Karle caves are said
to have been excavated in around AD 100-150 (some argue
that they date back to pre-Christian era). The last to be built
were the Buddhist caves in Ellora, excavated in the seventh
or eighth century.
The world owes its gratitude to British officers of the 28
Madras Cavalry who discovered the Ajanta caves by chance
in 1819 when they were hunting tigers. They saw an animal
going into a cave and thus found the cave temples and
monasteries.
The cave temples and monasteries were excavated
primarily for the accommodation of monks during the rainy
season when the valley was often flooded. From time
immemorial, Indian ascetics meditated and worshipped in
caves which offered permanent abode compared to perishable
wooden huts.[26] In Nepal and parts of Tibet, Lama

141
Buddhists continue to meditate in rock-cut monasteries in
caves which offer other advantages as well. They are cool in
summer and dry during the monsoon rains which may at
least partly explain why cave temples were popular in ancient
India (Buddhist caves were also built in China and Central
Asia).
The caves of western India (mainly Maharashtra)
represent the early phase of Andhra (Satavahana) sculpture
and architecture.[27] The Deccan Andhras were known for
the patronage of art as were the Gupta rulers in the north. As
discussed in Chapter 2, the Andhras and Guptas were Hindus
following Brahmanical faith, but they tolerated Buddhism.
Ajanta art is attributed to the Vakatakas who were the
successors of the Andhras.
Since many Buddhist monuments were built during the
reigns of the above two kingdoms, their rulers are believed to
have patronised their construction. However, historical
records do not throw much light on who actually patronised
and built the Ajanta cave temples. Some inscriptions suggest
that some individual families financed at least some
sculptures and paintings. But it would seem inconceivable
that such a large number of cave temples could be built
without collective or royal patronage.
There was no preplanning of the general cutting of caves.
So the cave temples sprang up sporadically without following
any time sequence. Original staircases which led to them
have since disappeared.
The Ajanta and Ellora cave temples are actually chaitya-
grihas, places of worship as well as viharas for the
accommodation of Buddhist monks. There are five chaityas
(Caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29) and 24 viharas. One of the first
chaityas (Cave 10) dates back to the second century BC as
the palaeographical records suggest (Mitra, 1971:175). The
other temples are more recent, built between the fifth and
seventh centuries.

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 The Ajanta caves are unique in presenting a combination
of three arts, namely, painting, sculpture and architectural
design. It is very rare that these three arts are found in a
single historical monument.
The Ellora Buddhist cave temples are not decorated with
paintings on walls or ceilings unlike the Ajanta temples. But
they contain many sculptures of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. It
is possible that these temples/viharas were also originally
painted, but no remains of any painting are visible today.
The temples found in the southernmost group were built
from the sixth to eighth century during the reigns of early
Western Chalukyas and of Rashtrakutas who succeeded
them.

Ajanta
Ajanta village is situated about ten kilometres from the site of
the cave temples which are located at a distance of about 100
kilometres from Aurangabad. It is a hilly region with
Sahyadri hills separating the coastal region from the
mainland. The hills are built of basalt rock considered ideal
for carving.

Paintings

It is believed that all the Ajanta caves and sculptures were

painted at one time, but very few traces of this paint remain
now. Generally, the walls and ceilings were painted. The
remains of the paint on walls and ceilings have survived in

143
Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17. Caves 2 and 17 have painted ceilings.
Prehistoric paintings have not survived in India since the
material used was perishable and thus could not withstand
the ravages of time. The earliest paintings belonging to the
second and first centuries BC are reminiscent of the relief
sculpture of Sanchi (Chapter 5). The most significant
amongst ancient Indian paintings are those found on the
walls and ceilings of the Ajanta cave temples and
monasteries.
Ajanta mural paintings inspired similar paintings of
damsels in Sigiriya in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (see Fig. 12,
Chapter 2). The latter are almost copies of Ajanta murals in
respect of the technique, colour and theme. The cave
paintings of Bamiyan in Afghanistan and others in Central
Asian monasteries also reflect the Ajanta tradition.
The Ajanta murals spanned two periods, namely:

Second and first centuries BC: Some remnants

of the paintings are found in Caves 9 and 10,
which are perhaps the earliest to have
survived in India. The themes of the murals in
Cave 10 include worship of the Bodhi tree,
Sama Jataka (Sama looking after his blind
parents even when he was wounded) and the
Chhaddanta Jataka (the noble elephant who
gave one of his six tusks to the wicked hunter
who wounded him). These are stories of love,
compassion and non-violence preached by
Buddhism.
Fifth to eighth century: Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17
contain remnants of murals which coincided
with the spurt of architectural activity during
these centuries. The earlier period of these
murals coincides with the reign of the
Vakatakas of the Deccan. Therefore, they are

144
 often called the Vakataka paintings.

Vakataka art of Ajanta paintings (see Sivaramamurti,

1978:120) has six features:

Variety of form (rupabheda).

Correct proportion (pramana).
Depiction of emotion (bhava).
Infusion of grace (lavanya-yojana).
Verisimilitude (sadrisya).
Mixing of colours to produce a modelling
effect (varnika bhanga).

The artistic quality of murals started declining from the

sixth century onwards. The narrative scenes became more
repetitive and the later paintings lacked the earlier vigour,
delicacy and imagination (Deshpande, 1967:39).
The Ajanta paintings were done in the tempera technique
on smooth plaster surfaces. Two coats of plaster were applied.
The first coat, coarse in texture, consisted of a layer of
ferruginous earth and clay mixed with vegetal fibres or paddy
husks. The second coat of lime was applied to smoothen
rough plaster. Drawings were then outlined and filled with
different colours (yellow, red, blue, white, black and green).
Glue was used as a binding medium. The blue colour, lapis
lazuli, was imported from Iran.

The themes of the murals include:

Contemporary economic, social and cultural life

as depicted in scenes of palaces and courts as well
as villages and hamlets.
Dress code, ornaments, musical instruments and
weapons.
Jatakas, or stories of Buddha’s life before and

145
 after enlightenment.
Religious divinities, gods and semi-gods, Buddha,
Bodhisattvas, nagas, apsara dancers, and yaksas.

The paintings on ceilings include flowers, plants, birds,

fruit, animals, human and divine figures. However, most of
the wall paintings carry religious themes which generally
centre on Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
During the first period (second and first centuries BC)
Buddha is shown in the form of a Bodhi tree or a stupa (for
example, in Caves 10 and 19). The second type of murals,
dating back to the fifth and sixth centuries, personify Buddha
as a human body introduced by the form of Buddhism. The
also promoted the idea of the Buddhist paradise indicated in
the Ajanta murals by the flying celestial beings amidst clouds,
as for example, in Caves 1 and 17.
Some examples of the themes of particular mural
paintings in the Ajanta cave temples are presented below.

A. Floral Decorations

The paintings of the ceilings are largely decorative and floral

showing birds, animals, flowers and other vegetation.
Examples include decoration of a ceiling of the inner shrine;
and a floral decoration in Cave 2 (Fig. 33); and part of a
ceiling decoration in Cave 17. Some of the best murals are
indeed found in Caves 2 and 17.

146
 Fig. 33 Round floral decorations, Ajanta
©Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

B. Scenes from Buddha’s Life

The Temptation of Buddha (Cave 1): This is the story of

temptations of Mara and her daughters who tried to distract

147
Buddha from meditating under the Bodhi tree. It is believed
that Mara tried in vain to use her three daughters, Rati (lust),
Trishna (thirst) and Arati (delight) to seduce Buddha with
their charm.
Miracle at Sravasti (Cave 2) shows several Buddhas
in different symbolic gestures (mudras). Some persons in
Buddha’s audience were critical of him. To silence his critics,
Buddha performed a miracle: he multiplied himself causing
embarrassment to the critics.
Scene of Buddha preaching shows a section of a large
congregation (including foreigners) listening to Buddha
preaching the Dharma.
Entrance to the monastery (Cave 17): Over the
monastery door there are eight compartments each
containing a yaksa couple. Above these is a row of seven past
Buddhas and Maitreya, the future Buddha. A sculptured
figure of a deity on makara (crocodile) flanks each side of the
doorway.
Story of the Hamsa Jataka (Cave 17): This jataka
story depicts a fowler catching the Golden Goose, which is in
fact a Bodhisattva in disguise. The other geese of the flock fly
away in panic.[28]
Story of the Simhala Jataka (Cave 17) depicts part of
the story of Sinhalavadana. King Simhala, under an
umbrella, sets out from the city gate on a white elephant at
the head of an army to conquer demons. The accompanying
vassals under umbrellas are also riding on elephants. The
fluttering flags and the swinging trunks of elephants provide
a forward movement to the procession.
Story of the Mahajanaka Jataka (Cave 1)
Mahajanaka’s father (the King of Mithila) was killed by his
brother who usurped the throne. Mahajanaka sailed for
Suvarnabhumi with his merchandise but was shipwrecked. A
goddess brought him back to Mithila where he married the
usurper’s daughter and became a king. Eventually he decided

148
to become a recluse.

C. Bodhisattvas and Apsaras

Many murals in the Ajanta cave temples depict bodhisattvas

in one form or another. As noted above, a Bodhisattva was
disguised as a Golden Goose. Another example is that of a
standing bodhisattva with a lotus in his hand (Cave 1): It is
the figure of Padampani. One is struck by its size and the
setting: a dark princess, attendants, peacocks and
gandharvas. Zimmer (1983:187) finds ‘an intimacy of
atmosphere in this fresco that is akin to the quality of book
illustrations or larger miniatures…’ Professor Lorenzo Cecconi
of Italy observes:

the painting ‘evinces a surprising portrayal of

art on account of its pictorial qualities; this
painting recalls to memory the figures of
Michael Angelo in the Sistine Chapel; the design
and the expression of the face are exceptionally
surprising…’
(cited in Valisinha, 1948:196)[29]

Fig. 34 shows a close-up of a nymph with rich ornaments

and tassels on her forehead. It is part of a scene of flying
apsara couples and other celestials going for the worship of
Buddha.

149
150
Fig. 34 A close-up of an apsara (Cave 17), Ajanta
©Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

151
Sculpture

Ajanta sculpture of today is different from its original form in

plaster paint discovered in Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17. It is closely
connected with the architecture of the time.
Even the earliest Ajanta Caves 9 and 19 do not contain
any early sculpture dating from the second century BC to the
second century AD. This early sculpture was discovered in the
rock caves of Karle, Bhaja, Kanheri and Nasik about 70
kilometres southwest of Ajanta caves.
The impressive facades of Caves 19 and 26 (Fig. 35),
especially the standing figure of Buddha in Cave 19, clearly
show the influence of Mathura School of Art.

152
 Fig. 35 Carvings on the facade of Cave 19, Ajanta

Cave 9 is a small chaitya hall with a well-balanced facade

showing standing Buddhas and a ribbed chaitya-window on
the second floor. Originally the window was decorated with
wooden lattice-work as is suggested by the motifs above the

153
cornice. The chaitya hall is believed to have been built during
the first century BC. In the interior of Cave 9, the ornaments
of female figures as well as their coiffures and costumes, are
similar to those of the Sanchi reliefs (see Chapter 5). A
gateway through the walls also reminds one of the Sanchi
gateways.
The facade of Cave 19 is profusely carved with the images
of seated and standing Buddhas besides a chaitya window. A
yaksa figure is found on either side of the chaitya window. In
addition, on the wall to the right of the entrance is the
sculpture of the Nagaraja with his consort, both seated on a
rocky platform (Fig. 36).

154
 Fig. 36 Nagaraja and his consort (Cave 19), Ajanta

Both the facade and the interior of Cave 19 adhere to the

earlier architectural plans although the cave temple was built
at the end of the fifth or the beginning of sixth century. The
characteristic features of the facade are:

155
 Profuse carving on pillars and pilasters.
Standing figures of yaksa (Kubera) on either side
of the chaitya window. The guardian yaksas
standing in a tribhanga posture with tight belts
around their bellies are carved in the classical
Gupta-Vakataka style.
Carved Buddhas in the niches.
Standing Buddha with a begging bowl carried by
his son, Rahula, with his mother, Y asodhara, by
his side. There is also a painting of the same
scene in Cave 17.
Nagaraja and his consort (Fig. 36).

The interior chaitya hall is adorned by a stupa (more

developed and sophisticated than the stupa in Cave 10, with
Buddha standing in front.) (Fig. 37)

156
Fig. 37 Chaitya interior with a standing Buddha (Cave
19), Ajanta

The facade of Cave 26 is similar to that of Cave 19; so is

the interior prayer hall. But Cave 26 is much larger; also in
the prayer hall Buddha is seated, not standing. Unlike in Cave
19, the stupa here is relegated. The emphasis is on the seated
Buddha image under a pavilion. There is also profuse
sculptural decoration on the facade which has roof panels
showing Buddha flanked by attendants, flying figures, lion
heads and foliage.
In general, sculpture on the facades is heavy and

157
unrefined. It lacks the spiritual expression and sensitivity. In
contrast, in the inner shrines the Buddha images with
spiritual expression look more refined.

Noteworthy sculpture of Cave 26 in the interior prayer

hall includes:

Assault and Temptation of Mara: Buddha is

shown seated under a Bodhi tree. On the left is
Mara (Buddha’s cousin) riding an elephant
accompanied by her demon forces attacking
Buddha.

Colossal figure of Buddha reclining (carved on

the left wall) on a couch between two trees.

Ellora
Ellora (or Verule) is situated at a distance of about 25
kilometres northwest of Aurangabad. It is quite close to the
site of the Ajanta caves. The ancient village of Ellapura
included ten settlements named after King Ela. It was a holy
place which was sacred due to the location there of a Hindu
phallus in the form of fire (Jyotir linga). According to legend,
King Ela was cured of an incurable disease after bathing in
Ellapura. So his queen decided to build a Shiva temple there
(Dhavalikar, 2003b).
The Buddhist temples in Ellora consist mainly of
monasteries and prayer halls which can be divided into two
groups: (a) the Dhadwada group consisting of Caves 1 to 5,
and (b) Caves 6 to 12 which belong to a later period. Some
monasteries have two storeys (for example, Cave 11), others
three (such as Cave 12).
The origin of the Ellora Buddhist cave temples is

158
uncertain. Some believe that they were the first to be built in
late sixth century before the Hindu and Jain cave temples.
Others (for example, ibid.:9) claim that they were built after
the Hindu and Jain temples.
They are known only for their sculpture (there were no
paintings) the main theme of which consisted of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas, male and female devotees and celestial nymphs
or apsaras. Buddha images are generally presented in three
states (mudras) of Buddha: (a) meditating, (b) preaching
and (c) touching the ground with the index finger of his right
hand.
Cave temples 2, 10, 11 and 12 are the most interesting
examples of Buddhist sculptures. The facade of Cave 2 is
flanked by guardians (dvarapalas) wearing head dresses. A
female figure between them and the door is that of Tara, the
Buddhist goddess. The temple has a hall with columns and
galleries along each side which are covered with a row of
large figures of preaching Buddha accompanied by several
Bodhisattvas.
Cave temple 10 was apparently frequented by carpenters
and is, therefore, known as the carpenters’ workshop (Fig.
38) In the prayer hall it has a stupa known as the ‘Lord of the
Arts (Visvakarma). It is a two-storey cave temple like the
Ajanta Cave temples 9 and 19. There is a veranda at the lower
level. It differs from the Ajanta cave temples in the sense that
it has a shrunken chaitya window, not a broad one as in
Ajanta. The decorative window has flying apsaras or nymphs
on either side. The Cave interior is adorned with a large
Buddha with two Bodhisattvas by his side.

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 Fig. 38 Facade of Cave 10 (Carpenters’ cave), Ellora

Karle
Karle is a town in Maharashtra situated near Lonavale about
60 kilometres from Pune. The Buddhist rock-cave temples
were built here over two periods: from the second century BC
to second century AD, and from the fifth century to tenth.
Historians associate the temple complex with the
Mahasamghika sect of Buddhism which was popular in the
region at the time. The date of its construction is a subject of
controversy, however. Most probably it was built in the early
second century (Béguin, 2009:68), thus making it much

160
older than most of the Ajanta and Ellora cave temples.
The Karle monastery is a multi-storey building with large
images of loving couples (mithunas), presumably donors
who financed the construction of the monastery (Fig. 39). Six
sets of these mithunas adorn the front wall of the veranda,
representing highly sensuous sculpture (voluptuous women
with well-endowed breasts and bottoms), something rather
inappropriate for a Buddhist temple (see Chapter 2). The
worship of a fertility goddess in those days may explain
sculpture’s voluptuousness. Similar sculpture also appears on
the gateways of the Sanchi stupa (see Chapter 5).

161
Fig. 39 A loving couple on the facade of the Karle
monastery © Archaeological Survey of India, New
Delhi

162
 The facade of the Karle monastery is not as well-
proportioned and well-balanced as that in Bedsa and Ajanta
Cave Temple 19. Its unsymmetrical shape may have been
due to ‘a flaw or fall in the rock face […] as much of the right
side of the facade has become completely obscured’ (Brown,
1956:30).
Two pillars, detached from the main facade with lion
capitals, decorate the entrance to the Karle temple. This
practice of placing pillars at the front of a temple building
was not peculiar to Buddhism. It dates back to the Egyptian
pharaohs who built obelisks at a temple entrance (for
example, at Luxor temple).
Although Buddhism did not recognise the caste system or
social inequalities among its followers, some signs of social
hierarchy among the Buddhist monks is indicated by the
different types of accommodation for the ordinary monks
and superior priests. While the former were accommodated
in large dormitories, single chambers were built for those of
superior rank (for example, Vihara no. 4 in Cave 10).
With the discussion of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle cave
temples and monasteries in this chapter, we come to the end
of a review of Buddhist art in India. Our next task is to
discuss the nature and extent of the Indian influence on
Buddhist art in Southeast Asia. Case studies are presented of
Cambodia (Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom and other shrines)
and Thailand (Ayutthaya and Bangkok) in Chapters 7 to 9.

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 C h ap t e r 7

The Temples and Sculptures of Angkor

‘Angkor was not only a city; more important, it was an

immense technological achievement, from which the
agricultural prosperity of the whole Cambodian plain derived
[…] It was ‘essentially an elaborate system of artificial lakes,
canals and radiating irrigation channels that watered a huge
acreage of rice paddy […] it was the basis for the strength and
prosperity of the Khmer Empire’ (The New Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1981c:260).
The Khmer kings built several artificial mountains in the
plains of Angkor in keeping with the Indian mountain
mythology.[30] Each was crowned with a shrine containing
images of gods and kings and their families. Shrine
architecture is based on Indian ideas. Y et one does not find
any such parallel in India. The apsaras at Angkor Wat (see
below) are also rooted in the Indian mythology.
A distinctly Khmer art developed under King
Indravarman I (877-889) who was responsible for an initial
plan for the city of Angkor. For several centuries, ruins of this
city were lost in the thick jungle which is not surprising
because rain and termites in open buildings in tropical
countries lead to prolific vegetation. In 1855 or 1860, a
French missionary (Father Charles Emile Bouillevaux) and a
French archaeologist (Henri Mouhot) discovered them
(Coedès, 1969:19).
Controversy surrounds the nature and purpose of various
buildings in Angkor. Were they palaces for the Khmer kings?

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Or were they built as temples for worship? If temples, why so
many over such a large area which must have drained the
resources of the Khmer empire? The Khmer kings may have
built them as tombs which is confirmed by the royal ashes
found in the bases of the statues (Ibid.:21).
Another controversy concerns the interpretation of a large
number of statues discovered in Angkor. Some believe they
represent Hindu and Buddhist deities. Others argue that they
represent the portraits of kings and princes since the Khmer
kings saw themselves as gods or their personification.[31]
This concept of god king is peculiar to the Khmers with no
parallel among Hindu or Buddhist kings in India.

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Indian Influence
Chenla and Funan were the two early Indianised states in
Southeast Asia. In around AD 550, King Bhavavarman of
Chenla annexed the kingdom of Funan and founded the
Khmer kingdom. The founder of Funan, the earliest kingdom
in the first century in the lower Mekong River basin, is
known to be a Brahmin trader from western India.
According to local legend, he married the daughter of a local
serpent deity (serpents were the spiritual patrons of water in
the Indian mythology), thus establishing the ruling family.
This kingdom laid a basis for the later developments of a
system of waterworks, canals and irrigation channels.
Funan and later Chenla kings worshipped Hindu deities,
Shiva and Vishnu. Sometimes both deities were combined
into a single figure called Harihara, which presented the right
side of the body as Shiva and the left as Vishnu.
The loss of Funan resulted in the loss of sea routes which
may have reduced trade contacts with India. Furthermore,
China and Islam provided a formidable force to counter the
Indian influence in the Khmer kingdom.
King Jayavarman II returned from exile in Java and
unified Khmer (Cambodia) out of the hitherto small
independent kingdoms. He founded the Angkor dynasty and
built the famous Angkor Wat.
Apsaras and nagas are the two important examples of the
Hindu influence found in abundance in sculptures at Angkor
Wat and Angkor Thom. Apsaras are celestial nymphs carved
on the walls of Angkor Wat. They are shown as courtiers and
dancing girls wearing some kind of a headdress or a tiara
decorated with jewellery which varies from apsara to apsara.
The significance of different headdresses is not clear. It is also
not clear whether the apsaras represent different regions or
periods during which sculpture was built? However, one

166
thing is certain, that is, that those at Angkor Wat and Angkor
Thom display the charm of Cambodian womanhood. Their
headdresses provide models for those of modern Cambodian
dancers.
The naga, or a serpent god, one of the most significant
and ubiquitous features of Khmer architecture, appears on
the pediments and balustrades throughout the kingdom,
notably at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom (Figs. 40 and 41).
A naga is an Indian Hindu divinity which also appears in
Ajanta sculpture and paintings (see Chapter 6). The nagas are
closely associated with yaksas. The naga king Muchalinda
(see Chapter 3 on Bodhgaya) is known to have protected
Buddha by coiling around his body and spreading his hood
over his head.[32]
Fa Hsien mentions that the Buddhists of Sankisa
dedicated a shrine to a naga who had given peace and
security to monks. But Hsuan Tsang does not refer to any
naga cult in India. But he does note naga as ‘the assiduous
guardian of the relics of the Holy One’ (cited in Zimmer,
1955:353).

167
168
Fig. 40 A naga hood, Angkor Thom

169
170
 Fig. 41 Nagas on a pediment, Banteay Srei

There is no clearcut evidence that the naga worship was

accepted under Buddhism. Opinions vary on this point. It is
most likely that Buddhists did not picture nagas as objects of
worship although they might have regarded them as
protectors of Buddha and Buddhism (Robinson and Johnson,
1997:80).

Hindu and Buddhist Art

Early Hindu and Buddhist shrines in Cambodia date back to

the ninth century. They are found in Roulos (near Angkor,
capital of the kingdom before Angkor), Banteay Srei, Bakong
and Bakheng. These were temple-mountains in keeping with
the Hindu mythology. A Hindu shrine in Banteay Srei, built
by a Brahmin of royal family, is a small temple compared to
Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. But the quality of its
sculpture is impressive (see Figs. 13 and 14, Chapter 2).
Almost all the temple walls are profusely carved and
beautifully decorated.
Many scholars find art and architecture of the ninth-
century shrines superior to that of Angkor Wat and Angkor
Thom built in the twelfth and thirteenth century respectively.
Groslier and Arthaud (1957:55) note that ‘Khmer
architecture had now (Tenth century) reached its standard of
perfection’. The beauty of these old buildings may have been
enhanced by profuse sculptures and bas reliefs. The
decorative motifs did not form a part of the architectural
conception; instead, they were mainly symbolic. The nature
of the sandstone may not have lent itself to sharp engraving.
The small size of the ninth to tenth-century shrines may have
also facilitated sculpture which became more difficult in the
later massive Angkor temples.

171
 Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom symbolise the Hindu and
Buddhist art traditions. They are also living symbols of
massive political power of the Khmer kings. Royal patronage
at that time was essential for the promotion of art in the
kingdom.
Religion and national history were the predominant
themes of Angkor art and architecture. Religious beliefs were
expressed in the forms of Hindu gods and Buddha statues. In
the temples, the Jatakas about Buddha’s different lives are
presented on stones. Scenes are depicted from the Hindu and
Buddhist texts, showing demons and dragons, flying horses
and apsaras. In addition, the nine-headed serpent regarded as
a superhuman spirit, lined the passageway to Angkor Wat.
Serpents are shown as guardians of the temple.[33]
There are several other signs of the Hindu influence in
Cambodia. For example, the Hindu epic Ramayana
influenced the styles of dance and pantomime shows.
Recitations from the Ramayana formed part of the
Brahmanic worship from the fourth century onwards.
Table 7.1 presents the names of temples in the Angkor
Wat style (for example, Angkor Wat, Banteay Samre and
Beng Melea) and those of Bayon in Angkor Thom (for
example, Bayon, Banteai Prei and Preah Khan). The Angkor
Wat temple-mountain style includes concentric galleries,
courtyards, terraces, corridors and galleries of bas reliefs.
Bayon is the most important temple mountain with a
circular central mass, several towers, the causeways of
giants, demons and gods as well as nagas and lions.

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 Table 7.1 Temples of Angkor

Name of Location Period (date Patron king

temple of
construction)
I. Angkor
Wat
Angkor Wat Siem Early-mid- Suryavarman
Reap twelfth century II
Banteay East of Mid-twelfth Suryavarman
Samre East century II
Mebon
Beng Melea Early eleventh Suryavarman
century II
Chau Say Near Early twelfth Suryavarman
Tevoda Siem century II
Reap
town
Thma Bay Siem Late eleventh- Suryavarman
Kaek Reap early twelfth II
century
Thommanon Siem Late eleventh Suryavarman
Reap early twelfth II
century
Wat Athvea Siem Late eleventh Suryavarman
Reap century II
II. Angkor
Thom
Angkor Siem Twelfth - Jayavarman
Thom Reap thirteenth VII
century
Banteay Prei Siem Late twelfth- Jayavarman

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 Reap early thirteenth VII
century
Bayon Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Krol Ko Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Neak Pean Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Prasat Prei Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Prasat Top Angkor Late thirteenth Jayavarman
(East) Thom century VII
Preah Khan Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Preah Palilay Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
Thom early thirteenth VII
century
Srah Srang Angkor Mid- tenth- and Jayavarman
Thom late twelfth VII
century
Ta Nei Angkor Mid-twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Ta Prohm Angkor Mid-twelfth - Jayavarman
Thom early thirteenth VII
century
Ta Prohm Angkor Late-twelfth Jayavarman
Kel Thom century VII
Ta Som Angkor Late-twelfth Jayavarman
Thom century VII
Tep Pranam Angkor Ninth century Jayavarman
Thom VII
Terrace of Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
the elephants Thom century VII

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 Terrace of Angkor Late twelfth Jayavarman
the Leper Thom century VII
king

Source: Internet; The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1981c:

261).

Evolution of Cambodian Art

The history of Cambodian art can be divided into the

following three phases:

Phase I: The Indo-Mon-Khmer period lasting from the

first to eighth century when both Hindu and Buddhist art
works inspired by the Indian Gupta style, were produced. In
the eighth century the Brahmin deities of the South Indian
Pallava style were added.
Phase II: The National Khmer Style started in the ninth
century and culminated in the temples of Angkor Wat and
Angkor Thom.
Phase III: The Period of Decline started in the fourteenth
century when Khmer art was replaced by Siamese art
following wars with the Thai.

Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, representing the heyday

of Cambodian art, are described below.

Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat was a palatial temple complex for the kings (Fig.
42) containing several inner courtyards and galleries. It was
built by King Suryavarman II and his successors.
Suryavarman was responsible for the unification of the

175
country and for the campaigns against Vietnam. He extended
the Khmer influence to Malaya, Myanmar and Siam.

Fig. 42 General view of Angkor Wat

Originally, Angkor Wat was built as a sanctuary to Hindu

gods Vishnu and Shiva. Some scholars (for example, Coedès,
1969) believe that it was more a sanctuary for the god King
Suryavarman II. After his death, the King was identified with
the Hindu god Vishnu.
Bas-reliefs depicting several scenes from the Hindu
religion leave no doubt that the temple complex was meant
for Hindu worship. However, it is unclear when it became
dedicated to Buddha. For how long was it a Hindu temple
before Buddhist images arrived is anyone’s guess. In the

176
temple galleries and shrines, Buddha continues to be
worshipped even today.
The Buddha statues appear to have been transported to
the ‘Hall of the Thousand Buddhas’ from somewhere else. It
is not known from where they came and who brought them
and when. Did the later Khmer kings (for example,
Jayavarman VII) or the Chinese or the Thai bring the
Buddha sculptures to Angkor Wat? There is no definite
answer to this question.
In Cambodia Hinduism and Buddhism developed side by
side. Although Hinduism was the dominant religion from the
sixth to twelfth century, Buddhism was not abandoned
altogether (see Coral-Rémusat, 1951:18). Buddhist
inscriptions and statues dating back to the seventh century
have been discovered at Prah Krabas. Khmer Buddhism of
this period is most probably that of the Hinayana form. The
form appeared much later, towards the end of the seventh
century.
Angkor Wat is surrounded by a moat and a lake. It is
approached by a long road built on a causeway which is lined
with colossal balustrades carved in the likeness of a cosmic
serpent. The temple complex has three concentric enclosures
consisting of central shrines subdivided into small decorated
courts and smaller shrines. Originally, there were nine towers
—only five remain intact.
In ancient times the interior walls, ceilings and columns
of Angkor Wat were painted in bright colours which have
disappeared. Today only a few signs of such paint remain
(Fig. 43). The doorways are richly carved and decorated.

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 Fig. 43 Painted ceilings and columns, Angkor Wat

The temple is a classic example of Indian cosmology

depicted in architecture not seen in any Indian (Hindu)
temple in India. There are no temples in India which
symbolise Meru, the temple mountain. According to this
cosmology, there is a close relation between microcosm and
macrocosm, and between the human world and the universe.
The central shrine of Angkor Wat indicates the hub of the
universe, while its surroundings - the gate complex, the
cloister, the city of Angkor itself - represent the successive
outer envelopes of cosmic reality.

Examples of Sculptures and Reliefs

1. Apsaras. A rich variety of apsaras at Angkor Wat

in different dresses and tiaras decorate the
temple walls, apparently for the pleasures of the

178
 gods (Fig. 44). They are generally shown in
groups as chorus girls similar to Cambodian
dancers in the royal court. Single apsaras are
probably meant to provide a graceful
background to the royal processions, assemblies
and dances which took place in the residential
quarters of the temple complex.

Fig. 44 A group of dancing apsaras, Angkor Wat

The Indian (Hindu) mythology inspired apsara

sculpture. But the apsara dresses and bodily shapes
represent the royal Cambodian bellerinas of the time
rather than any Indian figures. They exude charm
and grace rather than sensuous voluptuousness of
Indian figures.
Are the Cambodian apsaras simply dancers and not the
celestial nymphs as in the Hindu mythology? It seems that

179
they are both considering that they appear on the walls and
gateways of sacred temples.[34]

2 . Churning of the Milky Ocean, an event from the

Hindu mythology, appears in several scenes showing the
universal strength of Vishnu in the human form of Cosmic
tortoise and Cosmic snake. The gods and demons are shown
as grasping the giant cosmic snake and using it as a churning
string. Presumably, churning of the Cosmic Ocean was
meant ‘to extract the beverage of immortality’ (Zimmer,
1983:208). Goddess Lakshmi was one of the objects that
arose from the waters during this operation.

3 . Scenes from Mahabharata and Ramayana. The two

Hindu epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana, are the sources
of several battle scenes depicted on the temple walls.

Angkor Thom

Angkor Thom, the first Buddhist city and temple complex,

was built 100 years after Angkor. Its towers have large
figures which could be those of Shiva, Buddha or Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara (or Lokesvara). The most plausible is the
figure of a Bodhisattva as King Jayavarman VII was a
devout Buddhist and a monk who twice refused the throne.
But in the end he became one of the most powerful Khmer
rulers.
The entrance to Angkor Thom is decorated with a naga
balustrade on one side of which are the gods holding the
naga, and on the other, the demons and guardians (Figs. 45
and 46).

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Fig. 45 Demon gods, Angkor Thom

181
Fig. 46 Bodhisattvas as guardians, Angkor Thom

182
 In the Hindu mythology, a rainbow represents a bridge
between human beings and gods. The naga balustrades on
each side of the bridge leading to Angkor Thom may
symbolise a double rainbow between heaven and earth.
According to the mythology, Buddha descended from a
staircase from the heaven at 33rd station to the summit of
Mount Meru to preach the Wheel of Law (Coedès, 1969:47).
King Jayavarman VII was a great patron of Buddhism in
Cambodia. There was a violent Brahmin reaction against
Buddhism after his death. The Bayon and other Buddhist
monuments were vandalised by Brahmins who destroyed the
Buddha images and replaced them by lingas symbolic of
Shiva (Ibid.:66-7).
But later there was a revival of Buddhism of a more
conservative type practised in Ceylon which did not approve
of the individual cult of god king promoted by Jayavarman
VII.

Bayon

At Angkor Thom, Bayon, the central temple, is the largest

with several smaller temples around it. Its towers have four
faces looking East, North, West and South, suggesting that
Buddha, Bodhisattva or the king himself is looking out and
overseeing all four corners of the world. The colossal images
of Lokesvara in four different directions at the entrance of
Bayon are designed to demonstrate compassion and power of
the Bodhisattva and the king.
As Jayavarman VII was a Buddhist, he broke with
Khmer traditions of Hinduism and adopted as his deity a
Buddhist bodhisattva, Lokesvara. Hinduism was the state
religion when Jayavarman VII ascended the throne although
Buddhism had prospered until then throughout Indo-China.

183
After his death, Bayon remained the State temple of many
Khmer kings. However, all his successors did not follow
Buddhism, for some were Hindus, which may explain both
Buddhist and Hindu themes, deities and bas-reliefs
juxtaposed in the various temples.
Bas reliefs at Bayon in the inner and outer galleries differ
significantly: Those in the inner gallery represent the world of
gods and those in the outer, real men in actual historical
events (Ibid.:62).
The Bayon bas reliefs and sculptures have different
themes from those of Angkor Wat. As King Jayavarman VII
fought several battles (particularly against the Chams) to
restore the Khmer kingdom and expand his territory, many
walls are decorated with military parades and battle scenes.
One bas-relief depicts a military procession in which the royal
crown features prominently, suggesting that the king himself
is leading the army procession (Fig. 47). The battle scene
may refer to the last quarter of the twelfth century and
beginning of the thirteenth. Besides, there are scenes of
everyday life of the Khmer in those days.
There are also devatas in the central sanctuary (Fig. 48).

184
Fig. 47 Khmer army marching into battle, Bayon

185
 Fig. 48 A devata from the central sanctuary, Bayon
Other Temples

Jayavarman VII built several Buddhist shrines in Angkor

Thom besides Bayon. The quality of these shrines is inferior
as the king went after size and quantity unlike his
predecessors. The standard of sculpture may have
deteriorated because the sculptors were called upon to
produce a vast quantity of shrines in a short period of time.
However, the conceptualisation of the king’s architects in
making an overall plan of Angkor Thom on the basis of
mythical imagery is commendable. The world (cosmos)
spreads out from the central mountain tower (Meru of the

186
Hindu mythology). Two roads lead from the tower: they are
lined with gigantic deities and demons as well as multi-
headed nagas.
Angkor declined in importance with the death of
Jayavarman VII in around 1219. The Thai pushed the Khmer
towards the Mekong Delta and introduced the more
conservative form of Buddhism.

Ta Prohm

The temple is unique as it is swallowed by the jungle. Thick

and extensive roots of trees entangle the various shrines and
bas-reliefs. The jungle vegetation has caused the green lichen
and moss to appear on its walls and bas reliefs. Built in 1186
by King Jayavarman VII (1181-1219), it was dedicated to the
king’s mother and was originally named ‘Rajavihara’, the
‘monastery of the King’. It was founded as a Buddhist
monastery. Its main divinity was the ‘Mother of the Buddhas’
(Prajnaparamita), sculptured in the image of the king’s
mother who practised Buddhism (Jacques and Freeman,
1997:205).
The temple complex is too large to be just a religious
shrine. It was also a monastery and a Buddhist university.
The stele records boast a large number of inhabitants (over
12,500 high priests and dancers among others) and temple
wealth in the form of gold, pearls and silks. The temple is
built of a flat design. Unlike Angkor Wat and Bayon it has no
temple mountains or temple pyramid. A central sanctuary is
surrounded by five rectangular walls. Several pavilions were
built to provide entrances to the temple. The inner enclosures
include galleries, corner towers and libraries which may have
been added later.
Ta Prohm has face towers like those of Bayon. They are
said to have been added in the thirteenth century. The

187
architectural features of the temple include the Hall of
Dancers showing apsaras, a pair of devatas and scenes from
Buddha’s life. A bas-relief depicting the Great Departure of
Siddhartha is in a dilapidated condition. Not much is left of
other bas-reliefs which may have been destroyed by the
Hindu iconoclasts after the death of King Jayavarman VII.
However, some statues of both male and female temple
guardians remain intact. Sculptures of devatas, guardians
and door keepers (dvarapalas) are found at the Ta Prohm
temple as at the Bayon.

Preah Khan

The temple was built by King Suryavarman VII on the site

where he defeated the invading Chams in 1191. Preah Khan
was a city consisting of monasteries, temples and a Buddhist
university. The outer walls of the city show garudas holding
nagas. Each entrance to the town has causeways with nagas,
devas and asuras such as those found in Angkor Thom. One
of the principal entrances to the temple has statues of lions
guarding it.
Empty niches in the Hall of the Dancers once contained
Buddha statues which were removed on the orders of King
Jayavarman VIII, a fanatic Hindu who replaced them by
Hindu linga (Ibid.:280-3).
It was Buddhist par excellence although both Hindu and
Buddhist deities were worshipped. It contained a statue of
Boddhisattva Lokesvara (which has since been replaced by a
stupa). The statue resembled Jayavarman’s father,
suggesting that the temple was dedicated to him.
It contained Buddha images in numerous niches which
were destroyed by anti-Buddhist elements. Besides the central

188
Buddhist temple, there were many Hindu temples dedicated
to Vishnu and Shiva.
One of the unique features of Preah Khan is a two-storey
building with round columns which has no staircase leading
to the second floor. The building is still standing, but its
purpose remains unknown. It does not look like a place of
worship and may have been a granary for storing rice as is
suggested by Jacques and Freeman (Ibid.). This hypothesis is
plausible considering that Preah Khan was a university town
consisting of a population of several thousand inhabitants.
King Suryavarman VII placed his own statues in the
Buddhist temples in Preah Khan the most cited example of
which is his head, probably carved when he was around 50
(Groslier, 1962:170). He may have lived here (between 1165
and 1180) in semi-exile while waiting to take over the throne.

Neak Pean

It is a small temple in the middle of an artificial lake as a

subsidiary shrine of Preah Khan, symbolising paradise
floating on the ocean. Groslier (Ibid.:181-2) notes that ‘it is
the symbol of a miraculous lake in the Himalayas where all
the ills were cured. Thus the king enabled his subjects to
come to the capital and be cured of all their sicknesses in a
magic replica of the holy place which the Indians themselves
had only vaguely imagined’.

Banteai Kdei

The temple, built on the ruins of a former Buddhist shrine, is

sometimes called the ‘Eastern Buddha’. Single devatas
decorate the central shrine and the sculptures of Buddha
disciples, the temple pediments.

189
Ta Som

The temple, built by King Jayavarman VII in the late twelfth

century, is dedicated to his father, Dharanindravarman II,
who ruled the Khmer Empire from 1150 to 1160. It is
surrounded by a moat and laterite walls which have two sets
of pavilions carved with four faces of Buddha or Bodhisattva.
The temple has three characteristic features: (1) a big fig
tree dominating the eastern pavilion and almost strangling it,
(2) bas-reliefs of rows of Buddha disciples, and (3) Buddha
faces in the temple mountain similar to those at Bayon. Its
inner portion consists of the main shrine and two small
libraries.
Little restoration was undertaken at the temple until the
1950s. Growth of trees and other vegetation led to a near
collapse of the temple. In 1998, the World Monuments Fund
undertook some urgent stabilisation of fragile structures to
prevent their total collapse.

The Baphuon

The temple, built in the shape of a high pyramid mountain,

must have been a Buddhist shrine as it contained the statue
of a reclining Buddha. But it may have become a place of
Hindu worship during the Hindu revival in the second half of
the thirteenth century.
Zhou Daguan, a Chinese traveller, who visited the temple
in the thirteenth century, called it ‘the copper tower‘,
suggesting that at that time it wasgilded.

Phimeanakas

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It is a three-storey monument with staircases leading to the
top. It is known as the ‘celestial palace’ the origin and purpose
of which remains unclear. One theory is that it was a temple
mountain built by Y asovarman I (Rowland, 1953:230). But
did it actually serve as a royal temple? It is doubtful that a
small monument like this one would have been the main
temple of the Khmer Empire.

Concluding Remarks
Both Cambodia and Thailand were strongly influenced by
Buddhist art in India. Having reviewed the architecture of
Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom in this chapter, we can
confirm that this was indeed the case. This influence, visible
in sculptures and bas-reliefs as well as in painting, also
pervades the very concept of temple mountain (Meru) which
is Indian in origin.
The workmanship and design of architecture in Angkor is
less attractive than that of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati,
for example. Groslier and Arthaud (1957:198) conclude:
‘Taken in detail Khmer art is always a little disappointing’. It
does not match the beauty and richness of Indian Buddhist
art. Khmer art suffers from a lack of originality, poor
workmanship, especially at Angkor Thom, and a blind
imitation of wooden art in stone.
However, the workmanship and sculptures of such pre-
Angkor temples as Banteay Srei, built in the ninth century,
are far superior to those of either Angkor Wat or Bayon.
Indian art influenced these temples more directly since a few
were actually founded by Hindu kings from India.
Our next task is to examine in Chapters 8 (Ayutthaya)
and 9 (Bangkok) whether our assessment of Khmer art also
applies to Buddhist art in Thailand.

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 C h ap t e r 8

The Temples and Paintings of Ayutthaya

Ayutthaya is the ancient capital of Thailand and remained its

capital for over four centuries. It was built by King
Ramathibodi I (1351-69) (or U Thong, a Chinese son-in-law
of the king) in the fourteenth century who named it after the
city of Ayodhya in India, the birth place of Rama. Thailand
has been divided into the north and south from time
immemorial. Ayutthaya was the capital of the south and
Chiengmai of the north.
In the eleventh century, Ayutthaya originated as a Khmer
outpost. In the late thirteenth century, this province of
Suphan Buri depended on the kingdom of Lopburi which
became independent on the death of its king, Ram
Kamhaeng. However, it lacked political leadership until the
middle of the fourteenth century when U Thong came to
power. In the consolidation of his power U Thong was helped
by his wife’s brother and his son who later ruled Lopburi.
The kingdom of Ayutthaya grew rapidly with the
expansion of trade and commerce. It became an important
centre of trade with China and other neighbouring kingdoms.
The Europeans started coming to Ayutthaya from the
sixteenth century onwards when trade with the West
expanded. However, European culture did not influence local
culture much. Similarly, Western art was present but was not
absorbed into local art, sculpture and architecture (Moore et
al., 1996a).
According to foreigners’ accounts, in the sixteenth and

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seventeenth centuries Ayutthaya was known as one of the
principal and fascinating cities in Asia. Its strategic
commercial location attracted Japanese and European
trading companies to establish offices there.
Ayutthaya was ruled by thirty-six kings who wielded
divine power in the Khmer tradition. As in the Khmer
kingdom, Brahmin rituals were performed at the royal
coronation ceremonies for the Ayutthaya kings.[35] Each
king left his legacy behind by building Buddhist temples and
palaces.
For centuries, the Burmese waged war against Ayutthaya
in an attempt to gain territory. In 1549, the King of Pegu
invaded Ayutthaya but failed to conquer it. However, two
decades later it fell to the Burmese who captured the Siamese
king, Mahachakrapat. Its sovereignty was restored in 1584
when Siam regained control of the territory. However, the
Burmese threat remained constant until 1769 when
Ayutthaya was conquered and destroyed.

Hindu and Buddhist Influences

Indian art exercised a significant influence on Thai art (see
Chapter 2). Signs of this influence are visible in many places.
A religious art between the sixth and eleventh centuries was
discovered in central Thailand. Thai Buddhist sculpture, a key
feature of this art, illustrates its dependence on the Gupta
prototypes from India. This Indianised culture is attributed to
the eastern Mon kingdom of Dvaravati founded in the sixth
century. The discoveries include stupa bases which were
found at the Wat Phra Meru in Nagara Pathama (Nakhon
Pathom) and in Ku Bua and Puthong. Dvaravati sculptures
closely resemble the Indian styles of Amaravati, Gupta and
post-Gupta periods.
Dvaravati sculptures were discovered in Ayutthaya, for

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example, seated and standing Buddha images in bronze and
stone, showing Mon features such as lips turned outward and
downward-curved eye lids. These images may have served as
models for the later Khmer art and sculpture in Cambodia
(see Chapter 7).
The Indian influence on Buddhist art in Thailand can be
summarised as follows:

Art - Amaravati, Gupta

and Pallava Schools.
Architecture - Peninsular South India
(Chalukyas, Pallavas and
Pandyas).
Sculpture - Gandhara, Mathura,
Amaravati and the Classical art
of the Gupta
period.
Painting - Gandhara, Mathura
and the Classical Gupta art.

Notwithstanding, some typical Siamese characteristics are

noticeable in Thai sculpture. For example, the heads of
Buddha images are too large in proportion to the body
suggesting that the Indian principles of proportion were not
followed. Other Thai features include flat nose and full lips
and snail-shell curls covering the head. The sculptors may
have used local features in an attempt to claim Buddha as
their own.
From the thirteenth to seventeenth century, the Thai
kingdom developed around the city of Sukhotai which lies
between Chiengmai in the north and Ayutthaya in the south.
During this period, active contacts were maintained with
Ceylon, the main centre of Theravada Buddhism at that time.
Thai kings invited learned monks from Ceylon in an attempt

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to wean their people off the worship of spirits. In the Thai
temples, Buddha icons were introduced as objects of worship.
To conclude, it may be true to say that Buddhist art in
Thailand ‘owes more to India than to any other country, but
it seldom drew its inspiration directly from there’
(Jermsawatdi, 1979:59). The Indian influence was
inextricably mixed with that from other Asian sources,
notably, Mon-Khmer, Sinhalese and Chinese.

The Ayutthaya School of Art

Most Indian and other influences on Thai art were adapted
during the Dvaravati period which was characterised more
by Mon art than Thai art. The pre-Thai schools of art -
Dvaravati, Srivijaya and Lopburi - did leave their traces in
new Thai art that followed. As discussed in Chapter 2, there
are several schools of Buddhist art one of which is the U
Thong or Ayutthaya School. Historians generally divide the
Ayutthaya School into four periods, namely:

From the foundation of Ayutthaya as the capital

in 1350 during the reign of King Borom
Trailokanath (1448-88) to the beginning of the
Ayutthaya style.
From the installation of King Borom to the end
of King Chao Song Tham’s reign (1610-28). This
period witnessed the revival of the Sukhotai style
and the strengthening of religious links with
Ceylon which influenced the Ayutthaya artistic
style.
From the accession of Chao Prasat Thong (1630-
56) to the throne to the reign of King Chao Tai
Sa (1709-33). This period witnessed the revival
of the Khmer style of Buddhist art.

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 From the reign of King Boromokot (1733-58) to
the destruction of the capital (Ayutthaya) by the
Burmese. This was the peak of the Ayutthaya
school.

Various art styles, developed between the sixth and

twelfth centuries, are attributed to the changing composition
of Ayutthaya’s population. Different ethnic groups lived there
which explains different types of art: Indian immigrants
introduced Gupta art in the south; Mon-Khmer brought
Khmer art to the centre; and the Burmese and Javans
introduced their art in the north. The Thai style of art became
established only when Ayutthaya became stable.

Sculpture

There is a lack of proper understanding of the history of

Ayutthaya art and sculpture for several reasons. First,
Ayutthaya kings very rarely commissioned inscriptions in
stone. Most of their edicts were recorded on such perishable
materials as leaves and wood which have disappeared.
Secondly, the destruction of Ayutthaya by the Burmese led to
the loss of whatever archives were available. Thirdly, late
Southeast Asian art has a reputation for mediocrity, which
explains why one needs to look for some anchor points. Two
such anchor points used by McGill are: (1) the collection of
bronze statues cast in the reign of King Borom Trailokanath
(1448-88) and (2) chronicles of Ayutthaya and Chiengmai,
which suggest that the bronze statues narrating the jatakas
were produced to promote Buddhism and gain merit in the
next birth by so doing.[36]
The Buddhist sculptors in Siam made every attempt to
adhere to the old Buddha images. In the beginning, they
were not particularly interested in artistic development which

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might explain why there was no tradition in Theravada Siam
resembling that of art in Cambodia or Indonesia, for
example. In Siam, Buddhist statues, produced in large
numbers for worship rather than for art, were intended to
remind the population about the Buddhist doctrine. Thus
Thai Buddhist sculpture was content with repeating the
standardised types of Buddha images.
Many Buddhist statues were discovered in the crypt of
Wat Ratchaburana (Ayutthaya). Several are older than the
Wat itself which was built in 1424. Their discovery helps us to
speculate that the U Thong style of Buddha images precedes
that of the Ayutthaya style (Boisselier, 1974:161).
Sukhotai Buddha statues belonged to an earlier period the
production of which depended on supernatural considerations
which were not so important in the Ayutthaya period
(Buribhand and Griswold, 2001:23).
A large number of Ayutthaya-style Buddhas exist in stone
and are similar to the bronze statues of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. They show different Buddha positions,
namely, massive seated images with elongated faces
(influenced by Ceylon), and walking Buddhas influenced by
the Sukhotai school.

Architecture

Ayutthaya kings were conquerors of Angkor. Therefore, it is

logical to expect some Khmer influence on Ayutthaya
architecture. Some prangs (pagodas with a rectangular or
polygonal base) from the early period were derived from the
Khmer tower sanctuary, but they have been modified to
include columned halls found in Wat Buddha Svarya, the
oldest building in Ayutthaya (Groslier, 1962:216).
Cylindrical shrines crowned with stupas which appeared
in the fourteenth century are Sukhotai type of buildings. As in

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India, the stupas had secret chambers containing votive
objects intended to accompany the souls of the deceased. This
custom was also common among the Chinese and Romans
who buried the dead with personal belongings and precious
objects useful for after-life (Bhalla, 2009). The stupas were
intended to contain the ashes of Buddhist holy figures and
those of Thai kings.
Later in the seventeenth century, the Ayutthaya style of
architecture incorporated the Khmer models from Angkor.
King Prasat even built a miniature Angkor Wat (Phra
Nakhon Luong).
Painting

Thai paintings discovered so far relate to the second phase of

the Ayutthaya style. As discussed in Chapter 2, most
paintings have perished, which makes it difficult to determine
their origin and characteristics. The oldest Thai paintings,
recovered in damaged form, come from the Silpa cave in
Y ala.
Many Thai paintings of the period were inspired by
Burmese art. Others show Chinese influence (some may even
have been painted by Chinese artists), for example, in the
inner chambers of Wat Mahathat and Wat Ratchburana. It
is reflected in the natural background of the skies, clouds and
animals grazing in meadows. Khmer painting may have also
influenced the Ayutthaya style of painting. Rows of Buddha
images as well as those of worshippers (for example, at Wat
Ratchburana), bright colours and monks in yellow robes,
with touches of green, red and gold, are the main features of
the Khmer style. Thai painting was also derived from
Buddhist painting of India and Ceylon (Jermsawatdi,
1979:77-80).
Nevertheless, the original techniques and themes were
adapted to the local Thai ideas and materials. The Thai art of
painting became particularly popular during the eighteenth

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and nineteenth centuries when it was almost unique to
Thailand. Jermsawatdi (Ibid.:77) believes that during this
period ‘only by subject-matter and superficial generalities can
it be connected with the painting of other Buddhist countries’.
Evolution in the techniques of painting in Thailand
occurred mainly from the fourteenth to eighteenth century.
The composition of figures during the first (1350-1488) and
second (1491-1628) Ayutthaya periods were generally in
single colours. However, in the third Ayutthaya period (1630-
1732) mixed colour composition (polychrome) began to be
used. This composition consisted of the painting of small
groups of figures (Ibid.:94).
A painting of a jataka scene found in the upper crypt of
the main reliquary tower of Wat Ratchaburana, depicts
several rows of worshippers against a uniform background
(Fig. 49). It was the first time that the painting of figures was
undertaken on a fresco surface.
The following were the main forms of traditional Thai
painting:

The vihara wall paintings intended to illustrate

the scenes of Buddhist history.
Dry fresco murals found in temples.
Paintings on cloth banners.
Paintings on K o i paper in religious
manuscripts or Samut Thai.

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 Fig. 49 A jataka scene on a wall painting, Wat
Ratchaburana, Ayutthaya

To conclude, the traditional view of Thai art and sculpture

is that it is not of high quality, that it is repetitive and mass
produced and that it is hierarchical. However, this view does
not do justice to the legacy of fourteenth to seventeenth-
century Thailand.

Ayutthaya Temples [37]

At the height of its glory, Ayutthaya boasted a large number
of temples (wats) most of which are now in ruins. The
ransacking of the ancient capital city took its toll.

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Nevertheless, apart from Wat Na Phra Men, which has
remained intact, many other ruined temples are a mixture of
different styles of architecture and sculpture. Below we
describe a selected number of temples of historical and
architectural interest.

Wat Chaiwatthanaram

The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site on the west

bank of Chao Phraya river outside Ayutthaya island. It was
built by King Prasat Thong in 1630 as a memorial to his
mother who lived there. It was a royal temple where kings
and princes and princesses had prayed. Prince Damrong
Rachanuphap observed its similarity to Angkor Wat
(Cambodia) and believed that the temple was built to
commemorate the king’s victory over Cambodia.
Designed in the Khmer style, it has a 35-metre prang
(pagoda) with four smaller prangs on a rectangular platform.
The central platform is surrounded by eight chedi-shaped
chapels connected by a rectangular passage. Originally the
passage was covered by a roof which has disappeared. There
were 120 sitting Buddhas (painted in black and gold) which
have not survived either.
The interior and exterior walls of the chedis showed
paintings depicting jatakas from Buddha’s life. Very few such
paintings have survived.

Wat Mahathat

The origin of the temple, situated in the heart of Ayutthaya, is

201
open to controversy (Fig. 50). One view is that it was built by
King Rachatirat in 1384 to keep a Buddha relic. Others
believe that it was built during the reigns of King Boromaraja
I (1370-88) and King Ramesuan (1388-96). The temple is
now in ruins; the top of the Khmer-style prang collapsed in
1625 during the reign of King Songham but was renovated
and restored during the reign of King Prasat Thong (1630-
56).

Fig. 50 Wat Mahathat behind a meditating Buddha,

Ayutthaya
The main prang of the temple collapsed again in around
1911 when its treasurers were looted. In 1956, the Thai Fine
Arts Department excavated the central area of the prang and
discovered Buddha relics in a stupa within a seven-layer
reliquary. Other antiques have also been found such as
Buddha images, votive tablets and golden plaques in the form
of animals. These objects are displayed in the Chao Sam

202
Phraya National Museum in Bangkok.
It is one of the biggest temples in Ayutthaya. Its central
prang was renovated and remodelled several times during the
late Ayutthaya period. Many chedis were added to it within
the cloistered area during different periods. Traces of mural
paintings featuring Buddha images were discovered in one of
the chedis.

Its interesting features include:

A secret chamber containing gold jewellery,

fine tableware and a gold casket containing a
Buddha relic.
A Buddha head in a tree trunk; other headless
Buddhas were found on the site.
Two tall towers which are still standing.
Four porticos of the main prang were added
during the reign of King Boromokot (1732-
58).

Wat Ratchaburana

Built by King Boromchathirat II, the temple is situated at the

site where his two elder brothers (Chao Ai and Chao Y i, sons
of King Intharachathirat) killed each other in a battle over
accession to the throne. It was designed to keep the burial
remains of the brothers. Two chedis were built specially for
this purpose.
It is characterised by a Khmer-style tower (prang) (Fig.
51). Its main prang with stucco decoration of nagas and
garudas has survived. The Indian (later Khmer) concept of
the temple-mountain (Meru) is its main architectural
feature. There is a two-level crypt inside the prang. At the
lower level, the fifteenth-century Chinese style mural

203
paintings are displayed whereas the upper level displays
jatakas of Buddha’s life.
It was built in the fifteenth century, that is, the late
Ayutthaya period. In 1957, during excavations and
renovations, archaeologists found valuable artefacts,
including Buddha images, gold jewellery and votive gold
tablets. In 1958, the Thai Fine Arts Department built a
staircase leading to the crypt where a number of old paintings
have been found.

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205
 Fig. 51 Khmer-style central tower of Ratchburana,
Ayutthaya

Fig. 52 Stupas of Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya

The stupas found in it around the central prang are built

in the old tradition of Sukhotai and Ceylon architecture (Fig.
52).

Wat Lokayasutharam (Temple of the Reclining

Buddha)

The temple, built in the early Ayutthaya period, is situated

behind the Royal Palace. It contains a brick and mortar

206
image of a reclining Buddha, which suggests he has reached
the state of nirvana. The Buddha statue is 42 metres long and
8 metres high, which was originally housed in a vihara with
several octagonal pillars. The vihara was destroyed during the
Burmese attack. The Buddha feet are inscribed with 108
characteristics. The eyes and feet are decorated with mother-
of-pearl inlay. The statue is always covered in bright saffron-
coloured cloth. A large number of smaller Buddha statues
(presumably obtained from the ruins of former capitals,
namely, Ayutthaya and Sukhothai) have been found at the
site of the temple.

Wat Na Phra Men

Originally called Wat Phra Meru Rachikaram, it is the only

temple which survived the Burmese invasion. It is well-
preserved and continues to be used for public worship.
Apparently, it survived because the cannon pointing at it
exploded and fatally wounded the Burmese king.
Its Ordination Hall consists of (1) the carved gable with
lacquer and glass mosaic depicting Vishnu riding Garuda, (2)
twenty-six wooden angels and (3) the Buddha image in a
royal attire. The roof structure is supported by eight pairs of
octagonal columns with tops of lotus buds.
It is an example of the typical Ayutthaya style and
contains a famous Buddha statue known for its royal attire
(Fig. 53). Buddha images in royal attire are associated with
the late Ayutthaya period.

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Fig. 53 Golden Buddha statue in royal attire, Wat Na
Phra Men, Ayutthaya

The ubosot of the temple, built during the middle of the

Ayutthaya period, is in a remarkable state of preservation
despite the ransacking of the city. This rectangular building
was probably built during the reign of King Prasat Thong. Its
architectural style suggests early Ayutthaya art—small

208
balustrade windows letting in very little light, multi-tiered
roof with ceramic tiles and a mini portico. However, its
interior decorations on the main gable for example, are
indicative of a later period. The smaller gables on each side of
the main gable were added during the reign of King Rama
III of the Bangkok Chakra dynasty.
A seated Buddha image in a temple nearby belongs to the
Dvaravati Mon period. It has some distinctive features, which
are more Chinese than Thai, not seen in other Mon works of
art. For example, Buddha’s two hands rest on knees unlike
other Thai postures. Secondly, a short hemline in his clothing
exposes the left knee in a style reminiscent of the Tang period
in China. Thirdly, the halo around Buddha’s head depicts
tongues of fire often seen in Chinese works of art rather than
in those of Thailand.
The temple was renovated twice during the reign of King
Rama III, which may partly explain the juxtaposition of the
different styles of art, architecture and interior decorations. It
is located on the banks of the Sa Bua canal. According to
legend, King Ramathibodi II had a concubine (Pra-ong In)
who built the temple in 1504 and named it Wat
Pramerurachikaram. It was only later that it was renamed
Wat Na Phra Men, which literally means a temple in front of
the crematorium. It is not clear which king or prince had a
crematorium next door. Royal annals suggest that in 1549
King Mahachakrapat built a temporary pavilion near the
temple in order to sign a peace treaty with the Burmese king.

Wat Phra Si Sanpet

It is one of the oldest temples dating back to the founding of

the city of Ayutthaya. It was built in the compound of the
Royal Palace some time during the reigns of King
Ramathibodi I (1350) and King Sam Phraya (1448). In

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1448, King Borom Trailokanath commissioned the building
of a monastery. The royal estate was donated to the
monastery and the Palace was moved further north near the
river.
It is identified by the columns of two viharas flanked by
three bell-shaped chedis along a long terrace. The chedis
served as royal tombs for the king and his sons. In ancient
times, the cloister galleries were adorned by Buddha images.

The temple complex consists of several structures the

most important of which are:

The main vihara where an enormous image of

standing Buddha was kept in a brick and mortar
rectangular building. In 1500, this image was
commissioned by King Ramathibodi II. It is 16
metres high and is covered with gold. It was the
main object of worship in the Royal Palace.
Two large chedis built by King Ramathibodi II in
1492, one for keeping his father’s relics and
another for his brother’s.
The ubosot and the Chom Thong Pavilion.
The bell tower.
The three mondops sandwiched between the
main chedis.

Gold covering the standing Buddha was looted when the

Burmese ransacked Ayutthaya. During the reign of King
Rama I (1782-1809) (Ratanakosin Period) the inner core of
Buddha (Phra Buddha Chao Si Sanphet) was transferred
from Ayutthaya to Wat Phra Chetuphon in Bangkok. It was
placed in a chedi specially built for the purpose.
This is one of the most important temples of Ayutthaya.
In 1932, on this site several bronze figures were discovered
which might have formed a part of the bronze set attributed

210
to King Borom Trailokanath. Are the figures those of Buddha
or Bodhisattvas? It is rare to find any bronze statues which
are not of Buddha or of a Hindu deity. However, McGill
(1993:439-40) remarks that considering their size, they may
‘represent kings or nobles, hermits, a dog, a monkey, and
probably Brahmins—all forms the Bodhisattvas assumed in
previous lives…’

Wat Phra Ram (Temple of Rama)

There is a controversy about who built this temple. One royal

annal suggests that it was built by King Ramesuan in 1369 on
the site of the crematorium for his father U Thong. As this
king ruled for only one year, it is almost certain that the
construction of the temple was completed during the reign of
his successor, King Borom Rachathirat I (1370-88). Other
accounts suggest that it was built much later by King Borom
Trailokanath (1448-88) in the fifteenth century.
Its dominant structure is a corn-shaped tall tower which
is still standing. The main shrine consists of a prang on a
square base, which was a common form of temple shrines in
the early Ayutthaya period. Its entrance arch was destroyed
during the Burmese attack. Besides the main entrance, there
were also side entrances to it. Also there were smaller prangs
and chedis in addition to the main large prang. The main
prang and chedis were enclosed within a gallery.

Wat Phra Chao Phya-thai

The temple (also known as Wat Y ai Chai-Mongkol) is located

in the southeast of Ayutthaya. Its large chedi is visible from
afar. Its monastery was built by King U Thong in 1357 for
monks returning from Ceylon after their religious training.

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The monastery was originally known as Wat Po Kaeo and
was renamed Wat Chao Phya-thai (or Temple of the
Supreme Patriarch) following the title of ‘Somdej Phra
Vanarat’ (The Patriarch on the Right Hand Side) which was
conferred on the king.
King Naresuen the Great built a large Chinese-style chedi
(pagoda) on the site to celebrate his victory over a Burmese
leader in a hand-to-hand combat over an elephant’s back. He
built a second chedi known as Phra Chedi Chai Mongkol (or
Chedi of the Auspicious Victory), also called the Great
Pagoda. The two distinctive structures of the
temple/monastery site are: a seated Buddha image in front of
the chedis and a row of Buddhas in front of the ruins of a
chedi.

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 C h ap t e r 9

The Temples of Bangkok

Bangkok became the capital of Thailand after Ayutthaya was

destroyed by the Burmese in 1769. First, for a brief period,
King Taksin chose Tonburi as his new capital after defeating
the invaders. Rama I (1782-1809), the first king of the
Chakra dynasty, succeeded Taksin. He decided to build a new
capital (Bangkok) to recapture the glory of Ayutthaya.
Bangkok has been the capital ever since.
Early buildings in Bangkok reproduced the Ayutthaya
style. Rama I gave a high priority to the building of temples
and monasteries and brought Buddha statues from
Ayutthaya to be displayed in the new temples. Prang and
chedi in the Ayutthaya style of architecture remained
popular. However, in the nineteenth century, Chinese
influence on Thai architecture became significant. It was at
this time that a distinctive Thai style developed, combining
the Chinese, Burmese and Khmer influences. The Chinese
influence may have occurred following the arrival of Chinese
refugees in Thailand in the wake of Mongol invasions and
political troubles with the seizure of power by the Ming
dynasty.
At the beginning (before 1768) Bangkok was a small
trading and military town with two forts, one on either side
of the river. The town expanded when several thousand
people moved from Ayutthaya and settled in the Thonburi-
Bangkok area. Bangkok’s development accelerated when it
became the capital of the Chakra dynasty, which has

213
survived until today. It consists of several Rama rulers,
namely: Rama I (1782-1809), Rama II (1809-24), Rama III
(1824-51), Rama IV (1851-68), Rama V (1868-1910) and
Rama VI (1910-25), Rama VII (1925-34), Rama VIII
(1934-46) and Rama IX (1946 to date) (King Bhumibol).
The Chakra dynasty made significant contributions to
Thai art in Bangkok. As noted above, Rama I, the founder of
Bangkok, strived to restore the glory of Ayutthaya by
preserving its art and culture. He restored several Bangkok
temples and built new ones. Rama II, who restored such
temples as Wat Phra Phutthabat (Sara Buri) and Wat Arun
(Bangkok), is also known for the patronage of art and
culture, which were further patronised by Rama III who
founded several Buddhist monasteries.
From the sixth to twelfth century, Thailand was a melting
pot of different art styles which is not surprising considering
that different ethnic groups inhabited the country—the
Khmers, the Indian immigrants, the Mon and the Burmese.
Wars between the Khmer and the Thai in the fourteenth
century led to a decline in the importance of the Khmer style
and ascendancy of the Siamese style.
Subsequently, Thai art absorbed the European and
Chinese influences (Griswold, 1960:154). Rama IV (King
Mongkut) was one of the first kings to open his country to
foreign influences. As an ardent Buddhist, he had spent many
years as a monk. Rama V (King Chulalongkorn), who
travelled to Europe, was further inspired to modernise the
country and its capital city. In Bangkok, he built new palaces
in neo-Classical style besides improving the road and canal
infrastructure.
There are three distinct art styles in Thailand: (1) the
Burmese, (2) the Khmer and (3) the Siamese (see Chapter 2),
which changed with the changing political fortunes of
different dynasties. The art styles were predominantly
Buddhist rather than Hindu. Far more Buddhist images have

214
been discovered than those of Hindu deities. While the
Burmese were known primarily for their temple architecture,
Thai art consisted mainly of sculpture which remained
prominent till modern times.
The earliest phase of Buddhist art dates from the
Dvaravati dynasty (sixth to twelfth century). The Mon of
Burma (and not the Thai) were responsible for Thai Buddhist
art during this period. The Thai came later as invaders from
southern China. Indian Gupta art inspired the Mon style of
Buddhist sculpture.
The second Khmer phase (the Lopburi period) of art in
southern Thailand coincides with the Khmer conquest of
large parts of Thai territory. Some Indian influence on art of
this period is visible, but, it put greater emphasis on ‘the
plastic form and less on the feeling for sensuous beauty so
typical of the Indian images’ (Munsterberg, 1970:222). The
Lopburi images mark a change in racial features—now the
faces become flatter and broader and the linear detail less
pronounced. But there was little change in the iconography
since Hinayana Buddhism was still prevalent.
During the Siamese (Bangkok) period in the nineteenth
century, the first magnificent edifices were erected, including
the Great Palace and the Wat Pra Keo for displaying the
Emerald Buddha. At the Wat, Rama built a replica of the
royal prayer-house of Ayutthaya.

The Bangkok School of Art

The Bangkok School of Art, more popularly known as the
Ratankosian (ancient Thai for Bangkok) School, is the last
phase of Thai art. Generally the Bangkok School is
characterised by two phases:

The first phase of Rama I period (1782-1809)

especially during fifteen years of Thonburi as the

215
 capital before Bangkok was founded. During this
period, the earlier (Ayutthaya period) traditions
of art and sculpture were maintained. The
destruction of Ayutthaya, defeat at the hands of
the Burmese and the subsequent dislocation, was
too traumatic an experience to allow any new
innovative activity. Siamese art and architecture
did not change much following the foundation of
Bangkok. No noticeable artistic revival took place
in Siam: the sculptors continued to imitate
Khmer and Srivijaya art styles[38]which is not
surprising, considering that the main
preoccupation of King Rama I was to defend the
country against Burmese attacks.
The second phase started in the middle of
the nineteenth century with the reign of King
Rama IV or Mongkut. This period witnessed the
modernisation and Westernisation of Thailand
and its art and architecture. The Prasat, based
on the original Khmer model, became popular
during this period.

The building architecture during the Bangkok period did

not contain anything new. Stupas were built in the
Ayutthaya style. However, one novelty of Bangkok art lies in
the temple roofs of colourful glazed tiles and lacquered doors.
Buildings often consisted of courtyards and assembly rooms
decorated with frescoes. The main temple buildings contained
rows of small Buddha statues as well as a large one meant for
worship.
Another novelty was the prasat which flourished during
the Bangkok period. Prasat is a sort of miniature palace with
a prang at the intersection of its roofs. Generally, prasats
were meant to commemorate those kings who adopted
Buddhism and donated their palaces (for example, Bang Pa-

216
in built by King Rama I) to the Buddhist religious order.
Stupas and prangs became the two popular architectural
forms during the Bangkok period (see for example, the
imposing prang of Wat Arun). When he was still a monk,
King Rama IV brought to Bangkok the famous round
Sukhotai chedi from the northern region of Thailand.
Another popular architectural form is the mondop a
special feature of which (unlike its equivalent in India) is the
wooden superstructure decorated with gilded carvings and
glass mosaics. The mondop generally holds Buddhist holy
relics.
Like architecture, sculpture during the Bangkok period
did not change much. Most Buddha images belonged to the
earlier styles, namely, Sukhotai, U Thong and Ayutthaya.
King Rama I did not commission any new Buddha images.
Instead, he ordered over a thousand bronze Buddhas (left
behind after the wars between Burma and Thailand) brought
to Bangkok from Ayutthaya. These images were restored and
distributed to monasteries in and around Bangkok. Any new
images created were in the Ayutthaya style as the king
wanted to restore the ancient glory of that kingdom.
Buddha sculptures produced during the reigns of Rama II
and Rama III were very similar. However, there was some
change in their art form during the reign of Rama IV. The
Buddha images now were influenced by Western culture.
Buddha’s human form included robes as well as skull
protuberance (usnisha). Surprisingly, the Thai sculptures
began to be influenced by the Gandhara School in India. The
Buddha statues with skull protuberance became popular
particularly during the reigns of King Rama V and Rama VI.
During the Bangkok period, painting became more
refined and sophisticated than that during the Ayutthaya
period. It was considered a visual aid to religious education.
As such, murals decorated the walls of temples and
monasteries the themes of which related to Buddha’s life, the

217
jataka stories (similar to the ones found in Ajanta cave
temples in India) and Buddhist cosmology. In those days,
painting was not seen as an art form but as a medium of
religious instruction among the largely illiterate population.
A rapid expansion of Bangkok and the construction of a
large number of new temples and monasteries generated a
significant demand for murals. Very few paintings from
Ayutthaya could be transported to Bangkok as most of them
had been destroyed. An attempt to meet this rising demand
quickly may have sacrificed the quality of Thai painting
during this period.
The Chinese influence on art and painting was visible
particularly during the reign of Rama III. It is noticeable in
murals of flowering trees and rocks. The patterns for murals
may have been taken from the blue porcelain imported from
China.
An attempt to blend Western influence with the Thai art
of painting during the reign of Rama IV was unsuccessful,
considering that interest in such mural paintings waned after
the reign of Rama V.

Indian Influence

There was little direct Indian influence on Thai Buddhist art

during the Bangkok period. However, some indirect influence
was visible through a carry-over from the earlier Ayutthaya
period. As noted above, the beginning of the Bangkok period
followed the devastation caused by the Burmese invasion.
Therefore, the main objective was consolidation rather than
innovation. The Rama kings of the Chakra dynasty wanted
to relive the Siamese glorious past by re-enacting Ayutthaya
monuments and restoring Buddha statues discovered in
Ayutthaya.
Far more important an influence during the Bangkok

218
period was that of Ceylon, China and Western Europe. The
only exception was the Gandhara school of Indian sculpture
which influenced the Thai sculpture during this period as
noted above.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the Gandhara school of
sculpture depicts Buddha as a Greco-Roman deity looking
like Appollo. The Buddha images found in the Gandhara
region present him in thin toga-like robe with loose knotted
hair. According to a Thai scholar (Jermasawatdi, 1979:102),
contacts with many countries including India may have
encouraged Thai artists 'to humanise Buddha image as much
as possible by trying to follow the Gandhara School of
Buddha image of India'.
During the reign of King Rama V, an image was cast of
Buddha calling down the rain. In this image, Buddha wears a
wavy and folded robe and has curly hair, which suggest the
Gandhara influence.[39]
However, the Thai artists found it difficult to imitate the
Appollo-like image of Buddha so typical of the Gandhara
sculpture.
The Grand Palace and Temples
Bangkok has a large number of Buddhist temples, notably,
Wat Pra Keo, Wat Po, and Wat Arun besides a large palace
complex along the Chaophraya River. These examples of
Thai architecture are discussed below.

The Grand Palace

Built by Rama I, the Grand Palace is surrounded by walls on

all four sides. The complex includes not only the king’s
private residential quarters, but also government offices, a
ministry and a private Royal Chapel where emerald Buddha
is displayed. The two earliest royal residences in the palace

219
are the Dusit-Mhaprasad and the Mahamontien. The former
includes an audience hall with a mother-of-pearl throne and
a Pavilion. The latter contains an audience hall of Amarindra
where Court ceremonies are held and a Paisal Hall for the
coronation of a monarch.
The terrace of the palace complex contains four
monuments, namely, a reliquary (a golden chedi), a
Repository of the Canon of Buddhism, a model of Angkor
Wat presented to King Mongkut, and the Royal Pantheon
containing statues of former kings.
The galleries in the palace grounds contain murals
depicting different scenes from the Ramayana (or Ramakien)
such as the campaigns of Ravana.

Wat Po

The temple, also known in Thailand as Wat Phra

Chettuphon, is situated next to the Royal Palace (Figs. 54 and
55). It is one of the largest and oldest Bangkok temples with
an area of 80,000 square metres. Originally, a centre of
education for traditional Thai medicine was built on the site
of the temple which explains why until today the centre has
several massage pavilions. The temple is a seat of learning for
Thai medicine, literature, astrology besides being a place of
worship.
It is divided into two compounds. The northern
compound displays the reclining Buddha (Fig. 54). The
massage school is also located in this compound. The
southern compound, Tukgawee, is a Buddhist monastery
inhabited by monks with a school attached to it.

220
Fig. 54 A close-up of reclining golden Buddha, Wat Po

221
 Fig. 55 Buddha’s feet with mother-of-pearl inlay, Wat
Po
The temple was originally built in the seventeenth century
before Bangkok was founded. The name Wat Po comes from
its original name, Wat Potaram. King Rama I, the founder of
Bangkok, enlarged and renovated it and installed many
Buddha statues recovered from Ayutthaya. Several seated
Buddhas are displayed along its outer wall. In 1801, it was
renamed Wat Phra Chetuphon. In the early nineteenth
century, Rama II commissioned the building of a large prang
(tower) and four smaller ones which were completed by his
successor, Rama III. However, the original temple is much
older and dates back to the Ayutthaya period. Rama III

222
undertook its restoration and expansion. He placed in it a
number of plaques containing medicinal texts, thus
converting it into a seat of learning, essentially the first
university in Thailand. Rama III was also responsible for
commissioning the statue of reclining Buddha.

The temple is characterised by the following features:

A large golden reclining Buddha which barely fits

into the vihara in which it is located. His eyes
and soles of feet are decorated with mother-of-
pearl inlay. The soles are intricately decorated
with 108 auspicious signs in Chinese and Indian
styles (Fig. 55).
Over a thousand Buddha statues many of which
were brought from Ayutthaya.
A large number of square pagodas which differ
from the more common bell-shaped pagodas.
Three-dimensional ceramic tiles and pieces
forming floral patterns in the chedis.
Temple guardians as in Wat Arun (for example,
Fig. 57).

The Buddha statues in the corridor in Wat Po look like

innumerable copies of the same model. As discussed in
Chapter 2, with few exceptions the Thai sculpture of recent
centuries is standardised and repetitive without much
imagination.

Wat Arun

The temple is named after Aruna, the Hindu god of Dawn

(Figs. 56 and 57). Other signs of the Hindu influence include

223
two temple guardians from the Hindu epic Ramayana. The
four statues of Hindu god Indra riding on Erawan over its
second terrace is the third sign of Hindu influence. It belongs
to the Ayutthaya period during which it was called Wat
Makoki (Olive Temple). King Taksin changed the name of
the temple to Wat Chaeng when Thanburi became the capital
of Thailand.
For a brief period, the temple contained the revered
Emerald Buddha after its recapture from Laos. In 1784, the
Emerald Buddha was moved to Wat Phra Keo.

Fig. 56 Wat Arun from the river, Bangkok

224
 Fig. 57 Temple guardians, Wat Arun, Bangkok
King Rama II enlarged the central prang of the temple
and changed its name to Wat Arunratchatharam. Work on
the prang was completed by Rama III. The Phra prang with
a height of nearly 82 metres and a width of 234 metres is an
important and imposing feature of the temple. Wat Arun is
known for its tall central Khmer and Thai blend of pagoda
which is visible from afar. It symbolises the legendary Mount
Meru (the centre of the universe) of the Hindu mythology.
Its corners are surrounded by four smaller pavilions depicting
different phases of Buddha’s life—birth, enlightenment, first
sermon and nirvana. Its several terraces at different levels are
decorated with statues. They are narrower at higher levels,
tapering towards the top.
Prangs are unique in design as well as decoration. The
core material used in their construction is brick with a thick

225
layer of plaster on which pieces of Chinese porcelain and
glazed ceramic tiles are pasted. The use of Chinese porcelain
is not surprising since the Chinese ships used to call on the
Thai capital of Bangkok in its early days.
Monks continue to live in a monastery attached to the
temple. The King visits the temple every year to present
saffron robes to them.

Wat Phra Keo (The Temple of Emerald Buddha)

The temple was built to display the Emerald Buddha statue

which is highly revered in Thailand. Its construction began in
1782 along the shores of the Chao Phraya River. Rama I
built it ‘as a replica of the royal prayer house in Ayutthaya’ as
it was the Royal Chapel (Fig. 58). The subsequent kings
expanded its size manifold.

226
 Fig. 58 General view of Wat Phra Keo, Bangkok
It is located in the compound of the Royal Palace and is
encircled by a cloister in the shape of a polygon. It is built of
white-washed brick covered with red tiles. The emerald
Buddha statue made of a single piece of jade is placed on a
high gilded pedestal. There is a seven-tiered umbrella at the
back of the statue, which is decorated with a golden jewel-
studded robe changing colour with every season. The king
himself changes the robe at the beginning of spring, summer
and winter.
A mural painting depicting a scene from Buddha’s life is
an example of the Indian influence on Thai Buddhist art (Fig.
59).

227
228
229
 Fig. 59 A mural painting depicting a scene from
Buddha’s life, Bangkok
© Audio-Visual Department, Library of the City of Chaux-
de-Fonds, Fernand Perret Fund, Switzerland

230
 The temple is unusual in that it has no resident monks,
presumably because it is in the compound of the Grand
Palace and is a private royal chapel. Thus it is not a seat of
Buddhist learning as are the other Bangkok temples.
However, architecturally it looks like a monastery even
though monks do not live there.
The Emerald statue has a chequered history. It was first
discovered in 1434 by a monk in Chieng Rai, a northern
province of Thailand. At that time, Chieng Rai was under the
administrative control of Chiengmai. The then ruler of
Chiengmai ordered the transfer of the statue to Chiengmai
where the statue remained for nearly one hundred years. It
was then moved again to Vientiane (Laos). In 1778, Rama I
conquered Laos and brought the statue to Wat Arun in
Bangkok. It finally found a permanent home with the
construction of the new temple.
The rectangular hall of consecration (ubosot) is built on a
marble platform decorated with gilded figures. Other
embellishments of the temple include:

mother-of-pearl doorways.
coloured glass mosaics on the facade.
mural paintings depicting scenes from the
Ramayana; and garudas and nagas.

The temple encompasses all the major styles of Thai

architecture, namely, chedis, prangs, mondops and viharas,
which are well decorated and ornamented. The mondop on
the upper terrace has an elaborate roof and a slender spire. It
is used as a library holding the sacred Buddhist scriptures.

Conclusion

231
In this chapter, we have described principal temples of
Bangkok which represent the Bangkok Period of Thai
Buddhist art. This period cannot claim any originality or
beauty in Thai art especially when it is compared with that of
the Ayutthaya period. The building architecture and sculpture
of this period borrowed heavily from the earlier Ayutthaya
period, which is not surprising considering that the Bangkok
period was a consolidation phase in which the founding of a
new capital was designed to restore the glory of art
represented by Ayutthaya.
Thai art witnessed changes in the middle of the
nineteenth century when Rama IV opted for the
Westernisation of Bangkok and the country as a whole.
However, the process of modernisation and its reconciliation
with traditional Thai values in art and architecture as well as
in social life accelerated later under Rama V
(Chulalongkorn), the first king to travel abroad.
The Bangkok Period was less rich than the Ayutthaya
Period in respect of both sculpture and architecture. It was
perhaps for this reason that the Ramas longed for the glory of
Ayutthaya. As discussed in Chapter 8, the Ayutthaya School
of art is an amalgam of various styles, namely, the Indian,
Khmer, Mon, Burmese and Ceylonese. Much of what later
became a distinctive Thai style of art is essentially an
extension of this earlier fusion.
Some observers argue that the art of painting during the
Bangkok period was more sophisticated than that during the
Ayutthaya period. However, it is rather difficult to make any
serious comparison since very few paintings of the earlier
period have survived.
One of the aims of the book is to trace the Indian
influence on Buddhist art and architecture in Southeast Asia.
Was the Bangkok school affected much by Indian Buddhist
art? With the exception of the Gandhara School, the Indian
influence during this period was much less marked than the

232
Chinese, Ceylonese and European. Here the Bangkok period
differs from the Ayutthaya period during which the Indian
(both Hindu and Buddhist) influence was more significant.
During this later period Thai art was inspired by the Indian
Amaravati, Gupta and Pallava schools. The Thai architecture
followed the South Indian traditions and styles of Chalukyas,
Pallavas and Pandyas. The Thai sculpture was inspired by the
Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati schools.
Thus the Indian influence on Buddhist art in Southeast
Asia depends on the period considered. This is equally true of
such influence on Khmer art, a classical example of which is
the temple of Banteay Srei, which was built during the pre-
Angkor period (ninth and tenth centuries). It is superior to
Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, which were built during the
twelfth and thirteenth century respectively. Angkor Thom
sculpture is rather disappointing. Is it really art, one may
ask? It would be more appropriate to call it the mass
production of Buddha sculptures as well as those of
Bodhisattvas, devatas and dancing apsaras.
Buddhist art in Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand but
also to a lesser extent in Cambodia, had more to do with
Buddha images for religious purposes. This explains their
mass production more for worship and religious instruction
than for art per se. Therefore, it may not be far from the
truth to say that at least in Thailand Buddhist art was religion
and religion was art.

233
Glossary

Anatta Soul
Anda Hemispherical dome of
the Buddhist stupa
Apsara Standing female
divinities; a celestial nymph; divine
dancing girls
Apse A large semi-circular or
polygonal recess in a Buddhist temple or
a church
Arati Delight

Architrave A main beam resting

on tops of columns; the moulded frame
around a doorway or window
Arhat An enlightened being,
mystic or sage
Asuras Divine beings (in the
Vedic period); demons involved in fights
with the devas
Atman Soul

Banteai (y) (Khmer) Fortress;

citadel
Baray (Cambodia) Reservoir
Bhakti Devotion
Bhikshu or
Bhikhu A disciple; monk
Bodhi Enlightenment
Bodhisattva A being who
refrains from entering nirvana in order

234
to save others
Brahmi The earliest known and
deciphered Indian script

Chaitya A prayer hall; Buddhist

shrine
Chaitya-grihas Places of
worship as well as monasteries
Chakra Wheel
Chakravartin World emperor
Champa Indianised state
neighbouring Cambodia in the area
now called South-Central Vietnam
Chauri A fly whisk
Chedi Thai chaitya shrine
containing Buddha relic; reliquary
Chhatri Umbrella; canopy
Cittas States of consciousness
Coping Capping on the top
course of a stupa

Dagoba Sinhalese stupa

(pagoda)
Devata A deity
Devi A goddess
Dharma The religious and social
order
Dharmachakra The Wheel of
Law, emblem of Buddhist Dharma
(Law)
Dhayana Y oga meditation
Dryad A nymph (Greek
mythology) inhabiting a tree
Dukkha Suffering
Dvarapalas Gatekeepers

235
Erawan (Thai) A white 33-
headed elephant serving as a vehicle for
god Indra

Firman An oriental sovereign’s

edict

Gandharvas Heavenly
musicians and dancers married to
yaksas; spirits of the clouds and waters
Garuda A mythical deity
appearing as half man and half bird
Gopura Entrance pavilion;
stone platform in front of a Khmer
temple

Harmika Railed balcony

surrounding a stupa dome
Hinayana The second major
Buddhist sect

Jatakas Birth stories of the

Buddha

Kalasha Pinnacle
Kami (Japan) Sacred symbols of
Shinto; spirit
Khmer Ethnic group and
language of Cambodia

Lingam Phallic object as a

symbol of Shiva
Lintel A horizontal support (of
wood, stone or steel) across the top of a

236
door or a window
Lokesvara Compassionate
bodhisattva of Buddhism

Mahant Priest of a temple

Mahavamsa The Great
Chronicle of Ceylon
Mahavihara Large monasteries
A major sect of Buddhism
Maitreya The Buddha who will
appear in the future
Makara A sea monster with an
elephant head
Marga Path
Medhi Base of a stupa; High
circular terrace
Meru The world mountain of
Indian and Buddhist cosmology
Mithuna A loving couple
Mondop (Thai) Square structure
often crowned by a tiered roof
M u d r a Symbolic gesture of
Buddha’s hands
Muni Sage

Naga Mythical multi-headed

snake or serpent; snake god
Nagaraja King of the nagas
Nirvana Salvation; release from
re-birth

Pagoda Tall temple of roofs of

several tiers; a stupa
Pediment The triangular upper
part of a building surmounting a portico

237
of columns
Phnom (Khmer) Hill,
mountain
Pipal Ficus-religiosa tree
Pralamb-pada Pose of Buddha
seated with feet resting on a lotus
Prang Siamese pagoda with a
rectangular or polygonal base; Khmer
Prasat
Prasat Khmer (Cambodian)
sanctuary tower
Preah Sacred (Khmer)

Rati Lust
Rishi Brahmin ascetic

Sakyamuni Buddha; the sage of

the Sakyas
Sangha Buddhist Order or
Council
Sgo-mang
(Tibet) Stupas with many doors
Shamanism Belief in a world of
unseen gods, demons and spirits
responsive only to Shamans (priests)
Shikara Tower surmounting the
temple spire
Shinto
(Japanese) Native pre-Buddhist
beliefs in Japan
Sopanas Staircases leading to
the terraces of stupas
Stambhas Pillars of stupa
railings
Stupa A relic (funeral) mound

238
Svastika An ancient symbol in
the form of an equal-armed cross

Tantric A religious cult

Tara Female Buddhist deity
Tathagata An horrific title of a
Buddha
Thankas Tibetan scriptures
Theravada One of the two main
Buddhist sects
Thom (Khmer) Great, large
Tjandis Javan religious
structures
Torana Gateway to a stupa
Tribhanga Triple bend posture
Triphoum Manuscript devoted
to Buddhist cosmology
Tri-ratna Three jewels of
Buddhism: Buddha, Dharma and
Sangha
Trishna Thirst

Ubosot Thai Buddhist

sanctuary or main chapel
Usnisha Coping or crown;
diadem, turban

Vajrasana An unbreakable
throne; Buddha seat under a tree in
deep meditation
Vassa Rainy season
Vedika Railing around a stupa
Vihara A Buddhist temple or
monastery

239
Wat Modern Buddhist pagoda
or temple

Yaksa A male deity

Yaksi A female deity

240
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253
 Il l u s t r at i o n C r e d i t s

Figs.1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,
28, 29, 35, 36, 37, 38, 43, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57
Photographs by A.S. Bhalla, the author

Figs. 6, 8, 13, 14, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50
Courtesy of Ranjan Bhalla

Fig. 42
Courtesy of Rajgopalan Sampatkumar

Figs. 5, 19
Courtesy of Sandra Zysset

254
 Ind e x

Afghanistan
- Bamiyan statues of Buddha
49, 95
- Hadda statues
49
Agnim itra
80
Aibak, Qutb-ud-din
69
Aja nta
93-106
- cave temples
93-94
- paintings
95-99
- sculpture
100-103
Alam, Shah
56
Altekar, A.S.
61
Amaravati
86-90
- railings
86-87
- stupa
86-90
- vs Bharhut, Bodhgaya and Sanchi
91-92
Ananda

255
 62
Ananda Temple, Pagan
38, 49
Angelo, Michael
98
Angkor
107-24
- Bayon
119-20
- Hindu and Buddhist art
111
- Indian influence
108-10
- other temples
121-23
- sculptures and reliefs
115-20
- Thom
117-20
- Wat
113-16
Anuruddha
62
Apsaras
50, 51, 98, 99, 108, 115-16
Archaeological Survey of India
7, 14, 61, 78, 97, 99, 105
Architecture
- Mathura style
71
- Sarnath style
71
Arthaud, J.
27, 111, 123
Asher, F.M.

256
 56
Ashv a jit
68
Av a lokitesv a ra
18, 19, 32, 41, 117
Ayutthaya
125-37
- architecture
128-29
- Hindu and Buddhist influences
126
- painting
129-30
- School of Art
127-30
- sculpture
127-28
- temples
130-37

Balamitra
Bangkok
138-50
- Golden Buddha
143
- Grand Palace
142
- School of Art
139-41
- temples
142-50
Banteay Srei
50, 51, 110, 111, 124, 150
Barrett, D.E.
86

257
Barua, B.
20, 29
Ba shpa
68
Beglar, J. D.
85
Béguin, Gilles
129
B h a drik a
68
Bhalla, A.S.
129
Bharhut
85-87
- vs Amaravati and Sanchi
92-93
Bhutan
23, 56, 62, 66-67
Bodhgaya
55-67
- Bhutan monastery/temple
66-67
- Great Buddha statue
63
- Mahabodhi Temple
57-62
Bodhisattv as
98, 118
Boisselier, J.
129
Borobodur (Indonesia)
48, 53, 54
Bouillevaux, Father Charles Emile
107
Brihadratha

258
 80
British Museum, London
7, 43, 44, 45, 78, 88, 89, 90
Brown, Percy
106
Buchanan, Francis (later Hamilton)
56
Buddha
- footprints
43
- Great of Kamakura
63
- medallions
44, 85,86, 87
- relief panels
88, 89, 90
Buddhism
- decline in India
21-22
- principles of
15-16
- spread in India
22-27
- spread in the rest of Asia
22-27
- types of
17-19
Buddhist Architecture
- prayer halls (chaityas)
30, 38, 95, 105
- s t u p a s
33-38
- temples
38-39
Buddhist Art

259
 - Indian influence on
47-48
- painting
46-47
- patronage of merchant class
32
- patronage of ordinary people
33
- royal patronage
29-32
- sc u lptu re
39-46
- South Asia
48-49
- Southeast Asia
49-54
Buribhand, L.B.
129
B u rm a
22, 23, 34, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49,

52, 56, 62
B u ssa g li
41

Cambodia
- A n g k o r
107-24
- B a y o n
119-20
- Influence of Hindu and Buddhist art
108, 111-13
- Tem ples
115-16

260
Cambodian Art
52, 108-11, 113
Cecconi, Professor Lorenzo
98
Ceylon
- rock paintings
46-47
Channa
15
C h e n
20
C h i n a
18, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 34, 35,

36, 66, 108, 138, 141, 150

Coedès, G.
107, 114, 119
Coral-Rémusat, G.
114
Count Orsini
98
Cunningham, Alexander
57, 69, 74, 84, 85, 92

Daibu tso
26
Daijokyo Temple, Bodhgaya
64
Dalai Lama
24, 57, 62
Dali, China
34, 35
Dehejia, V.
29, 33, 86, 93

261
Deshpande, P.Y .
96
Dhamekh Stupa
72, 73
Dh a n a bh u ti
85
Dharampala (Hewavitarana, David)
56
Dharma
15, 16, 17, 18, 62, 97, 98
Dharmachakra (Wheel of Law)
43, 62, 68, 69,
Dharm av am in
55, 56
Dhavalikar, M.K.
103

Eightfold Path
16
E l l o r a
105-6

Fahr-Becker, G.
25, 54
Faircloth, Terence
7
Four Truths
16
Freeman, M.
121, 122

gateways to Sanchi stupa

262
 80-82
G a uta m a
15, 65, 81
Ghosh, A.
7
Giri, Gosain Ghamandi
56
G o n g
20
Gousset, J-R.
40
Great Buddha of Kamakura, Japan
63
Griswold, A.B.
128, 138
Groslier, B.
27, 111, 123,

Hamilton, F. (earlier Buchanan)

56
Hargreaves, H.
69
Ha rih a ra
108
Heruka
70
Horne, C.
69
Hsien, Fa (Gong)
20, 55, 57, 68, 75, 108

India
- Buddha statues

263
 39-41, 101, 102, 105
- Buddhist
cave paintings
39-41
- Chaity as
94
- decline of Buddhism
21-22
- spread of Buddhism
22-27
- s t u p a s
34-35, 72-75, 78-92
- temples
38-39, 57-62, 77, 82-83,
9 4 -
106
I n don esia
13, 21, 24, 25, 53, 54, 128,
Indosan Nipponji Temple
64
I n d r a
46

Jacques, C.
121, 122
J a p a n
13, 14, 26, 34, 36, 37, 56, 57,

61, 62-65, 77

Jatakas
34, 52, 59, 84, 85, 87, 91, 96,

111, 128, 131, 132

264
J a v a
25, 47, 53, 54, 108
Jermasawatdi, P.
53, 129, 141
Johnson, W.L.
110

Ka n t h a k a
15
K a r l e
104-6
Kaundinya
68
Khan, Guuhri
24
King Anawrahta
23, 48
King Ashoka
13, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26,

27, 29, 30, 38, 48, 55, 57,

5 9 ,
61, 68, 69-72, 74,
75, 76, 78,
79, 80, 84, 86, 87,
92
King Bhavavarman
108
King Bhumibol (Rama IX)
125, 138
King Borom Rachithirat
137
King Borom Trailokanath
127, 137

265
King Boromokat
127
King Boromoraja
131
King Brahmamitra
20
King Brihadratha
80
King Chandragupta
19
King Chao Prasat Thong
127
King Chao Song Tham
127
King Chao Tai Sa
127
King Chulalongkorn
24, 52, 138, 140, 141, 149
King Dhammazedi
23
King Dharanindravarman II
123
King Ela
103
King Elara
22
King Govindachandra
75
King Indragnimitra
20
King Indravarman I
107
King Intharachathirat
132
King Jayavarman II

266
 107
King Jayavarman VII
24, 51, 112, 114, 117, 119,

121, 123
King Jayavarman VIII
122
King Kanishka
23, 31, 39
King Kyanzittha
49
King Mahachakrapat
125, 136
King Mahipala
74
King of Mithila
98
King Mongkut
140, 141, 142, 149
King Muchalinda
108
King Naresuen
137
King Prasat Thong
131, 135
King Rachathirat
131
King Rama I
25, 137, 138, 140, 144, 146
King Rama II
140, 142, 146, 148
King Rama III
136, 138, 140, 141, 146
King Ram VI
138, 140

267
King Rama VII
138, 140
King Rama VIII
138, 140
King Ramathibodhi I
125
King Ramathibodhi II
136
King Ramesuan
131, 138
King Ram Kamhaeng
125
King Sam Phraya
135
King Samudragupta
20, 55
King Simhala
98
King Songhan
131
King Suryavarman II
113, 114
King Suryavarman VII
21, 122
King Taksin
140, 144
King Tissa
22
King U Thong
125,137
King Visvadeva
85
King Y asovarman I
123
Kittoe, Major Markham

268
 69
Knox, R.
86
Kolkata National Museum
7, 77, 78, 84
K o r e a
26, 62
K o s i k i
20
Ku bera
102
Kurangi
20

Lahore Museum
7, 14
Lipton, B.
23
Listopad, John
7
Lokesv a ra
18, 41, 117, 119, 122

Mahabodhi Temple, Pagan

49
Mahakaccana
62
Mahakassapa
62
Ma ha m og a la na
62
Ma h a na m a n
68

269
Ma h a v a m sa
48
Mahayana
17-18, 20-22, 25, 31, 37, 48,

54, 70, 71, 96, 114, 119, 121,

128, 139
Mahinda (or Mahindra)
78
Maisey, General Frederick Charles
83
Manjushri
18
M a r a
103
Marshall, John
78, 80
Mathura School of Art
40, 100
M a y a
64
McGill, F.
137
medallions
44, 62, 83, 85, 87, 92
Mitra, Debala
34, 39, 82, 84, 85, 94
Moore, E.
125
Mouhot, Henri
107
Mugallana
78, 83
Munsterberg, H.

270
 49, 139

N a g a de v i
20
N a g a ra ja
45, 101, 102
n a g a s
49, 50, 82, 96, 108, 109, 110,

121, 122, 132, 149

Nainar, S.P.
86
Nakagawa, Chiyoji
64
N e p a l
15, 19, 22, 23, 30, 48,

62, 93
N ichiren
26
Nosu, Kosetsu
77

Oertal, F.O.
69

painting
- m u r a l
32, 47, 96, 100, 133, 142,

149-50
- rock

271
 46
- tempera technique of
46, 96
Pa kista n
7, 14, 39, 40, 77
Pra-ong In
137
Prince Chao
Ai
132
Prince Chao Y i
132
Prince Damrong Rachanuphap
131
P u n n a
62
Pushyam itra
80

Qianxun Pagoda
34

Ragnubs, N.D.
23
R a hula
62, 102
Rashtrakutas
94
Robinson, R.H.
110
Roerich, G.
61
Rohatgi, K.
69
Rohatgi, S.P.

272
 69
Rowland, B. Jr
29, 31, 48, 71, 74, 93, 123

Sahni, D.R.
68, 70, 74
Sakyamuni
64
Sa n c h i
78-84
- Ashoka pillar
84
- gateways and railings
79-82
- Great Stupa
79-82
- Stupas 2 and 3
83-84
- temples
82-83
- yaksas and yaksis
82
San Fa Si Pagodas
35
Sangha
15, 16, 17, 25, 62, 68
S a r i pu t t a
62, 78, 83
Sarkar, H.
86
Sarnath
68-77
- Archaeological Museum
41, 69, 71, 77

273
 - Dhamekh Stupa
72-74
- Dharmarajika Stupa
74-75
- examples of Buddhist Art
73
- monasteries
75
- Monument of the five disciples
77
- Mulaghanakuti Temple
77
- Sarnath School of Art
70-72
- stone pillars
76
s c u l pt u r e
13, 40-47, 72, 116, 141, 151
Sh a n k a r a c h a r y a
56
S h i v a
24, 49, 56,
Sidharatha, Gautam a
15, 80
Singh, Jagat
74
Sirigiya rock paintings (Ceylon)
46
Sivaramamurti, C.
84, 95
Sthirapala
74
stupas
- Am a ra v a ti
86-90

274
 - Bharhut
85-87
- Dham ekh
72-74
- Dharm arajika
74-75
- S a n c h i
79-84
Subhuti
62
Sugiyama, Tatsuko (Ms)
64
Sum a tra
25, 53, 139
Sundarananda (or Nanda)
88
Sundari
46

Tagore, Rabindranath
54
Taishi, Prince Shotoku
26
Ta n trism
18-19, 20, 22, 23, 48, 70
Tara, the Saviouress
70, 104
Taylor, General Mark
78
Thai Art
52, 126, 127, 129, 130, 138,

139, 141, 149, 150

Thailand

275
 - Buddhist art
127-30, 139-41
- Indian influence
126, 141, 147-48
- Pa inting s
129-30, 147-48
- Sc u lptu re
127-28
Thakur, U.
55
Thapar, Romila
19, 21, 22, 33
Theravada
17, 18, 22-25, 39
T i b e t
13, 19, 23, 24, 34, 38, 47, 55,

56, 57, 61, 62, 64, 65, 93

tri- ra tna
15, 43, 62
Tsang, Hsuan (Chen)
20, 39, 55, 59, 61, 62, 68, 75,

108

U p a l i
62
U snisha
140

Va jra sa na
55, 57, 59, 61
Vajray ana

276
 18, 23
Vakatakas
94, 95
Valisinha, D.
69, 78, 99
Va sa ntha pa la
74
Vietnam
24, 25, 115
viharas
16, 28, 32, 37-38, 55, 93, 94,

136, 149
Vish n u
108, 116, 122, 136
Visv a ka rm a
104

Wheel of Law
16, 43, 62, 65, 68, 70, 80, 81,

84, 91, 120

Win, General Ne
23

Xavier, Francis
26

Y aksas and yaksis

39, 82, 84, 97
Y oshida, T.
64

277
Zen Buddhism
26, 64
Zhou, Daguan
123
Zimmer, H.
29, 46, 90, 98, 108, 109, 110,

116, 118,

[1] Fa Hsien is a title. His real nam e was Gong.

[2] Hsuan Tsang is a title. His real nam e was Chen.
[3] Barbara Lipton and Nim a Dorjee Ragnubs (Treasures of Tibetan
Art, Oxford, 1 9 9 7 ), p.1 9 , note that Lam aism is ‘an anachronistic and
pejorativ e term that m istakenly suggests that the religion of Tibet is
not Buddhism ’. Indeed, Tibetan Buddhism is a v alid religious tradition
whose influence extended well bey ond the national boundary .
[4] The head of one religious order – Dge-Lugs-Pa – known as the
Dalai Lam a, approached a Mongol chieftain, Güühri Khan, for help
against a riv al group— Karm a Pa, a sect patronised by the rulers of
Gtsang. When Khan defeated the Gtsang forces, he aw arded Tibet to
the Dalai Lam a. Thus from 1 6 4 2 till the Chinese Com m unist rule in
1 9 51 , the Dge-Lugs-Pa has been the dom inant sect in Tibet (The New
Ency clopaedia Britannica, London, 1 9 81 a), p. 3 88.
[5] Prior to the arriv al of Buddhism , Hinduism had spread to
Cam bodia. It had also spread to Indonesia and Thailand.
[6] Many Buddhist sutras were translated into Chinese during the
Han dy nasty .
[7] Francis Xav ier introduced Christianity to Japan in 1 54 9 .
[8] Bernard Philippe Groslier and Jacques Arthaud (The Arts and
Civilization of ANGKOR, New York, 1 9 57 ), p.1 5, note: ‘The
distinguishing m ark of Indian expansion was that it was peaceful and
at first alm ost unnoticed, in com plete contrast with the contem porary
southward driv e of the Chinese which, at any rate in Indo-China,
constituted a regular process of colonization on the Rom an m odel’.
[9] Rom ila Thapar (History of I ndia, London, 1 9 9 0), p.1 2 9 , notes:
‘Gone were the day s when the Buddhist m onks liv ed entirely on alm s

278
[…] they ate regular m eals in v ast m onastic refectories […]. Secluded
m onasteries were sufficiently well-endowed to enable the m onks to liv e
com fortably ’. She argues that the ‘Buddhist Order thus tended to m ov e
away from the com m on people and isolated itself, which in turn
dim inished m uch of its religious strength, a dev elopm ent which one
suspects Buddha would not hav e found acceptable’ (Ibid).
[10] In Europe, the technique of tem pera painting was used from the
twelfth to fifteenth century . Egg y olk was used instead of rice husk and
gum . Painting was done usually on wood panels. Painters started using
oil in the fifteenth century .
[11] On his v isit to Indonesia, Tagore, the fam ous Indian poet and
Nobel Laureate in Literature, noted: ‘I see India ev ery where but I can’t
recognize it any m ore’ (cited in Gabriele Fahr-Becker, editor, The Art of
East Asia, Cologne, 1 9 9 8, v ol. I), p. 3 2 6 .
[12] The other three being Lum bini in Nepal where Buddha was born,
Sarnath in India where he deliv ered his first serm on, and Kushinagar
in India where he died.
[13] Francis Buchanan adopted his m other’s m aiden nam e, Ham ilton,
after inheriting her estate.
[14] In 1 89 1 , Dav id Hewav itarana (also known as Dharam pala)
v isited the town. His efforts to recov er the Mahabodhi tem ple from a
Hindu m ahant, Gosain Gham andi Giri, and restore Buddhist
authority were unsuccessful. The m ahant claim ed Bodhgay a
including the Mahabodhi tem ple. Shah Alam , one of the last Mughal
em perors, supported the m ahant’s claim in a firm an. Nev ertheless,
Hewav itarana continued his cam paign of ‘Bodhgay a for the Buddhists’
and succeeded in raising funds to establish a Mahabodhi Society which
was ev entually entrusted the m anagem ent of the Mahabodhi Tem ple.
[15] The nam es of the ten disciples are: Sariputta, Maham ogalana,
Mahakassapa, Subhuti, Punna, Mahakaccana, Anuruddha, Upali,
Rahula and Ananda.
[16] In June 1 9 54 , Chiy oji Nakagawa presented the first Japanese
Peace Bell to the United Nations Headquarters in New York on behalf of
the United Nations Association of Japan. In 1 9 82 , Tom ijoro Yoshida
founded the World Peace Bell Association in Toky o to carry on Mr.
Nakagawa’s work for world peace.
[17] According to inscriptions found on site, Sarnath was inv ariably
called ‘the Dharm achakra’ or the ‘m onastery of the turning of the
Wheel of Law’ (Day a Ram Sahni, Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath,
Sim la, 1 9 2 3 ), p. 1 .

279
[18] Dev apriy aValisinha (Buddhist Shrines in I ndia, Colom bo, 1 9 4 8),
th th
p.89 , notes that ‘from the 1 2 to the 1 7 century we hav e no
knowledge again as to the ev ents at Sarnath’.
[19] Kam la Rohatgi and S.P. Rohatgi (Buddhism and Sarnath, Delhi,
1 9 9 1 ) argue that Sarnath was accidentally discov ered in the
eighteenth century .
[20] Hsuen Tsang describes seeing a m agnificent tem ple which w as
the m ain shrine of Sarnath at that tim e. It contained a life-size brass
im age of Buddha turning the Wheel of Law. It also contained a stone
stupa and a pillar known to hav e been built by Ashoka. Day a Ram
Sahni (Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath, Sim la, 1 9 2 3 ), p.5,
believ es that Tsang describes the tem ple later know n as the Main
Shrine.
[21] Day a Ram Sahni (Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath, Sim la,
1 9 2 3 ), p.1 8, notes that a sm all piece of an um brella ty pical of the
Maury an sty le was discov ered in 1 9 06 -7 which m ay well belong to the
um brella on top of the Dharm arajika stupa.
[22] Debala Mitra (Buddhist Monuments, Calcutta, 1 9 7 1 ), p. 9 2 ,
states: ‘But the m onum ents at Bharhut were com pletely razed to the
ground; the m aterials of the foundations ev en were utilized by the
v illagers in their houses. When Cunningham discov ered the site in
1 87 3 , the m ajor portion of the priceless railing of the stupa had been
dam aged and carted away by the local people’.
[23] The renov ation process went through four different phases. The
first Ashokan phase is m arked by a m odest stupa built duing his reign.
The second post-Ashoka phase consisted of the building of sev eral
m onasteries in the Am arav ati region. It is not certain whether the
Am arav ati stupa was enlarged during this period. The third Andhra
phase was of great artistic and architectural dev elopm ent. During this
phase the sim ple stupa railing was replaced by a richly carv ed railing
containing beautiful reliefs and designs. The final Pallav a phase
extending from the fourth to fourteenth century witnessed the hey day
of Am arav ati as an im portant centre of Buddhism in South India
where m any Buddha statues were found which suggests the existence
of sev eral shrines besides the m ain stupa. But none of these shrines has
been discov ered (H. Sarkar and S.P. Nainar, Amaravati, New Delhi,
1 9 9 2 ).
[24] The New Ency clopaedia Britannica (London, 1 9 81 b), p.1 87 ,
notes: ‘The artistry of Bodhgay a, howev er, is of lower lev el of
achiev em ent than at either Bharhut or Sanci: the relief is deeper
than that at Bharhut but shallower than that at the Great Stupa of

280
Sanci; and crowded com positions are lacking, as are the clear and
precise ornam ent and the rich floral m otifs’.
[25] Unfinished cav es offer a clue to the m ethod of excav ation.
Excav ation work generally started from the ceiling first. After the
ceiling was finished, the builders would cut deep alley s downwards
with such instrum ents as pick axes and chisels. Then the interv ening
ridges would be broken leav ing som e solid blocks out of which pillars
would be carv ed. Finally , the floor would be reached (Debala Mitra,
Ajanta, New Delhi, 1 9 56 ), p. 6 .
[26] Ev en Buddha him self is said to hav e m editated in cav es (see
Vidy a Dehejia, I ndian Art, London, 1 9 9 7 ), p.1 03 .
[27] The Andhra dy nasty , which cam e to power in the south after
Ashoka’s death, prom oted art and architecture in the Deccan. The two
dy nasties represent the ‘Early Classic’ period of art, representing a
gradual transition from the archaic phase of Indian art to its final
m aturity in the sam e way as the Greek sculpture did during the
Transitional period from 4 80 BC to 4 50 BC (Benjam in Rowland, The
Art and Architecture of I ndia, Baltim ore, 1 9 53 ), p.51 . Historians
generally div ide the Andhra period into two phases—the early Andhra
phase from 7 2 to 2 5 BC and the later Andhra phase from 2 5 BC to AD
3 2 0. The flourishing tradition of art during the reign of the Andhras
in the first century BC included Buddhist chaity a halls in Kanheri and
Nasik besides Ajanta.
[28] Depiction of jataka stories in early Buddhist art did not start with
Ajanta. This tradition of stories preceded Ajanta in the earlier art in
Bharhut, Bodhgay a, Sanchi and Am arav ati (see Chapters 3 to 5).
[29] Professor Lorenzo Cecconi and Count Orsini, two Italian
specialists, restored Ajanta paintings from 1 9 2 0 to 1 9 2 2 by ‘rem ov ing
the old v arnish, dirt and sm oke from the surfaces, with breathtaking
results’. (see ‘Ajanta, Maharashtra, India’ in I nternational Dictionary of
Historic Places, v ol. 5 on Asia and Oceania, (Chicago, 1 9 9 6 ), p.1 4 .
[30] The cosm ic m ountain, Meru, is the source of all creation and the
div ine origin of water in the Hindu m y thology .
[31] In 1 1 86 , the Khm er king, Jay av arm an VII, built Ta Prohm in
m em ory of his m other and her spiritual m aster. Fiv e y ears later (in
1 1 9 1 ), he built Preah Khan for his father (George Coedès, Angkor: An
I ntroduction, London, 1 9 6 9 ), p.2 3 .
[32] Lalitav istara’, a classical Sanskrit v ersion of the Buddha legend,
describes in detail how Muchalinda protected Buddha by spreading his
hood as an um brella when the weather was bad and a storm was
im m inent (cited in Heinrich Zim m er, The Art of I ndian Asia,

281
Princeton, 1 9 55), pp. 6 4 -5.
[33] Naga worship represents the Hindu religion and tradition. It
m ay also be interpreted as a local tradition of worshipping snake-
dragon as a god of fertility .
[34] Heinrich Zim m er (The Art of I ndian Asia, Princeton, 1 9 55), p.
1 51 , suggests that the Cam bodian dancers are sim ply that and no
m ore. Yet a little later in the sam e paragraph, he adm its that they
were m eant ‘to represent—and so to incarnate—heav enly beings,
im m aculate m istresses. They are not frail m ortals, but the
functionaries of a div ine beatitude’.
[35] This practice has continued till today . Hindu Brahm ins are
inv ited by the current king of Thailand, Bhum ibol Aduly adej (Ram a
IX) for perform ing roy al cerem onies. Recently , the gov ernm ent of
Thailand issued postage stam ps depicting scenes from Ram ay ana and
Mahabharta.
[36] Jean Boisselier (La sculpture en Thailande, Fribourg, 1 9 7 4 ),
p.1 7 6 , a historian of Thai art, believ es that the statues were intended
to celebrate the bi-m illennial anniv ersary of the Buddhist religion
which corresponded to the founding of the m onastery of the sev en-
spired m onum ent in Chiengm ai. The m onum ent is a copy of the
Mahabodhi Tem ple in Bodhgay a (see Chapter 3 ).
[37] This section draws on Elizabeth Moore et al. (Ancient Capitals of
Thailand, London, 1 9 9 6 ). It has also benefited from docum ents of the
Departm ent of Fine Arts of the Gov ernm ent of Thailand obtained from
the Internet.
[38] The Sriv ijay a period refers to a m aritim e em pire (sev enth to
thirteenth century ) based in Jav a and Sum atra islands (present-day
Indonesia), which ruled Southern Thailand. Archaeological
excav ations show that the em pire was influenced by both Hindu and
Buddhist religions.
[39] A Thai scholar (Prom sak Jerm asawatdi, Thai Art with I ndian
I nfluences, New Delhi, 1 9 7 9 ), p.1 3 1 , concludes: ‘All the features of
Gandhara Buddha were copied and im itated in all aspects by the Thai
artists during the Bangkok period in order to create a new ty pe of
Buddha im age. Thus it m ay be term ed as the re-birth of Indian art in
the creation of sculpture in Buddhist art of Thailand’.

282