F-Year Project

ABSTRACT
Composite material have made way to various field, including
aerospace structures, underwater vehicles, automobiles and robot system.
Due to the high strength to weight ratio of composites, they serve as a
suitable alternative to metals, therefore making the need for a reliable
database of structural design more important. Most of the modern civilian
and military aircraft use composite material for their primary structural
components. Calotropis gigantea fiber is one kind of natural cellulose fiber,
thus it is evaluated here aiming to replace cotton or kapok fiber to some
extent. Carbon fiber and Glass fiber also used for making of composite
material. The composite material of Carbon Calotropis fiber material, Glass
Calotropis fiber material and Calotropis gigantea fiber material are subjected
to tensile test, flexural test, impact test, hardness test , double shear test .The
effect of this composite material has to investigated both experimentally,
numerically. The result of each composite material is compared.
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITTLE PAGE

NO. NO.
ABSTRACT 1
LIST OF TABLES 5
LIST OF FIGURES 6
LIST OF GRAPH 7
LIST OF SYMBOLES 9
1 INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Overview 11
1.2 Classification of composite 13
1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composite(MMC) 13
1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composite(CMC) 13
1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composite(PMC) 13
1.3 Natural Fiber Composite 14
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 15
3 MATERIAL SELECTION 18
3.1 Calotropis Gigantea Fiber 18
3.2 Selection of Fiber 19
3.3 Glass Fiber 19

2
3.3.1 Advantages of Glass Fiber 20
3.3.2 Properties of Glass Fiber 20
3.4 Carbon Fiber 21
3.4.1 Properties of Carbon Fiber 22
3.4.2 Application of Carbon Fiber 23
3.5 Resin 24
3.6 Epoxy Resin 24
3.6.1 Properties of Epoxy Resin 25
3.6.2 Advantages of Epoxy Resin 26
3.6.3 Application of Epoxy resin 26
4 PROJECT METHODOLOGY 27
5 FABRICAION OF FML 28
5.1 Overview of Working Process 28
5.2 Method for Manufacturing Fiber 28

Laminates
5.3 Hand Lay-up Method 29
5.4 Carbon Fiber Based Composite 30

Laminate
5.5 Glass Fiber Based Composite Laminate 31
6 CUTTING 33
3
6.1 Reciprocating Saw 33
6.2 Mechanism 33
6.3 Advantages of Reciprocating Saw 34
7 MECHANICAL TESTING 36
7.1 Tensile Test 36
7.1.1 Calculation of Tensile Test 38
7.2 Impact Test 39
7.2.1 Factor Affecting Impact Strength 40
7.3 Double Shear Test 40
7.4 Flexural Test 40
8 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 42
8.1 Tensile Test 42
8.2 Impact Test 44
8.3 Double Shear Test 46
8.4 Flexural Test 48
8.5 Graph Result 50
9 CONCLUSION 59
10 REFERENCES 60
4
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
8.1 Tensile test result of glass, carbon and calotropis 43

composite
8.2 Impact test result of glass, carbon and calotropis 45

composite
8.3 Double Shear test result of glass, carbon and 47

calotropis composite
8.4 Flexural test result of glass, carbon and calotropis 49

composite
5
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
1.1 Composite Material 12
1.2 Calotropis Fiber 14
3.1 Raw Material of Calotropis 18
3.2 Glass Fiber 19
3.3 Carbon Fiber 21
3.4 Epoxy Resin and Hardner 25
3.5 Flow Chart of Project Methodology 26
5.1 Hand lay-up Method 29
5.2 Layer Orientation of Carbon Composite 30
5.3 Layer Orientation of Glass Composite 31
5.4 Moulding Process 32
5.5 Resin Mixing 32
5.6 Calotropis Laminate 32
5.7 Carbon Laminate 32
5.8 Glass Laminate 32
6
6.1 Reciprocating Saw 34
7.1 Universal Testing Machine 36
7.2 Manual Operate Flexural Testing Machine 41
7.3 Hand Operate Flexural Testing Machine 41
8.1 Before Tensile Test 42
8.2 After Tensile Test 42
8.3 Before Impact Test 44
8.4 After Impact Test 44
8.5 Before Double Shear Test 46
8.6 After Double Shear Test 46
8.7 Before Flexural Test 48
8.8 After Flexural Test 48
7
LIST OF GRAPH
TABLE TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
8.9 Load Vs Displacement Curve of GFRP Tensile Test 50
8.10 Load Vs Displacement Curve of Calotropis Natural 51

fiber Tensile Test
8.11 Load Vs Displacement Curve of CFRP Tensile Test 52

Fiber Double Shear Test
8.13 Load Vs Displacement Curve of GFRP Double 54

Shear Test
8.14 Load Vs Displacement Curve of CFRP Double 55

Shear Test

Fiber Flexural Test
8.16 Load Vs Displacement Curve of GFRP Flexural 57

Test
8.17 Load Vs Displacement Curve of CFRP Flexural 58

Test
8
LIST OF SYMBOLES
NOMECLATURE ABBREVATION
ASTM American Standard Testing Method
GLARE Glass Fiber Reinforced Epoxy
Mpa Mega Pascal
Gpa Giga Pascal
PEEK Polyether Ether Ketone
WPC Wood Plastic Composite
PEO Polyethylne Oxide
PVA Polyvinyle Alcohol
PAN Polyacrylonitrile
CARALL Carbone Aluminium Laminate
ARALL Aramid Aluminium Laminate
9
UTM Universal Testing Machine
CFML Carbon Fiber Metal Laminate
GFML Glass Fiber Metal Laminate
GFRP Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer
10
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
Composite are made up of individual material referred to as

constituent material .There are two categories of constituent material: matrix
and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is required. The matrix
material surround and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining
their relative position. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical
and physical properties to enhance the matrix properties.
A synergism produce material properties unavailable from the

individual constituent material, while the wide variety of matrix and
strengthening material allows the designer of the product or structure to
choose an optimum combination.
Calotropi gigantea fiber regains high attention today benefiting from

its renewability and biodegradability when the demand for sustainable and
environmental friendly materials as alternatives to petroleum based materials
is extremely urgent. Therefore, relative research on its application in place of
some other natural cellulose fibers, such as kapok fiber, bast fiber, even
cotton fiber to some extent, is undoubtedly becoming hot. As mentioned
above, calotropis gigantea fiber has tubular structure as kapok fiber. It is
reported that Kapok fiber can be used as buoyancy materials, oil-absorption
materials or microbial fuel cells, so similar applications can also be
speculated regarding calotropis gigantea fiber. Furthermore, former
researches indicate that calotropis gigantea fiber can be used for textile
fabrics, so investigation on its properties related to fabric wear ability should
be implemented.
11
Fig 1.1 Composite material
Most commercially produce composite use a polymer matrix material

often called a resin solution. There are many different polymers available
depending upon the starting raw ingredients. The are several broad
categories, each with numerous variation. The most common are kown as
polyester, vinylester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene,
PEEK, and others.
Calotropis gigantea commonly known as mudar or milk weed, is a

kind of perennial shrubs found chiefly in China, India, Malaysia, as well as
most of Asia and large parts of Africa and South America. The plant grows
easily on varieties of soils and can flower and fruit throughout the year.
It usually grows in slope with low altitude and sunny exposure or in a

wide-open area and has good properties of resisting to drought, salinity, and
water logging. In addition, it requires no fertilizers or pesticides.
Generally speaking, the plant is abundant, cheap, and environmental

friendly. The applications of different components of the plant have been
discussed. The stems and branches have been used as fuel with long history.
12
A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent
material with significantly different physical or chemical properties that,
when combined produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Composite material can be classified based on the matrix material

(metal, ceramic, and polymer).
1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composite (MMC): Metal matrix composite are

composed of a metallic matrix (aluminium, magnesium, iron, cobalt,) and a
dispersed metal phase(lead, tungsten, molybedenum).
1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composite(CMC):Ceramic matrix composite

are composed of a ceramic (matrix) and embedded fibers of other ceramic
material(dispersed phase).
1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composite(PMC): Polymer matrix composite

are composed of polymer matrices: thermoset(unsaturated polyester, epoxy)
or thermoplastics (polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene) and reinforcement in the
form of fiber (glass, carbon, steel, kevlar fiber etc.) or fillers (talc, mica,
CaCo, etc.) . They can furtherbe classified into thermoset composite,
thermoplastic and natural fiber composite.
13
1.3 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES
Today, there is renewed awareness for improving the properties of

plastics based components to meet engineering requirements to compete
with nano materials. Development of commercially viable green products
such as wood plastic composites (WPC) based on natural sources for wide
range of applications is increasing day by Various lignocelulosic materials
such as jute, sisal, bagasse, coconut, banana, rice husk are in use. These are
light in weight, non-toxic, and have lower abrasive properties. Composite
made of these materials are biodegradable and leaves no toxic residue or
byproducts when combusted
Fig 1.2 Calotropis fiber
Calotropis gigantea fiber is one kind of natural fiber .The composite

material made up of the three sample .calotropis and carbon fiber composite,
calotropis and glass fiber composite, and calotropis gigantea natural fiber
composite.
14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
EVALUATION ON PROMISING NATURAL CELLULOSE FIBER-

CALOTROPIS GIGANTA FIBER – Yuanhui, Lifang Liu, Wenhong Fan,
Jie Li.
Yuanhui, Lifang Liu, Wenhong Fan, Jie Li they say the investigation
on calotropis gigantea fiber was conducted in this paper, and some new
discoveries were obtained. Experimental results indicate that the fiber is
decreasing in diameter from end to tip, which are coarser, open and sharper,
closed, respectively. The fiber has high hollowness and 4-6 grooves along its
longitudinal axis, with fully distributed microvillus on its surface. The FTIR
spectrum shows the fiber mainly contain cellulose, lignin and hemi-cellulose
component. X-ray diffraction analysis shows that the fiber has higher
crystallinity in comparison with kapok fiber. The fiber has higher breaking
strength than kapok fiber and good hygroscopicity and water
transmissibility, so it is an ideal material to replace some natural cellulose
fiber to some extent, such as kapok and cotton.
EXTRACTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CALOTROPIS

GIGANTEA BAST FIBER AS NOVEL REINFORCEMENT FOR
COMPOSITES MATERIAL- R.Ramasamy, K.Obi Reddy, A. Varada
Rajulu
R.Ramasamy K.Obi Reddy A. Varada Rajulu they sayThe aim of this

study is to scrutinize the use of Calotropis gigantea bast fibers as potential
reinforcement in polymer composites. The bast fibers were extracted from
the Calotropis gigantea plant bark and some of them were treated with alkali
(5 wt. %) solution. The chemical composition, physic -chemical structural
properties of the untreated and the alkali treated Calotropis bast fibers were
studied. The results of chemical composition analysis indicated that alkali
treatment removed most of the non-cellulose materials as confirmed by the
FTIR analysis. The X-ray diffraction results exhibited that the crystallinity
index of the alkali treated fibers increased in comparison with the untreated
fibers, which agrees with the results obtained in the mechanical tests. The
15
tensile strength and modulus of the alkali treated fibers were found to be
higher whereas the elongation at break was lower than the untreated fibers.
Thermal stability of alkali treated fibers was lower than that of the untreated
fiber. Scanning electron micrographs showed roughening of the surface of
the fiber due to the removal of the surface impurities and non-cellulosic
components on alkali treatment. It can be concluded that alkali treatment is
an effective method to improve the surface and mechanical properties
of Calotropis bast fibers to be used in composite materials.
MECHANICAL AND MACHINING CHARACTERISTICS OF

CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA FRUIT FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS-
Chama Ajay Srinivas, G Dilli Babu.
Chama Ajay Srinivas, G Dilli Babu they say the conclusions has been
given by conducting the above tests and obtained by the following graphs.
Above tests and obtained by the following graphs. The tensile strength of
0.30 Gms weight percentage of Calotropis Gigantea fruit fiber reinforced
composites is 49.925 N/mm² higher than that of 0% weight percentage
reinforced composites. The tensile modulus of 0.30 Gms weight percentage
weight percentage of Calotropis Gigantea fruit fiber reinforced composites is
1248.125 Mpa higher than that of 0% weight percentage reinforced
composites The Flexural strength of 0.30 Gms weight percentage weight
percentage of Calotropis Gigentea fruit fiber reinforced composites is 113.3
N/mm² higher than that of 0% weight percentage reinforced composites. The
Flexural modulus of 0.30 Gms weight percentage weight percentage of
Calotropis Gigantea fruit fiber reinforced composites is 140.37 N/mm²
higher than that of 0% weight percentage reinforced composites. The Impact
energy of 0.30 Gms weight percentage weight percentage of Calotropis
Gigantea fruit fiber reinforced composites is 12.81 J/m higher than that of
0% weight percentage reinforced composites. For machining we have
observed that when we increase the fiber with respect to increment in the
plates and by increasing the levels it was higher than the 0% of the plates
and also that the cracks and delaminations occurred in the plate of 6.5
weight is less when compared to 0% weight of fiber plate.
16
EVALUATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS
GIGANTEASTEM FIBER-REIN FORCED COMPOSITE MATERIAL-
Aruna.M, Sudhakar Muniyasamy.
Aruna.M, Sudhakar Muniyasamy they say increase in fiber content

gradually increases tensile strength, impact strength and hardness. The
highest value of tensile strength for composites containing 30gmcalotropis
gigantea stem fiber was obtained with addition of 12 gm glass fiber. The
above comparison clearly shows the usage of less than 12 gm glass fiber
which in turn increases tensile strength, impact, density and hardness. The
Izod impact strength significantly decreased to 3.321 J. when the glass fiber
content is decreased. The resulting properties reveal that composites with
good strength could be successfully developed using calotropis gigantea
stem fiber. It is observed from the figure that the surface looks smooth and
lesser void content as shown on the upper surface of the composite sample.
This lesser void is actually caused by an excess of resin squeezed during
solidification, which causes shortage of resins between two adjacent fibers.
Despite the fact this study produce a new natural fiber into the research but
has some limitations, this study considered the weight proportion ratio of
fiber to composite by 50% each, hence in future this can be extended with
various composition using glass fibers.
17
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS SELECTION
3.1 CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA FIBER
Calotropis gigantea is one of the major plant available in our country

and prefers disturbed sandy soils with mean annual rainfall: 300-400 mm.
Through its wind and animal dispersed seeds, it quickly becomes established
as a weed along degraded roadsides, lagoon edges and in overgrazed native
pastures. It has a preference for and is often dominant in areas of abandoned
cultivation. calotropis gigantea provides high tensile and abrasive strength
and these fibers have more weight per square meter than the cotton fibers.
Since calotropis is a wildly growing shrub in major parts of India, the tensile
strength of coconut spathe-fiber is inferior to other natural fibers such as
cotton, coconut coir and banana fibers. Cellulosic fibers like coconut spathe,
calotropis gigantea and banana fiber are used as reinforcing agents of
different thermosetting and thermoplastic composites.
Fig 3.1 Raw material
The mechanical properties of each and every application based on the

proportion of fiber and resin carried to make the composites. The different
mechanisms used to identify the degradation of material such as initiation,
propagation, branching and termination layup method and the use of these
fibers as the properties of the composites are strongly influenced by the fiber
length.
18
3.2 SELECTION OF FIBER
The mechanical properties of most reinforcing fiber are considerably

higher than those of un-reinforced resin system. The mechanical properties
of the fiber/resin composite are therefore dominated by contribution of the
fiber to the composite.
 GLASS
 CARBON
3.3 GLASS FIBER
Glass fiber have a good bonding properties. So we choosing glass

fiber. It is easily bonded with calotropis gigantea fiber by the help of Epoxy
resin.
Fig 3.2 Glass fiber
19
3.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF GLASS FIBER
 High strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength.
 High degree of design flexibility.
 Dielectric.
 Fiber glass is non-corrosive and much longer life.
 Fiber glass parts require very little maintenance.
3.3.2 PROPERTIES OF GLASS FIBER
 High temperature resistant.
 Non-flammable.
 High stiffness.
 Relatively low density.
 Good chemical resistant.
 Relatively insensitive to moisture.
20
3.4 CARBON FIBER
Fig 3.3 Carbon fiber
Carbon fiber is frequently supplied in the form of a continuous two wound

onto a reel. The two is a bundle of thousand of continuous individual carbon
filament held together and protected by an organic coating, or size such as
polyethylene oxide (PEO) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as shown in fig. The
tow can be conveniently unwound from the reel for use. Each carbon
filament in the tow is a continuous cylinder with a diameter 5-10
micrometers and consist almost exclusively of carbon. The earliest
generation had diameter of 16-22 micrometer. Later fibers have diameters
that are approximately 5 micrometers.
The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting

of sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern, the
difference being in the way these sheet interlock. Graphite is a crystalline
material in which the sheet are stacked parallel to one another in regular
fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak
Vander Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics.
21
Depending upon the precursor to make the fiber, carbon fiber may be
turbostratic or graphite, or have a hybrid structure with both graphite and
turbostratic parts presents. In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheet of carbon
atoms are haphazardly folded, or crumpled, together. Carbon fibers derived
from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are turbostratic whereas carbon fiber derived
from mesophase pitch are graphite after heat treatment at temperature
exceeding 2200 degree celceous .turbostratic carbon fibers tend to have high
tensile strength, whereas heat-treted mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibers
have high youngs modulus and high thermal conductivity.
3.4.1PROPERTIES OF CARBON FIBERS
 High strength to weight ratio
 Rigidity
 Corrosion Resistant
 Good tensile strength but Brittle
 Electric conductivity
 Fatigue Resistant
 Fire Resistant/Not flammable
 High thermal conductivity in some forms
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Non poisonous
 Biologically inert
22
 X-Ray permeable
 Relatively Expensive
 Requires specialized experience and equipment to use
3.4.2 APPLICATION OF CARBON FIBER
 Medical
 Robotics
 Electronics
 Sports
 Aerospace
 Oil and Gas
 Marine
 Energy
 Civil Engineering
 3D printing
23
3.5 RESIN
Epoxy is the standard resin for manufacture GLARE and CARALL,
ARALL composite materials.
3.6 EPOXY RESIN

Epoxies are polymer material, which begin life as liquid and are
converted to the solid polymer by a chemical reaction. An epoxy based
polymer is mechanically strong, chemically resistant to degradation in the
solid form and highly adhesive during coversion from liquid to solid. These
properties, together with the wide range of basic epoxy chemical from which
an epoxy system can be formulated, make very versatile.
Epoxy system physically comprise two essential components, a resin

and a hardner sometimes there is a third components an accelerator, but this
is not so common the resin components is the „epoxy‟ part and the hardner
is the part it react with chemically and is usually a type of „amine‟. Whereas
the resin components is usually light, sometimes almost clear coloured and
near odour free, hardner are usually dark and have a characteristic
„ammonia-like‟ odour. When react chemically and link together irreversibly,
and when the full reaction has been completed they will form a rigid plastic
polymer material.
This polymer is called a „thermoset‟ plastic because, when cured it is

irreversibly rigid and relatively unaffected by heat. Epoxy polymer have
many uses: as industrial adhesives, or as coating, or as matrices in which to
embed reinforcement fibers to form advanced reinforced plastics, and also as
encapsulation media.
The uses for epoxy span many markets including aerospace, transport,
marine, civil engineering and general industry, and such is the versatility of
epoxy‟s chemistry that chemists are able to fine tune formulation for a wide
variety of specific tasks. Some epoxies, which are used as coating, are
24
dispersed in solvents but majority used for structural application are
solvents-free and these are the type which require more care in their use and
which are featured here.
Fig 3.4 Epoxy Resin and Hardner
3.6.1 PROPERTIES OF EPOXY RESIN
 Modulus of elasticity 20-30Gpa
 Ultimate tensile 60Mpa
 Density 1.5(g/cm3)
 Passion ratio 0.33
 Elongation 2-4%
 Shear modulus 1.25Gpa
25
3.6.2 ADVANTAGES OF EPOXY RESIN
 Great strength
 Excellent adhesion to many different material
 Great toughness and resilience
 Excellence resistance to chemical attack
 Better resistance to moisture
 Negligible shrinkage
 Outstanding electrical insulation
3.6.3 APPLICATION OF EPOXY RESIN
 Bulb industry
 Wood handcraft industry
 Metal handcraft industry
 Sports industry
 Artificial jewellery industry
26
CHAPTER 4
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
LITERATURE SURVEY
SELECTION OF MATERIAL
(Calotropis fiber, glass fiber, carbon fiber resin)
LAMINATE PREPARATION(HAND LAYUP PROCESS)
CUT THE SPECIMEN FOR REQUIRED SHAPE AND

DIMENSION
TESTING AND CAMPARISON OF RESULT
CONCLUSION
Fig 3.5Flow chart of Project Methodology
27
CHAPTER 5
FABRICATION OF FML
5.1 OVERVIEW OF WORKING PROCESS
Manufacturing process typically used to make products found in

construction infrastructure market are covered. Unique to the composite
industry is the ability to create a available to the composites manufacturer to
produce cost efficient protects. Each of the fabrication process has
characteristics that define the type of products to be produced. In order to
select the most efficient manufacturing process, the manufacturing team
considers several factors such as:
Performance requirement Size of the product
Surface complexity production rate
Total production volume Economic
Labour Equipment
5.2 METHOD FOR MANUFACTURING FIBER LAMINATES
 Resin Transfer moulding

 Vaccum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding
 Compression moulding
 Hand lay-up moulding process
 Auto clave moulding process
28
5.3 HAND LAY-UP METHOD
Hand lay-up moulding is used for the production of parts of any

dimension such as technical parts with a surface area of a few square feet,,
as well as swimming pools as large as 1600 square feet. But this method is
generally limited to the manufacturing of parts with relatively simple shapes
that require only one face to have a smooth appearance ( the other face being
rough from tha moulding operation). It is recommented for small and
medium volumes requiring minimal investment in moulds and
requirement.The contact moulding method consists of applying these
element successively onto mould surface.
 A release agent
 A gel coat
 A layer of reinforcement in the form of chopped strand mat or women
roving impregnation of the reinforcement is done by hand using a
roller or a brush.
Impregnation of the reinforcement is done by hand using a roller or a brush.

This operation is repeated for each layer of reinforcement in order to obtain
the desired thickness of the structure.
Fig 5.1 Hand lay-up Method
29
5.4 CARBON FIBER BASED COMPOSITE LAMINATE
 The carbon fiber laminated in which it is fabricated by seven layers of

material. Three layers are calotropis gigantea fiber and remaining four
layer carbon fiber.
 The layer are arranged in an order of carbon fiber, calotropis fiber,
calotropis fiber, carbon fiber, calotropis fiber in a sand which form.
 The first layer is carbon fiber, second layer is calotropis gigantea
fiber, third layer is calotropis fiber, fourth layer is carbon gigantea
fiber, fifth layer is calotropis fiber, sixth layer is calotropis gigantea
fiber, seventh layer is carbon fiber
Carbon fiber 0.25mm
Calotropis fiber 0.5mm
Carbon fiber 0.5mm
Carbon fiber 0.25mm
Fig 5.2 Layer Orientation of Carbon Composite
30
5.5 GLASS FIBER BASED COMPOSITE LAMINATE
 The above mentioned figure is a glass fiber based fiber metal laminate
in which it is fabricated by seven layers of materials. Three layers are
calotropis gigantea fiber and remaining four layers are glass fiber.
 The layers are arranged in an order of glass fiber, calotropis gigantea

fiber ,glass fiber, calotropis gigantea fiber, glass fiber in a sand which
from.
 Te first layer is glass fiber, second layer calotropis gigantea fiber,

third layers is glass fiber, fourth layer is calotropis gigantea fiber, fifth
layer is glass fiber, sixth flayer is calotropis gigantea fiber and seventh
layer is glass fiber.
Glass fiber 0.25mm
Glass fiber 0.25mm
Glass fiber 0.25mm
Glass fiber 0.25mm
Fig 5.3 Layer Orientation of Glass Composite
31
Fig 5.4 Moulding process Fig 5.5 Resin mixing
Fig 5.6Calotropis laminate Fig 5.7 Carbon laminate
Fig 5.8 Glass laminate
32
CHAPTER 6
CUTTING
6.1 RECIPROCATING SAW
The reciprocating saw is a popular tool used by many window fitters,
construction workers and emergency rescue services. Variants and
accessories are available for specialized uses, such as clamps and long
blades for cutting large pipe, Blades are available for a variety of materials
and uses. Common types include metal cutting blades, wood cutting blades,
blades for composites, for drywall, and other materials. Many of these blade
types have a variety of tooth designs intended for special purposes, such as
tree-limb cutting, demolition work, clean cutting, or contaminated materials.
Abrasive coated blades are also available for hard materials like tile and
stone.[
6.2 MECHANISM
The reciprocating action may be produced several ways. A crack
or scotch yoke type drive may be used, a swash plate type drive, a
captive cam or eccentric, barrel cam, or other rotary to linear drive. Modern
tools are built with variants of all of these mechanisms. Eccentric cam, crank
and scotch yoke drives need balance weights to reduce vibration in the plane
of the rotating element, and may still exhibit vibration that is objectionable
to a user of a handheld saw and can lead to difficulty in controlling a cut.
The swash plate drive has the advantage that there is little rotational out of
balance, so the principal vibration is in line with the blade. This is generally
controllable by keeping the foot of a handheld tool against the work.
The user holds or rests this foot on the surface being cut so that the
tendency of the blade to push away from or pull towards the cut as the blade
travels through its movement can be countered.
33
Fig 6.1 Reciprocating saw
6.3 ADVANTAGES OF RECIPROCATING SAW
 Portability
Mainly Reciprocating saw available in either cordless or corded type.
Regardless of the type you choose, they are mainly portable and compact.
Due to their compactness, they can be stowed away in small spaces available
and transported to any location easily.
 Variable speed
You can benefit from variable speeds and variable orbital action from
reciprocating saws. The type of saw to buy mainly depends on the type of
work you are doing because different reciprocating saws have different
features. However, even though these saws have variable speeds, you can
easily regulate the speed of the cutting action depending on what you are
using the unit for.
 Convenient
It is possible to make any work easier by using a reciprocating saw.
This saw is capable of cutting through a variety of construction materials
among them wood, bricks, card board and drywall. Therefore, you can easily
complete a task in several hours using this saw because if its convenience in
performance.
34
 Safety
Even though the saw is motorized, it is safe to use because the blade is
protected, wires insulated as well as the handle. It is also not easy to get
blisters after working with a reciprocating saw since the handle is well
coated with rubber. A reciprocating comes with a user‟s manual where you
can read through to know safety precautions you need to take, maintenance
practices to keep it safe for use and how to repair any problems to avoid
injuries.
 Improved stroke depth

With a reciprocating saw, you can be able to make long and short
strokes. Normally, long strokes have faster and more aggressive cuts unlike
short strokes which are needed to do plunge cuts. Long strokes can be of
levels that measure about 1 ¼ inches while a short stroke can measure ¾ of
an inch.
35
CHAPTER 7
MECHANICAL TESTING
We are conduct the various types of mechanical tests. This kind of test
are identified the mechanical characteristics of hybrid materials.
They conducting test are given below:
 Tensile test
 Flexural test
 Impact test
 Double shear test
 Hardness test
7.1 TENSILE TEST

Tensile load applied to a composite. The response of a composite to
tensile loads is very dependent on the tensile stiffness and strength properties
of the reinforcement fibers, since these are far higher than the resin system
on its own. Test was carried out with the help of UTM(Universal Testing
Machine).
Fig 7.1 Universal Testing Machine
36
The most common testing machine are universal testers, which test
material in tension compression, or bonding. Their primary function is to
create stress and strain curve described in the following section in this
chapter. Testing machines are either electronics or hydraulic. The principle
difference is the method by which the load is applied. Electromechanical
machines are move the cross head up or down. This motion loads the
specimen in tension or compression. Crosshead speeds can changed by
changing the speed of the motor. A microprocessor based closed-loop servo
system can be implemented to accuracy control the speed of crosshead.
Tensile specimens are 165 mm long and 19 mm width of 4/3 CSM-

3.48mm, 4/3 Woven roving(Bidirectional) 3.10mm and 4/3 0" stitched mat -
4.50 mm thick with a gauge length of 200 mm were prepared. The tensile
properties of the glass Fiber reinforced calotropis laminate composites were
determined according to ASTM 3039 test standard specifications. The
average tensile properties were determined from 4 specimen tests on each
type of orientation. Tensile tests were performed on TII Techno testing
centre-IOKN capacity, padapai, Chennai. universal testing machine at a
crosshead rate of 5 mm/min which corresponds to a strain rate of 0.2% per
second.Tensile properties were determined from these specimens. The
specimen before and after tensile testing. The specimen during tensile and
flexural testing.
Specimens are mounted on the grips of a universal testing machine

and gradually loaded in tension while recording load. The ultimate strength
of the material can be determined from the maximum load carried before
failure and also various failure modes were analysed. Atter that, the stroke
was monitored with displacement transducers then the stress-strain response
of the material can be determined, from which the tensile strain, modulus of
elasticity were derived.
37
7.1.1 CALCULATION OF TENSILE STRENGTH
The various tensile properties are calculated, with the help of
stress strain curve, using the following relation.
ELASTIC STRESS:
Elastics stress= Elastic load(Ps)/ Original cross sectional area(Ao)
STRAIN:
Strain=change in length/ original length
YIELD STRESS:
Yield stress=yield load/original area
ULTIMATE STRESS:
Ultimate stress=Ultimate load/ Oroginal area
YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY(E):

(E)=Stress/Strain
MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS:
Modulus of Toughness= Ultimate tensile× percentage of elongation
PERCENTAGES OF ELONGATION
Elongation= Change in length× 100/ original length=Lf-Lo×100Lo
38
7.2 IMPACT TEST
The Pendulum is mounted on antifriction bearings. It has two
starting positions, the upper one for charpy & the lower one for Izod
testing. On release, the pendulum swings down to brake the specimen
and the energy absorbed in doing so is measured as the difference
between the height of drop before rupture of the test specimen and is
read from the maximum pointer position on the dial scale.
The charpy impact test , also known as the charpy V-

notch test, is a standardized high strain- rate test which determine the
amount of energy absorbed by material during fracture. This absorbed
energy is a measured of a given materials notch toughness and act as a
tool to study temperature dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is
wetly applied in industry. Since it is easy to prepare and conduct and
result can be obtained quickly and cheaply.
Testing procedure:
 The testing specimen is placed in the vice of anvil.

 The pendulum hammer is raised to known standard height depending
on the type of specimen to be tested.
 When the pendulum is released its potential energy is converted in to
kinetic energy just before it strikes the specimen.
 Now the pendulum strikes the specimen . it may be noted that the izod
specimen is hit above the v-notch and charpy specimen will be hit the
v-notch.
 The pendulum, after rupturing the specimen, rise on the other side of
the machine.
 The energy absorbed by the specimen during breaking is the weight of
the pendulum times the difference in two height of pendulum on
either side of the machine.
39
7.2.1 FACTORS AFFECTING IMPACT STRENGTH
 Angle of notch
 Shape of notch
 Impact velocity
 Temperature the specimen
 Dimension of notch specimen
7.3 DOUBLE SHEAR TEST
The type of force which causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts
of the body to slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane
of contact is called shear force.
Shear strength is defined as the maximum load typically applied

normal to a fastener‟s axis that can be supported prior to facture. Single
shear is load applied in one plane that would result in the fastener being cut
into pieces, while double shear would result in three fasteners pieces. For
rivets in trusses, plate girds etc, mild steel and high tensile steel are used.
Rivets are subjected to bearing and shearing stresses. The behavior of steel
rod under shear is investigated experimentally. Universal testing mahine is
used for performing shear, compression and tension.
7.4 FLEXURAL TEST
Flexural specimen are 100mm long and 12.5mm width of 4/3CSM-

310mm,4/3 woven roving-3.48mm and 4/3 450 stitched mat-mm 4.50 thick
with a gauge length of 16.1mm were prepared. Flexural test were performed
on an Instron-100KN capacity universal testing machine. The tested flexural
specimen. The flexural properties of the glass fiber calotropis laminate
composites were determined according to ASTM D790 test standard
specification. The average flexural properties determined from 3 specimen
test on each type of orientation.
40
Fig 7.2 Manual Operated Flexural Testing Machine
Fig 7.3 Hand Operated Flexural Testing Machine
41
CHAPTER 8
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
8.1 TENSILE TEST
Fig 8.1 BEFORE TENSILE TEST
Fig 8.2 AFTER TENSILE TEST
 Glass, Carbon, Calotropis specimen are cut as per ASTM standard

 Fig 7.1 shows glass, carbon and calotropis composites before testing
sample
 After tensile test breaking point shown Fig 7.2
42
SI.NO Specimen Tensile Strength in Peak
(MPa) Load(kN)
1 GLASS CALOTROPIS 19.9 1.44

COMPOSITE
2 CARBON CALOTROPIS
COMPOSITE 101.8 5.516
3 CALOTROPIS NATURAL
FIBER COMPOSITES 61.9 3.197
Table No 8.1 Tensile test result of glass, carbon and calotropis

composite
 The above table 7.1 shows the tensile value of carbon calotropis, glass
calotropis and calotropis natural fiber laminate.
 The tensile strength of glass, carbon and calotropis composite has to
be compared .
 Comparing the three specimen the tensile strength value of carbon
calotropis composite higher than that of other two specimens.
43
8.2 IMPACT TEST
Fig 8.3 BEFORE IMPACT TEST
Fig 8.4 AFTER IMPACT TEST
 Glass, Carbon and Calotropis composite specimen are cut as per

ASTM standard
 Fig shown Glass, Carbon and Calotropis before testing sample
 After impact test breaking point as shown fig
44
Charpy Impact ‘V’
SI.NO Specimen Notch@Room
Temperature
(100×10×55mm)-Joules
1 GLASS CALOTROPIS 3
COMPOSITE
2 CARBON CALOTROPIS 4.5
COMPOSITE
3 CALOTROPIS NATUAL 2
FIBER COMPOSITE
Table no 8.2 Impact test result of glass, carbon and calotropis composite
 The above table no shown the impact test value of glass. carbon and
calotropis natural fiber composite laminate.
 The last column represent impact test value of the three sample piece
of glass, carbon, calotropis natural fiber composite laminate
respectively.
 Comparing the three specimen the impact test value carbon is higher
than the other two composite laminate.
45
8.3 DOUBLE SHEAR TEST
Fig 8.5 BEFORE DOUBLE SHEAR TEST
Fig 8.6 AFTER DOUBLE SHEAR TEST
 Glass calotropis, Carbon calotropis, Calotropis natural fiber specimen

are cut as per ASTM standard.
 Fig shows Glass calotropis, Carbon calotropis, Calotropis natural
fiber testing sample.
 After double shear test breaking point as shown in Fig
46
SI.NO Specimen Peak Load(kN)
GLASS CALOTROPIS
1 COMPOSITE 2.113
CARBON CALOTROPIS
2 COMPOSITE 3.842
CALOTROPIS NATURAL
3 FIBER COMPOSITE 4.347
Table no 8.3 Double shear test result of glass, carbon and calotropis
composite
 The above table no shows the peak load value of glass calotropis,
carbon calotropis calotropis, calotropis natural fiber laminate.
 The last column represent the double shear peak load value of
calotropis natural fiber composite is higher than other two composite
laminate.
47
8.4 FLEXURAL TEST
Fig 8.7 BEFORE FLEXURAL TEST
Fig 8.8 AFTER FLEXURAL TEST
 Glass Calotropis, Carbon Calotropis and Calotropis natural fiber are

cut as per ASTM standard.
 Fig shown Glass Calotropis, Carbon Calotropis and Calotropis natural
fiber composite.
 After flexural test breaking point shown Fig
48
SI.NO Specimen Peak Load (kN) Ultimate Tensile
Strength(Mpa)
GLASS
1 CALOTROPIS 1082.328 173.4
COMPOSITE
CARBON
2 CALOTROPIS 622.025 56.1
COMPOSITE
CALOTROPIS
3 NATURAL FIBER 1583.92 230.4
COMPOSITE
Table no 8.4 Flexural test result of glass, carbon and calotropis composite
 The above table shows the flexural strength value of glass calotropis,
carbon calotropis and calotropis natural finer composite laminate.
 The last column represent ultimate tensile strength value of calotropis
natural fiber is higher than the other two composite.
49
8.5 GRAPH
Tensile test on Glass calotropis composite
140
120
100
Load(KN)
80 Strain (%)
Stress (MPa)
60
Extension (mm)
40
Time (s)
20
Load (kN)
0
1
63
125
32
94
156
187
218
249
280
311
342
373
404
435
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.9 Load Vs Displacement Curve of GFRP Tensile test
Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 8.200 Mm
Thickness 6.300 Mm
Area 51.6600 mm^2
Peak Load 3.197 kN
Peak Stress 61.9 MPa
50
Tensile test on Calotropis Natural Composite
45
40
35
30
Load(KN)
Strain (%)
25
20 Stress (MPa)
15 Extension (mm)
10 Time (s)
5 Load (kN)
0
1
17
33
49
65
81
97
161
113
129
145
177
193
209
225
241
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.10 Load Vs Displacement Curve Of Calotropis Composite Tensile

Test
Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 9.700 Mm
Thickness 7.500 Mm
Area 72.7500 mm^2
Peak Load 1.448 kN
51
Tensile Test on Carbon Calotropis Composite
180
160
140
120
Strain (%)
100
Load(KN)
Stress (MPa)
80
60 Extension (mm)
40 Time (s)
20 Load (kN)
0
1
204
30
59
88
117
146
175
233
262
291
320
349
378
407
-20
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.11 Load Vs Displacement Curve On CFRP Tensile Test

Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 8.600 Mm
Thickness 6.300 Mm
Area 54.1800 mm^2
Peak Load 5.516 kN
52
Double Shear Test on Calotropis Natural Fiber Composite
60
50
40
Load(KN)
Strain (%)
30 Stress (MPa)
20 Extension (mm)
Time (s)
10
Load (kN)
0
1
26
126
51
76
101
151
176
201
226
251
276
301
326
351
376
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.12 Load Vs Displacement Curve of Calotropis Natural Fiber Composite

Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 24.000 Mm
Thickness 25.000 Mm
Initial Gauge Length 50.000 Mm
Final Gauge Length 0.000 Mm
YieldLoad **** kN
Area 600.0000 mm^2
Peak Load 4.347 kN
Peak Stress 7.2 MPa
Yield Stress **** MPa
% Elongation -100.000 %
53
Double Shear Test on Glass Calotropis Composite
35
30
Strain (%)
25 Stress (MPa)
Load(KN)
20 Extension (mm)
15 Time (s)
Load (kN)
10
0
1
16
31
46
61
76
91
106
121
136
151
166
181
196
211
226
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.13 Load Vs Displacement Curve Of GFRP Double Shear Test

Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 24.000 Mm
Thickness 25.000 Mm
YieldLoad **** kN
Area 600.0000 mm^2
Peak Load 2.113 kN
Peak Stress 3.5 MPa
54
Double Shear Test on Carbon Calotropis Composite
90
80
70
60
Strain (%)
Load(KN)
50
Stress (MPa)
40
Extension (mm)
30
Time (s)
20 Load (kN)
10
0
1
39
77
381
115
153
191
229
267
305
343
419
457
495
533
571
609
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.14 Load Vs Displacement of CFRP Double Shear Test
Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 24.000 Mm
Thickness 25.000 Mm
YieldLoad **** kN
Area 600.0000 mm^2
Peak Load 3.842 kN
Peak Stress 6.4 MPa
55
Flexural Test on Calotropis Natural Finer Composite
300
250
200 Series6
Load(KN)
150 Series5
Series4
100
Series3
50 Series2
Series1
0
1
24
47
70
93
116
139
162
185
208
231
254
277
300
323
346
369
392
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.15 Load Vs Displacement Curve of Calotropis Natural Fiber

Composite
Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 14.320 Mm
Thickness 6.000 Mm
Peak Load 1583.921 N
Ultimate Tensile Strength 230.4 MPa
Strain at Break 0.044 mm/mm
Modulus 21741.299 MPa
56
Flexural Test on Glass Calotropis Composite
250
200
Series6
150
Load(KN)
Series5
100 Series4
Series3
50
Series2
Series1
0
1
20
39
58
77
96
286
305
115
134
153
172
191
210
229
248
267
324
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.16 Load Vs Displacement Curve of GFRP Flexural Test
Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 13.000 Mm
Thickness 6.000 Mm
Peak Load 1082.328 N
57
Flexural Test on Carbon Calotropis Composite
80
70
60
50 Series6
Load(KN)
40 Series5
30 Series4
Series3
20
Series2
10
Series1
0
1
18
35
52
69
86
103
120
137
154
171
188
205
222
239
256
273
290
307
Displacement(m)
Fig 8.17 Load Vs Displacement Curve Of CFRP Flexural Test

Specimen Results:
Name Value Units
Width 13.000 Mm
Thickness 8.000 Mm
Peak Load 622.025 N
58
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
The carbon calotropis fiber Laminate, glass calotropis fiber Laminate and
calotropis gigantea fiber based composites have been fabricated by hand
layup process experimental evaluation of mechanical properties like tensile,
flexural, double shear, and impact test as per ASTM standard has been
successfully completed. The tensile, flexural, properties have been studied
and the breaking load has been measured. The Carbon Calotropis composite
has significantly enhanced for ultimate tensile strength and Imapct test.
Calotropis natural fiber exhibit better result in flexural test and Peak Load of
composite.
59
CHAPTER 10
REFERENCES
[1] Lewis SN, Richard DS, Micheal JB, “Handbook of poisonous and
Injurious Plants,” Springer-Verlag Berlin; 2007.
[2] Jagtap V A, Md Rageed Md Usman, Salunkhe P S, Gagrani M B,

“Anti-inflammatory Activity of Calotropis gigantea Linn. Leaves Extract on
In-vitro Models.” International Journal of current Pharmaceutical Review &
Research, Vol.1, Isuue 2, August-October 2010.
[3] Chatterjee A, Chandraprakashi S, “The treatise of Indian medical

plants,” Publications and Information Directorate, New Delhi; Vol. IV: 128-
129; 1995.
[4] Vaidyaratnam P S “Indian Medical Plants,” Orient Longman,

Chennai; Vol. I: 341:2002.
[5] CSIR “The Wealth of India,” a dictionary of “Indian raw material

and industrial products,” Vol. II: 20.
[6] Sastry, C. S. T. and Kavathekar, K. Y., “Plants for Reclamation of

Wasteland,” Publication and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi, pp.
175-179; 1990.
[7] Caius J. F., “The Medicinal and poisonous Plants of India,”

Scientific Publ., Jodhpur, 1986.
[8] Das, B. B., Rasraj Mahodadhi, Khemraj Shri Krishnadas

Prakashan Bombay, 1996.
[9] Oudhia, p. and Tripathi R. S., “World Weeds,” Vol.4:109-119;

1999.
[10] Oudhia p., Kolhe, S. S. and Tripathi, R.S., Legume Res., Vol. 20,
133-136; 1997.
60

F-Year Project

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

F-Year Project

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ABSTRACT

Composite material have made way to various field, including

aerospace structures, underwater vehicles, automobiles and robot system.

Due to the high strength to weight ratio of composites, they serve as a

suitable alternative to metals, therefore making the need for a reliable

database of structural design more important. Most of the modern civilian

components. Calotropis gigantea fiber is one kind of natural cellulose fiber,

thus it is evaluated here aiming to replace cotton or kapok fiber to some

material. The composite material of Carbon Calotropis fiber material, Glass

effect of this composite material has to investigated both experimentally,

numerically. The result of each composite material is compared.

CHAPTER TITTLE PAGE

1.2 Classification of composite 13

1.2.1 Metal Matrix Composite(MMC) 13

1.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composite(CMC) 13

1.2.3 Polymer Matrix Composite(PMC) 13

1.3 Natural Fiber Composite 14

3.1 Calotropis Gigantea Fiber 18

3.2 Selection of Fiber 19

3.3 Glass Fiber 19

3.3.2 Properties of Glass Fiber 20

3.4 Carbon Fiber 21

3.4.1 Properties of Carbon Fiber 22

3.4.2 Application of Carbon Fiber 23

3.6 Epoxy Resin 24

3.6.1 Properties of Epoxy Resin 25

3.6.2 Advantages of Epoxy Resin 26

3.6.3 Application of Epoxy resin 26

5.1 Overview of Working Process 28

5.2 Method for Manufacturing Fiber 28

5.3 Hand Lay-up Method 29

5.4 Carbon Fiber Based Composite 30

5.5 Glass Fiber Based Composite Laminate 31

6.3 Advantages of Reciprocating Saw 34

7.1 Tensile Test 36

7.1.1 Calculation of Tensile Test 38

7.2 Impact Test 39

7.2.1 Factor Affecting Impact Strength 40

7.3 Double Shear Test 40

7.4 Flexural Test 40

8 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 42

8.1 Tensile Test 42

8.2 Impact Test 44

8.3 Double Shear Test 46

8.4 Flexural Test 48

8.5 Graph Result 50

TABLE TITLE PAGE

8.1 Tensile test result of glass, carbon and calotropis 43

8.2 Impact test result of glass, carbon and calotropis 45

8.3 Double Shear test result of glass, carbon and 47

8.4 Flexural test result of glass, carbon and calotropis 49

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

1.1 Composite Material 12

1.2 Calotropis Fiber 14

3.1 Raw Material of Calotropis 18

3.2 Glass Fiber 19

3.3 Carbon Fiber 21

3.4 Epoxy Resin and Hardner 25

3.5 Flow Chart of Project Methodology 26

5.1 Hand lay-up Method 29

5.2 Layer Orientation of Carbon Composite 30

5.3 Layer Orientation of Glass Composite 31

5.4 Moulding Process 32