SWEDISH GEOTECHNICAL INSTITUTE

PROCEEDINGS
No. 18

CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INFLUENCE
OF VERTICAL SAND DRAINS

A Study Made in Connection with

Full-Scale Investigations at Ska-Edeby

By

SVEN HANSBO

STOCKHOLM 1960
 SWEDISH
GEOTECHNICAL INSTITUTE

PHOCEEDINGS

No. 18

CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY,

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INFLUENCE

OF VERTICAL SAND DRAINS

A Study Niade in Connection with

Full-Scale Investigations at SkI't-Edeby

By

SVEN UANSBO

STOCKHOLM 1960
 Printed in Sweden by
h ·nr Hreggstroms Boktryckeri AB
Stockholm 1960
 Conte nt s

P reface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
10 . Introductory Re1narks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
11. Historical Survey of Consolidation Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
12. D iscussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2. Investigation of Consolidation Process by J\Ieans of Consolidometer Tests 27
20. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
21. Variation of Pore Water Pressure during Consolidation Process . . . . 28
22. Friction between Sample and Consolidometer Ring ....... : . . . . . . 38
3. Investigation of Permeability of Clay at Small Hydraulic Gradients . . 41
30. Description of Test Apparatus and Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
31. D iscussion of Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4. Consolidation of Clay by Drain Wells Based on New Theory of Perme­
ability Presented in Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
40. Deduction of Consolidation Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
41. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5. Full-Scale Tests at Ska.-Edeby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
50. Description of Test Field and Measuring Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
51. Geological Description of Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
52. Geotechnical Description of Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
53. Pore Water Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
54. Flow of Clay in Lateral Direction .......... . . ... . ......... . .... 112
55. Vertical Settlements .......... ... . ............................ 117
56. Effect of Driving of Drains and Consolidation on Undrained Shear
Strengt h of Clay ................... . .......................... 136
G. Summary ......................... . .. . ................ . .. . ..... . . 139
7. Appendix .. . ........................................... . ......... 143
70. Equations of Stress Distribution under Circular Loaded Area Based
on Assumption of Elastic Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Notations .......... . ............ . . .. ..... . .... . .............. . ..... 149
Bibliography ................. . .......... . .............. . ..... . ...... 155
Acknowledgement s ........... . ................. . .................... 160
 Preface

In connection with plans drawn up by the S,vedish Board of Civil Aviation for
the construction of a new airport near Stockholm, it was considered advisable
that the effect of vertical sand drains on consolidation of soft clay should be
studied more closely than before. Accordingly in April 1957 the Swedish Gco­
lechnical Institute was ordered by the Government to establish a test field at
Sk/t-Edeby, 25 km west of Stockholm, nnder the supervision of a Royal Com­
mittee composed of the following members: E. Nelandcr (Chairman), R. Kling­
berg, J. Osterman, F. Schiltz, and S. Hagg/trd (Secretary).
This test field was designed by the Geotechnical Institute under the super­
vision of J\1r. J. Osterman, who was assisted by J\ir. S. I-Iansbo. The measuring
equipment to be used in the field was planned in detail by the Mechanical De­
partment of the Institute under the supervision of Mr. T. Kallstenius.
The draining operations and the application of the overload in the field were
carried out by the Swedish Board of Roads and Waterways under the super­
vision of Mr. K. Lekberg. The installation of measuring equipment in the field
was supervised by l\ir. E. Noren and 1\1r. I. Ingelson. The measuring and
sampling operations in the field were supervised by J\Ir. NorCn.
The calculations and the preliminary investigations in the field and in the
laboratory were superintended by Mr. Osterman, with the assistance of Mr.
Hansbo, until September 1957. The results obtained up to that time were
published by the Committee on September 4th, 1957, and also by Mr. Osterman,
in 1959.
The preliminary results indicated some deviations from existing theories, and
it ,vas therefore deemed necessary to carry out supple1nentary laboratory in­
vestigations and to follow up the field investigations started before. Further­
more, it was intended to revise, if possible, the old theories in case they proved to

5
be inadequate. These investigations were made by l\Ir. H ansbo. The sampling and
measuring operations in the field were supervised, as previously, by l\fr. Noren.
The special la boratory equipment designed and construct ed for the study of
certain consolidation phenomena is substantially a result of team work done by
Mr. 1-Iansbo, Mr. A. Wallgren, and Mr. J. Goldschmidt. The detailed design of
the equipment is mainly due to l\fr. Wallgren. The investigations carried out
in the laboratory by means of this equipment were made by l\Ir. Goldschmidt
and Mr. Hansbo, and were superintended by l\1:r. Hansbo. The routine investi­
gations were made at the Consulting La boratory of the Institute.
The present report was prepared by l\Ir. Hansbo. In certain parts, it was dis­
cussed with Dr. E. Forslind. The English manuscript was t ouched up by
:;.\fr. I. Cyon.
Stockholm, D ecember, 1959.
SwEDISlI GEOTECIJNICAL INSTITUTE

6
 I. Introduction

10. Introductory Remarks

At the end of the Second World War, plans were drawn up for the construction
of a new airport near Stockholm, the intention being to replace the present air­
port at Bromma, where the runways could not be extended to accomodate the
heavy intercontinental airplanes which were expected to come into service.
Conditions on various sites, such as Vasby, Halmsjon, and Grillby, were in­
vestigated, and Halmsjon was found most suitable. The construction of the
Halmsjon airport was started in 1946 and a runway was partly completed.
However, the work was not finished.
In 1956, when an order had been placed by the Scandinavian Airlines System
for Douglas DC 8 jetplanes, the Swedish Board of Civil Aviation found a new
modern airport to be necessary. In the meantime it had been suggested that
Halmsjon was situated too far away from Stockholm (about 40 km north of
Stockholm) and that some other place nearer to Stockholm was wanted. Ulti­
mately, the choice had to be made between Halmsjon and Ska-Edeby, the latter
being situated on an island about 25 km west of Stockholm. On April 5th, 1957,
a Royal Committee1 was appointed to investigate the geotechnical and economic
conditions for building an airfield either at Halmsjon or at Ska-Edeby. At
Halmsjon the settlement of the above-mentioned runway and also of two test
areas in the immediate neighbourhood of the runway had been closely followed
until the settling was complete. The geotechnical properties of this area were
accordingly well known. On the other hand, the properties of the ground at
Ska-Edeby were not considered to be sufficiently known, and test areas were
planned in order to examine the effect of sand drains on the time-settlement
relation. Funds for this test field were granted on April 12th, 1957, and work
was started immediately.
The test field was planned in detail, and was provided with measuring equip­
ment, by the Swedish Geotechnical Institute, while the draining operations and
the application of overload were carried out by the Swedish Board of Roads
and Waterways. This work was completed at the end of July 1957.
Preliminary results obtained from the test field were published in September
1957 (UTLATANDE ANG.A.ENDE STOCKHOLMS STORFLYGPLATS, 1957). Since the
test areas had been finished so very recently, no definite conclusions concerning
the consolidation time and the final settlement values were drawn from the
results obtained at that time. Later, for economic reasons, the Ska-Edeby project
had to be abandoned. In spite of this, the great importance of full-scale con-
1 Members of the Committee:

E. NELANDEH (Chairman), R. KLINGBERG, J. 03TER~HN, F. SCHUTZ, and s. HAGG1RD (Secretary).

7
solidation tests for future similar projects, and particularly for road construction,
made it desirable to continue the field tests at Skft-Edeby, and this ,vas conse­
quently done.
The purpose of the present investigation is to make a study of the consoli­
dation problem as a ,vhole, and also to giYe the results which have so far been
obtained from these full-scale tests.

11. Historical Survey of Consolidation Theories

The phenomenon of consolidation which occurs when a load is applied to a clay

layer is an extremely important problem in soil mechanics. T,vo cases of consoli­
dation are of particular interest in this investigation, viz., (I) consolidation of
a clay layer drained at one or both sides, and (2) consolidation of a chty layer
provided with drain wells. Existing theories of consolidation generally deal with
one or both of these two cases, although the solutions of these cases are some­
times given only as special cases of a more general theory.
This historical survey will deal only ,vith some of those papers which present
fundamentally new conceptions of the consolidation phenomenon or new con­
solidation formulas, whereas papers dealing with particular types of loading or
with the mathematical treatment of previously known theories will be left out.
Papers referring to the above-mentioned case (1) will first be dealt with even
where this does not correspond to the chronological order of publication.
The historical survey includes some formulas which have not been applied to
the present investigation. This has been done for the sake of completeness and
in order to facilitate the study of the different consolidation theories by using
consistent symbols.

Consolidation of Clay Layer Drained at One or Both Sides

Long-time settlements of buildings founded on clayey soils were no doubt first

observed long ago, and the causes of settlement seem to have been qualitatively
known since the beginning of the nineteenth century (cf. LEONARDS aud RAMIAI-I,
1959). In Sweden, settlement measurements were carried out by the Geotechnical
Commission of the Swedish State Railways in 1914 to 1922 (STATENS JXRN­
YAGAR, 1922). A consolidometer ,vas constructed, Fig. 1, and the explanation of

Load

Cylindrical box

Fig. 1. Consolidometer constructed by the

Geotechnical Commission of the S-wedish
State Railways.

8
 Liq

I I .1. 1. I I.. I I I I i i
LL!LLLLLLLLILLL
:Fig. 2. "Single-drained" clay layer. Location of coordi- LhL LC/arl/_Z z.dzL
L L ,! L ~ ~ - - ~
natc z. L,L,l~L"L_L_"L_,~ L __,L_'::_,,.'.:-, LL
Impermeable base

the consolidation phenomenon given in the above-mentioned publication is fairly

up to date (cf. also VIRGIN, 1918).
I-Imvcvcr, the most important contribution to the solution of this problem was
made by TERZAGHI in 1923 and 1925. TERZAGHI's well-known solution is founded
on the following basic assumptions:
(1) The clay is saturated and homogeneous.
(2) Pore water flow and deformation take place 111 one direction only (one­
dimensional consolidation).
(3) The clay obeys DARCY's law of permeability. The permeability coefficient /,
is independent of z.
(4) The pore water and the solids arc incompressible as compared with the clay
skeleton.
(5) The excess pore water pressure u is equal to the difference between the
normal pressure increment .da, which is caused by the application of a load,
and the corresponding effective intcrgranular prcssure1 increment Lla.
(6) For a given clay, there is a unique relationship between the effective pressure
increment Ja and the change in void ratio ,de caused by this increment.
For a saturated clay, the change in void ratio in a clay element is equal to
the amount of pore water squeezed out of the element as a result of compression.
I-Ience, in the case of a "single-drained" clay layer, Fig. 2, the following equation
of one-dimensional consolidation can be deduced
J?.u r7u (1: 1)
C ----·························
,vherc 'J z" - J t
cv k (1 + e0 )/av Yw == lc/1nv Yw = coefficient of consolidation,
e0 initial void ratio (ratio of volume of voids to volume of mineral grains),
le DARCY's coefficient of permeability 2 ,
av - .de/.do== coefficient of theoretical compressibiliti3, Fig. 3,
m, aj(l + e0 ) = coefficient of volume compressibility,
Yw unit volume ,veight of pore water,
t time,
1t excess pore water pressure,
z distance from the drained surface of the clay layer to the element
under consideration, Fig. 2.
i In what follows, the latter term is often used in the abbreviated forms »inlergranular pressure»

or »effective pressure».
::? TERZAGHI's original consolidation equation gives a different definilion of DARCY'S coefficient,

its value differing from that used in Eq. (I: 1) by the factor (1 + e).
3
The minus sign indicates that e decreases when a increases. Strictly, av represents the tangent of
the slope angle of the compression curve, i.e.
de cl e
--=-

9
 eo
:g
<..
,ie (-_:--.:--.,
e I
"
~
,i/j

Fig. 3. Void ratio vs. vertical intergranular

°a /j.°il"" pressure curve for clay. 00 represents effective
/ntergranu/ar pressure prcconsolidation pressure. ai· = -Llc/.Ja.

An exact solution of Eq. (1: 1) can be obtained if the consolidation index c, is

considered a constant. Thus, in the important case of constant initial excess
pore water pressure u 0 throughout the clay layer, we have, for a layer of thick­
ness h, with impermeable base,

u =dqf \'
;,, sin
9 (
N j;
• )
exp (-N 2 Tv) ........... (1: 2) 1

where Tv == c 1J/h 2 == dimensionless factor, called the time factor,

Liq== increment of load per unit area on the layer in question (consoli­
dation load) == initial excess pore water pressure u 0 ,

The average consolidation ratio of the clay layer

"
_ () ( udz u
U = bp = 1- r"___
~--,- = I- Uo ............... (1:3)

J u 0 dz
0
in which
- compress10n at time t,
op compression of the clay layer obtained when u has finally dissipated
is thus
- 2
U=l-IN,exp(-N2 1\) ...................... (1:4)
X

1
In Eq. (1: 2) and in what follows ex is always denoted by !he symbol exp x.

10
 0
-§
l..

1?
0
~e~-~~~-- - - - -~~-- -

Fig. 4. Void ratio vs. logarithm of vertical °Q+..:ia

fog o;
intergranular pressure curve for clay. 0
ao + Lia
Cc = -Lie/log - - -
ao
°a O"·°i)+40"
/ntergranufar pressure ( fog. scale J

The final compression o1, = h - 1:_,,__ Llq = h m v Llq is usually computed from
1 + Co
the relation between the void ratio and the logarithm of pressure, Fig. 4, which
gives
op = h ~ log 00
~ LI q ...... . . . .......... (1 : 5 a)
1 + c0 a0
where Cc is the compression index representing, for a normally consolidated
clay, the tangent of the slope angle of the straight part of the e - log a curve,
the so-called virgin curve, c 0 is the void ratio at the beginning of the consoli­
dation process, and o0 is the effective preconsolidation pressure (average for
the layer in question) 1 .
In Sweden, the laborious void ratio determinations are often avoided by using
the relation between strain e and logarithm of pressure (ODENSTAD, 1954)

u~ 11 -- Ii -82- log oo +_ LI q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1 ·. 5 b)
log 2 o0
where e2 is the compression index representing, for a normally consolidated clay,
the additional deformation along the virgin curve due to double load (cf. Fig. 60).
Mathematical solutions of TERZAGHI's equation of consolidation for some
other important cases of initial excess pore water pressure distribution were
given by TERZAGHI and FROHLICH in 1936.
1
It is presupposed that the thickness h of the layer is not too large and that the varialion of 0 0
and Liq with the depth z is reasonable. Otherwise, it is suggested that t he layer should be devided
into thinner layers which are studied separately. In particular, this has to be considered when the
clay layer is situated just below the dry crust.
A relation taking into account a linear increase in 00 wilh the depth z was deduced by ODEN­
STAD, 1954.

11
 An important contribution to the elucidation of the consolidation problem was
made by BroT, who treated the case of three-dimensional consolidation for
saturated clays 1 (1935) and later also for non-saturated clays (1941) on the
following assumptions:
(!) Isotropy of the clay".
(2) Reversibility of stress-strain relation under final equilibrium conditions.
(3) Linearity of stress-strain relation (Hoorrn's law).
(4) Small strains.
(5) Incompressible pore water and mineral grains.
(6) The clay obeys DARCY'S law of permeability. DARCY's coefficient k is inde­
pendent of z.
In the case of one-dimensional consolidation, cf. Fig. 9 a, the general consoli­
dation equation deduced by BIOT may be expressed in the same form as Eq.
(I:!). Then, the value of cv in Eq. (1: 1) should be replaced by c', defined by
2
1 1-2
,=--
ci·
ab
k 2
G(
)'w
1-v
)'n· 'JJ
)+Q-k ..................
.
(1.6
)

where ab and Q = coefficients whose values depend on the degree of saturation,

)) =
POISSON's ratio,
G =
shear modulus of the clay.
When the clay is saturated, a,= 1 and Q = oo, whence

, k 2G(I-·,,)
er=------
71l' 1-2·JJ
For a clay layer of depth h, with impermeable base and rectangular initial excess
pore pressure distribution, u 0 =
Llq, the solution of BroT's consolidation equation
becomes

U, -
_ , q-
LJ
a;--La,
.,,
,;;: 2 r .
Slll
( H,, - z ) exp
. (- ,,, T v )
H • .... • ... • (1: 7)
abaf ,1.YJ>i h

1-211
where a1 = -=--.,-
2 G(t-1•)
is called the final compressibility 3 , and

a1 - ai is called ihc instantaneous compressibility.

- 1 -1- a,' OJ Q

At the time t, the compression of the clay layer is

b=hAq[,'J-(a1 -a;)f ~,exp(-N'T,)] ....... (1:8)

1
1
This case was also trealcd by RENDULlC (1936).
~ According to BIOT, anisotropy could easily be inlroduced as a refinement.
3
BIOT's "final compressibility", at, corresponds to TERZA.GHI's "volume compressibility", mv.

12
Fig. 5. Relation between coefficient of permeability
and excess pore water pressure. (SCIIIFFl\IAi""{ .)
u uo
Excess pore water pressure

For the solution of more complex consolidation problems, such as consoli­

dation of stratified subsoils and two- or three-dimensional pore water flow,
HELENELUND (1951) used the calculus of fiuite differences. In this way, the
consolidation equation can also be solved in the case of varying cv and for any
law of original excess pore pressure distribution. HELENELUND's study is of great
practical importance.
The case of varying permeability and time-dependent loading was treated by
ScmFnIAN (1958), who based his equation of consolidation on the following
assumptions:
(1) The clay is saturated. Pore water and mineral grains are incompressible.
(2) The clay obeys DARCY's law of permeability instantaneously. The perme-
ability coefficient le is assumed to comply with Scmmn's (1957) relation
k = fJ (n' - n '0 ) ......... (1: 9)
·where n' = porosity,
n' 0 = initial porosity,
fJ = constant,
k = average of k.
ScHIFFl\-IAN modified Scrnnn's relation as follmvs:
le= lc0 -vcLIVv (1: 10)
where le0 initial value of le,
Ye constant,
LJV, = change in volume of voids.
Assuming that the relationship between the change in volume of voids and
the change in excess pore water pressure is linear, ScnIFFl\IAN finally obtained,
Fig. 5,
k=k 0 +aJu-u0 ) • . . . . . . • . . . . • . • • . • (1:11)
where ac 1 c1nv
1 = constant\
"o initial value of u.
1In ScnIFFMAN's paper, the coefficient of yoJumc compressibility is denoted by m, where
1n=-mv,

13
(3) The change in volume due to consolidation bears a linear relation to the
consolidation load, and is small as compared with the original volume.
In the one-dimensional case, the equation of consolidation thus becomes

-1 J (k
- - - + R - ­rlu ,7u)
m v J Z }'u· rl Z " - Jt

or a,. u 0 ) J 2 u
(c,-o- -
a,,
- --.,+--u--.,+--
2
J u <Xc (,7- u) 2
iJ u
+Ru=-···· (1: 12)
m,. I'•<' J z· mu )111• ;J z· mu 11w iJ z ,) t
in which R 11 = rate of change of imposed excess pore water pressure,
ko
C,·o= - ­
mvyu·
This differential equation is non-linear, and hence complex, but it can be
linearized by approximation procedures. One procedure suggested by Sc1nFFl\IAN
sets the condition that "the coefficient of permeability is initially constant
throughout the soil mass, and that, over a finite increment of time, it is also
constant". In other words, this is tantamount to a step-by-step reduction of
the consolidation index during the process of consolidation.
SCHIFFMAN also suggested a procedure of approximation in which the follow­
ing conditions are fulfilled:
d U 1to-U
kd k = constant = n( ko)
1
du 1 k
dk <Xc

This means that u is regarded as a linear function and an exponential function

of le at the same time, and that the latter approximates the linear relation.
This approximation leads to a solution of the case of one-dimensional consoli­
dation, which, for a constant initial excess pore water pressure throughout the
clay layer and a constant consolidation load, can be presented in the form of
Eq. (1: 2) if only Tv is replaced by the time factor T 11 for variable permeability
c 1• t
T v= ~

m which c,. = ---~-:---

k -k1
/co)
......................
0
(1:13)
mv }'"· 1n ( kl
SKEMPTON's pore pressure equation (SKEMPTON, 1954; BISHOP and HENKEL,
1

1957) was applied to the settlement analysis by SKEMPT0N and BJERRUM

1
SKE'.\IPTOX's pore pressure equation is usually written
Lfttw = B [d a:1 + ,1 (Liu, - .Ja3)]
where Lluw = pore pressure change (ttw represents Lota! pore waler pressure),
=
LI a, and LI a, changes in principal stresses,
A and B = "pore pressure coefficients".

14
 Direct effect

~ Secular effect
f:

•t
Time r log. scale)

Fig. 6. Consolidation curve for clay. (BUISMAN.)

(1957). The latter authors showed that the consolidation settlement depends
on the type and the geological history of the clay, on the thickness of the clay
bed, as well as on the shape and the size of the loaded area. The consolidation
settlement, as obtained in the conventional oedometer test, should thus be
multiplied by a coefficient !'- whose value is normally less than unity except
for very sensitive clays, where the value of µ may exceed unity . However, if
the thickness of the clay bed is small in comparison with the width or the
diameter of the loaded area, then, according to the authors, the consolidation
settlement can be estimated with reasonable accuracy for any type of clay by
a direct application of the ocdometer test results .
BRINCH HANSEN (1957) showed on the basis of the theory of elasticity that,
among other things, the value of the coefficient A to be used for a given
saturated clay is not a constant but depends on the stress history of the clay
and on the conditions of deformation.
The consolidation equations presented above give settlement curves which
tend asymptotically to finite settlement values, determined by the chosen
c.:ompressibility values. However, time-settlement curves for buildings founded
on clay layers and for laboratory samples submitted to consolidation exhibit
in most cases continued settlement even after the end of the given period of
settlement. This part of the settlement curve was shown by BUISMAN (1936) to
give an approximately straight-line relationship in the e - log t diagram. Bms­
M:AN's formula for the "final settlement" Ot of a clay layer of depth h is thus
time-dependent, and is wTitten, Fig. 6,
Ot = h Liq (ap + as log t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1: 14)

where a 11 and as are empirically determined constants.

15
.1,
0
::,. ",1---t---~
Fig. 7. Effect of secondary compression on void
ratio in the course of consolidation. (TAYLOR
and l\IERCHANT.)
'1 0-2
lntergranular pressure

According to BUISI\'I.AN, ap represents the direct effect and a 8 the secular

effect on the compression curve. Usually that period of compression which is
considered in TERZAGHI's Ia,v of pore pressure dissipation is called the primary
or hydrodynamic period, while the subsequent period represents the secondary
or secular period.
Formulas combining the results of TERZAGIII's and BuISfiL\..i'l's investigations
were later derived by KOPPE.JAN (1948), who gave an expression for the final
settlement utilizing Eqs. (I: 5 a) and (I: 14), and by ZEEVAEm' (1957), who de­
duced an expression for the settlement during the complete consolidation process
using Eqs. (1: 4) and (1: 14). According to ZEEVAERT, the intersection point of
the secondary line and the tangent through the inflection point of the primary
settlement curve in the e - log t diagram does not correspond to 100 % primary
consolidation as is conventionally assumed, but to a consolidation ratio defined
by the time ta when the rates of settlement Jb/Jt for primary and secondary
consolidation are equal.
BurSl\IAN's formula was also utilized by SUKLJE (1955, 1957), who derived
an expression for the pore water pressure at the impermeable base of a "single­
drained" layer, u 11' assuming parabolic pore water pressure isochroncs and validity
of DARCY'S law of permeability. Thus, when the time which has passed is so
long that u1i has become less than the load increment, he found

'll1t=
h;yw a,(1 +e) ................... (l: 15)
4.61 k t
where h, = that part of thickness h which corresponds to solid substance,
e == a.verage void ratio at the time t,
Lie
ae == lim
Llt+o I t + d t
og t

The first published attempt to determine theoretically the influence of secular

effects on the consolidation process was made by TAYLOR and MERCHANT
(1940). If the void ratio e is expressed by a function of the effective inter-

16
 granular pressure a and the time t, e = f (a, t), then the rate of compression is
defined by
de de ,Je da
- = - +--= - . . . . ............... (1: 16)
dt ot Jo dt
Here TAYLOR and :MERCHANT postulate that the rate of secular compression is
proportional to the yet undeveloped secular compression 1 (cf. Fig. 7), i.e.

~:= - ,lle o'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1: 17)

where µ c = constant,
o's = undeveloped part of secular compression.
A solution of Eq. (1: 16), combined with Eq. (1: 17), is given in the special
case of constant Je/,7a = - av [av is the coefficient of primary (theoretical) com­
pressibility] and this case is met with if µet is assumed to be zero. According to
the authors, this simplification involves only minor inaccuracies at small values
of µet. Introducing the " aggregate consolidation ratio" Ua referred to the com­
bination of primary and secondary changes in void ratio, the following solution
1s obtained:

- c)
Ua=b = °"
1 { <I\r +
1 - L, Ni Nt([)2 ( ([)3 - 1 ) exp [( <P1 + .,, )
<i.>2
1'v] -
1 N p

<P-<P2 }
- ;,,N' (<Ps + 1) exp [(<P1 - <P2) Tv] · · · · · · · · · · · (1 : 18)
where
(J) = _I_(F + N)2 F = µ c av )lw 71
1
2 a ' a 1°p k (1 + eo} i

rP 2 =~ \l(Fa + N 2 )2 -4rpFaN 1

(/) 3 = (J.l (W1 + rpN 2 )

~i
rp = "primary compression ratio" = ratio of the primary compresswn
to the total compression.
The final settlement o, is defined by
01 = rp (/~f- eo) h !lq . . .. .. .. . .. ... ..... . (1: 19)
TAYLOR (1942) also presented another theory which includes effects of plastic
structural resistance during the primary portion of compression but does not
cover the secondary portion of compression. The plastic structural resistance
1
This law of compression, with reference to primary instead of secular compression, was shown by
HELENELUND (1951) to hold true during the later stage of the hydrodynamic period, as defined by
TERZAGHI.

17
 Total pressure

-',, 1hcrement t1f:r

Effective
.pressure

'' ihcrement
r:.' .di:J
'

/day a;
Time (log. scale) /ntergranu/ar pressure

Fig. 8. Primary pressure vs. void ratio curve for clay, according to TAYLOH.

of the clay skeleton is resolved into two components, viz., a bond resistance ab
and a viscous structural resistance Ov· The occurrence of bond resistance is
ascribed to previous secondary compression during which a structural reaITange~
ment of soil grains into stronger formations has taken place. Therefore, the
primary pressure vs. void ratio curve based on values obtained in the oedometer
test at 100 % primary consolidation (cf. CASAGRANDE and FADUJ.vI, 1940) at the
conventional one-day loading intervals ( conventional primary line) practically
ahvays involves a certain amount of bond resistance, Fig. 8.

Replacing the coefficient of theoretical compressibility, a, =- L1 ~ , by

Lia
e-e',=a(u+av) (1: 20)

where e\ void ratio at the end of primary compression,

a !!:!_=coefficient of total compressibility,

Tp
_Je
-,7 iJt
'I constant of proportionality,
the equation of consolidation, if in other respects founded on TERZAGI-n's con-
cepts, becomes
Je J'e _ J'e
J t - c,, iJ z" - Cp a 17 iJ t iJz' = 0 .............. (1: 21)

where k (1 + e0 )
Cp=
ayw
18
 I
" "" :: u
~
" u_..,ll 11

= ~
=
=
t ' --,~

/a) (CJ

Load

(b) (d)

Fig. 9. Rheological models for consolidation of clay skeleton. (a) BIOT, (b) TAYLOR,
(c) TAN, and (d) MURAYAMA and SHIBATA.

The consolidation ratio referred to the primary changes in void ratio, U =

~ '1 - ~, differs in this case from the "dissipation ratio", referred to the hydro-
e 1-e 2
static excess pressure dissipation ratio, U' =
1 - ~ . Thus, the average con­
r vif q
solidation of a single-drained layer of depth h having a rectangular initial excess
pore pressure distribution is
2
U= l-exp(-T'\+I- [exp(-T')-exp(--T~k)]
. JJ xN' .T J+N-'.
(1:22)

and the dissipation ratio U' is determined by

1
it=r'v!.lq fN'(J!N-')sin(N;,)exp(- 1 + ~_,) ......... (1:23)
1
,vhere the new variables '1\ and J are
T - Cp t
1c- h'
J = Cpal}
h2
In TAYLOR's consolidation theory, the clay skeleton can be regarded rheologi­
cally as a Kelvin body, Fig. 9 b. In order that the secondary after-effects might

19
also be taken into consideration, TAN (1954, 1957) developed a consolidation
theory where the clay skeleton is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic,
and to have the rheological properties of a Poynting and Thomson body,
Fig. 9 c. Assuming, furthermore, validity of DARCY'S law and incompressible
pore water, the following one-dimensional consolidation equation was obtained
for a fat saturated elay:
Jw ................. (1:24,)
dz

where w = displacement in z-direction,

7
1' = '
Jt =-
IIE.AVISIDE 's operator,

2 G(l + ,,,)
e 3(1-21•,)
G '71'
1/J
17p + G
G modulus of shear,
- PorssoN's ratio for the elastic part of the soil skeleton,
1) shear viscosity of the soil skeleton.
The following solution of Eq. (1:24) is obtained for a "single-drained" elay
layer of depth h having a rectangular initial excess pore pressure distribution,
Uo = ,dq,
h L1 q '(' [ l - ( l - g 2)exp (- g-
o=w(O)=--L,
2
t)
fJ .N ,lls

2
" )
( 1+g·,,1
2
exp ('-;;:-
g '" - t) (1-g·") exp (-µ,]
t) g
2

~ P(w,J.,),,, ,-" .. · (1: 25)

N' UJ - I
and

tt = .dq 'v 2 . (
~ z)
N sm N h exp - " - P (w, As)t..,1 , ~ (g'wt) ...... (1: 26)
,\· ' 8

where g2 = l+ Jle
3 (1-,,,,)
,lls = !}_
G
,
l, 8 = _ '
c v ,lls ~p r k 2 G(l-in)
h,2 1\
, Cv= )'w 1-2 'JJe

- (1-.1.,) ± V(1-.1.,r + 4 g'2,

2 g'
p ( , ) _ (w + 1) J..,
w, 1•s - " 2
g~w + /.s'
20
In Eqs. (1: 25) and (1 : 26), a and u should be computed as the sums of their
values for w 1 and w 2 •
Eq. ( 1: 25) shows that the final settlement determined according to TAN is
one to three times that computed according to BIOT.
For the theoretical solution of the case of secondary consolidation MuRAYAl\IA
and SHIBATA ( 1959) applied the rheological model given in Fig. 9 d .

Consolidation of Clay Layer Provided with Drain Wells

According to BARRON (1948), that equation of unsteady flow of heat which is

identical with the consolidation equation in the case of symmetrical radial flow
in planes at right angles to a drain well, Fig. 10, was first deduced and solved
by GLOVER ( 1930) 1 •
Load

1111111
. R
Central dram
Impermeable
boundary
surfaces

Fig. 10. Zone of influence of drain well in radial

consolidation.

BARRON made the following basic assumptions:

(1) The clay is saturated and homogeneous.
(2) All compressive strains within the soil mass occur m a vertical direction.
(3) No vertical pore water flow.
(4) Validity of DARCY's law of permeability. The permeability coefficient k is
independent of Q·
(5) The pore water and the mineral grains are incompressible in comparison
with the clay skeleton.
(6) The load increment is initially carried by excess pore water pressure u.
(7) No excess pressure in the drain well.
(8) The zone of influence of each well is a cylinder.
1
It has not been possible for the Author to procure a copy of GLOYER's paper.

21
 In cylindrical coordinates the consolidation equation becomes

JJu = c1, (-1:.. r-J:Ju + ,,J:p ~) ................. (1: 27)

t gfF e
where clt = consolidation index for horizontal pore ,vater flow,
u =
excess pore water pressure at the time t,
=
e radius vector from the central axis.
Later Eq. (1: 27) was independently deduced and solved by RENDULIC (1935),
who also verified the solution experimentally.
A careful analysis of Eq. (1: 27) was made by BARRON (1944, 1948), who
also investigated the effect of \vell resistance and smear, i.e. influence of a
remoulded zone formed around the drains during driving. BARRON showed
that the simplified extreme case of equal vertical strains1 gives almost the same
numerical value of the average consolidation as does the more complicated
extreme case of free strain. This simplification had also been made previously
by KJELLMAN in 1937 (1948; STA'£ENS GEOTEIWISKA lNSTITUT, 1949). His
solution for radial drainage under the boundary conditions u = 0 at 12 = cl/2
and ,7 u / J 12 = 0 at 11 = D/2 may be written'

u= u 0 exp [ -
8
- F - -
(1;/)] ................. (1: 28)
D
, h' l J' ft== C1,
1ll W IC 1 D~' t - == average Of
U, 'll,

Thus, the time of consolidation, t, is

D'
t= Sc,,F (D
cl ) ln 1
_U ................. (1:29)
1

whereF(i) = i-(~)' In(~)-:+ : (ir

eh coefficient of consolidation for horizontal pore water flO\v (assumed
to be constant throughout the consolidation process),
D diameter of zone of influence of a drain well (= 2R),
cl = diameter of drain well ( 2r), =
U = average consolidation ratio.
In the case of free strain and radial drainage only, and under the previously
given boundary conditions, the excess pore water pressure at any point f2 is
(BARRON, 1944)
1
In this case the left-hand member of Eq. (1: 27) should be replaced by JU, where 1l is the aver;:i.ge
of u. r7t
~ A comparison between different methods of solution was made by ODENSTAD in 1947. He
compared l(JELL::.\IAN's solution with other solutions, e.g. that of the corresponding flow-of-heat
equation, and found the difference in results to be negligible.

22
 [
· exp -· 4 a· "(D)'
d ] 1'1, . . . . • • • • . . • . • . . . • • • (1: 30)

where the initial excess pore pressure u 0 is assumed to be constant throughout

the soil,
J 0 ( ) and J 1 ( ) are Bessel functions of first kind of zero and first order,
respectively,
Y0 ( ) and Y1 ( ) are Bessel functions of second kind of zero and first order,
respectively,
ai, a2 , •••• are roots of the equation

J1 (af) Y(a)-Y (af) J (a)= 0

0 1 0

The radial consolidation rates at different concentric surfaces obtained in this

case for ~ = 10 are shown in Fig. 11.
The average degree of consoliclation 1 is found from
JI
Jug de u
U = 1 - -',~,--­ = 1- _ ............. (1: 31)
j1to[2dQ
,.
As was shown by BARRON (1948), the consolidation time could be considerably
increased by smear or ,vell resistance or both. I-Iowever, according to KJELLMAN
(1948), the in!luence of these !actors for a clay without coarse-grained layers
is comparatively small.
The calculus of finite differences was applied by RICHART (1957).
SCI-IIFFMA.1--.r (1958) considered the case of equal strain and varying perme­
ability or varying load, or both (cf. p. 13).
For constant load, varying permeability, and radial drainage only, the follow­
ing equation of consolidation is obtained for a saturated clay:

(0 "
U
- + C1) ('d)! U
02
+ _!:_
o Jo
d U) = cl U
J t ·· · · · · · · · · · ·
(l .· 3~)
-
Uo i::: i::: '-

. 1· I k,-k1, Cf = k;
Ill W UC 1 Ca =mv J w
1 mv }'w
Introducing the boundary conditions
,z1, = 0 at Q = r, and
Ju
,-=0 at e=R,
0(2
1
Degree of consolidation = consolidation ratio.
23
 1----+-1-----1------1-----+--+-----j 90 ~
~
~
h',--t- ..-------1------+--+------t--i 80 "g
;jl

~-t--'Mc'-----t----+---+-- -t-~ ~ !iii"

.....
~ ~
c: 1,01------1---~~ - 1-----+--__..,.,;..i----'<\----+-----+---+---l---l 60 ;jl
~ ~
~ ;jl
1~
§
~~
u ~
c'i 60f----P<=-.:::---=--f----t--.j__--P-s,------,-½-----t-- --t- -+-----i 40 o
~ '
t s·
~ 70 30 [
~
eo1 - - - - - - - -- 1---___,1----,..---11-- ..::,..,,.---1----'....___,__1-----+--+----l 20 ~
~

11)

C:
/Oc::,

100'-------'-----'----'----l..---L----'----- - ' --'----J.____, o

O.OI 2 4 6 8 OJ 2 4 6 8 I
eh t
Time factor T. •
h 2
0
Fig. ll. Radial consolidation rates at different concentric surfaces. (BARRON.)
"Free strain" hypothesis.

we obtain the solution

u = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1: 33)

where u 2 u 0 exp

F (;) as aboYe

T - CJ t
,- Dt

24
Eq. (1: 33) can be rewritten
l~r 34
U=l
lc1 + lc 0
J exp [ 8(~{)] - 11 ·........... (l: )
l -F -
D
I
Thus, using ScHIFFl\IAN's concept of linear variation in average permeability,
Fig. 5, a solution is obtained in terms of initial and final permeability coefficients,
whose values have to be known.
ScrnFF:i'dAN has also extended his theory so as to include the effect of smear.
If the solutions of Eq. (1: 1) and Eq. (1: 27) are known, then the solution of
the three-dimensional flow equation
r7u __ t7 2 it, ({Pit , _!._ t71.l) ............ (1:35)
() t - Ca
{) + C1i (sr
} ., , J
e e
is easily found according to CARRILLO (1942). Thus, if under certain specified
boundary conditions it,/it 0 = f, (z, t) is a solution of Eq. (1: 1) and it0 /tt 0 =
= f 2 (12, t) is a solution of Eq. (1: 27), then under same boundary conditions
=
1t/1t 0 (u,/u0 ) (it 0 /u 0 ) is the solution of Eq. (1: 35). The latter solution is also
applicable to the average excess pore water pressure.

12. Discussion
As regards the mathematical treatment of the consolidation equation. it was
generally assumed that the coefficient of consolidation of the clay remains
constant throughout the consolidation process. This approach led to the classical
solution of the equation of consolidation (TERZAGHI, 1923, 1925; Brn'r, 1941).
The disagreement between theoretical and actual rate of consolidation was
ascribed to difficulties in taking representative and undisturbed samples for
consolidometer tests and to visco-elastic phenomena or plastic behaviour of
the clay. Theories were thus developed on the basis of visco-elastic concepts
(TAYLOR, 1942; TAN, 1954), but these theories resulted in very intricate equa­
tions, which are at present almost entirely of academic interest.
The assumption of a constant value of the coefficient of consolidation through­
out the consolidation process has been questioned occasionally but is considered
to be fairly reasonable for inorganic clays (cf. HELENELUND, 1951; BUISSON,
1953).
ScHIFJT'i\IAN's approach is equivalent to a decrease in coefficient of consoli­
dation cv (clt) with the time of consolidation. This has been noticed in experi­
ments with highly compressible soils, such as mud and peat (HELENELUND,
1951), and in studying results obtained in practice. Experiments indicate, hmv­
ever, that the value of cv (c,J increases at a given initial void ratio with in­
creasing magnitude of the load increment that produces the consolidation
(TERZAGHI and PECK, 1948), and this phenomenon is not explained by ScmFF­
l\IAN's theory.

23
 One of the reasons for the discrepancy between theoretical and practical re­
sults that is at times observed seems to lie in the basic assumption of unlimited
validity of D,mcy's law of permeability for clays 1 . The possibility of deviations
from this bw has been suggested by several authors' (see e.g. BRENNER, 1946;
SILFVERBERG, in STATENS GEOTEICi'l'ISKA lNSTITUT, 1949; BUISSON, 1953).
Later experiments on permeability of clay soils have revealed a break-down of
DARCY's law for low porosities (WrnTERICORJ,, 1954; Scm\IID, 1957) and in the
ease of low hydraulic gradients (SILFYERBERG, in STA'.l'ENS GEOTEIGHSICA
INSTITUT, 1949; BurssoN, 1953; Ktzor, 1958) 3 • This is of great importance and
has to be considered in studying the consolidation phenomenon.
l\ioreover, thixotropic phenomena may influence the rate of pore pressure
dissipation, particularly in the beginning of the consolidation process.
In the Author's opinion the application of the theory of elasticity to the
solution of the consolidation problem may give rise to a false and misleading con­
ception of the consolidation phenomenon. As is well known, a certain degree of
elasticity of clay does exist, but consolidation is undoubtedly a phenomenon of
successive internal shear overstress" rather than a phenomenon of pure elasticity.
The incongruity of assuming clay to be purely elastic throughout the consolidation
process (see e.g. BIOT, 1935 and 1941) is made evident by the results obtained by
JOSSELrn DE JONG (1957) in the case of a semi-infinite solid loaded uniformly
over a circular area of its surface, and also by the results obtained by GIBSON
and McNAl'.IEE (1957) in the case of a rectangular uniformly loaded area on the
surface of a semi-infinite solid. Thus assuming a given constant value of the
modulus of shear G, the final consolidation settlement will never exceed the
instantaneous elastic settlement which is attained only when P0ISS0N's ratio v
tends to zero. Practical results shmv that an apparent decrease of G is necessary
if the result is to hold true, whereas, reasonably, increasing consolidation would
cause increasing apparent G.
The final consolidation settlement Iiµ, ef. Eqs. (1: 5 a-b), is in general con­
sidered to represent fairly well the compression obtained in a natural clay deposit
under the action of a superimposed load except where the thickness of the clay
layer is large in comparison with the diameter of the loaded area (cf. BUISSON,
1053; SKEMPTON and BJERRUM, 1957).
The correction factor µ introduced by SKEMPTON and BJERRUM (1957) may
be necessary in certain cases when dealing ,vith consolidation of an undisturbed
l DARCY's Jaw of permeability (DARCY, 1856) was originally established for saturated silicious
sand from the river SaOne, having a pore volume of approximately :is%,
.: : As early as in 19,g, DERY~\GIN and KRYLOV proved experimentally the non-rnlidity of DARCY's
law for ceramic and carbon filters having a maximum average pore diameter of 0.1,u. In some cases
they even found the existence of a threshold value of the hydraulic gradient which had to be
exceeded before flow took place .
.:i The excellent monograph on flow through porous media presented by SCHEIDEGGER (1957) gives

an idea of the present state of knowledge about the physical principles of hydrodynamics in porous
media. In his book, SCHEIDEGGER also discusses the chemico-physical causes of anomalies with
respect to DARCY's law.
"- The term "internal shear overstress" is used here to denote the rearrangement of mineral grains
occurring as a result of a disturbance of the internal state of equilibrium.

26
clay layer. However, for a clay layer provided with vertical sand drains, the
disturbance due to driving of drains ,vill cause additional settlements, which are
not yet accurately known. Therefore, in this case the practical utility of the
factor ,u may be questioned.
Moreover, in the case of cla.y of high plasticity I' is difficult to find in the
laboratory. Thus, for a saturated clay, ,u depends, according to the authors, on
(1) SKE1IPTON's pore pressure coefficient Ji (cf. p. 14), and (2) the size and
the shape o! the loaded area. The value o! the coefficient Ji has been determined
by pore pressure measurements in the undrained triaxial test. For a normally
<!onso!idated clay, the value o! Ji has generally been found to vary from 0.5 to 1
but Ji may exceed unity for a quick clay.
However, the pore pressure measurements carried out in the triaxial test are
not reliable in dealing with clays of high plasticity. This is partly due to the
n1easuring device. Thus, a relatively large amount of air will be trapped between
the rubber membrane and the sample even if great precautions are taken against
this (cf. BISHOP and HENKEL, 1957, p. 180). Moreover, the capillaries and the
filters are filled with water in a way that is not satisfactory because air may
be trapped in them. Trapped air can cause considerable errors in pore pressure
measurements. In those carried out by the Author (cf. Section 21), even a small
.amount of air trapped in the capillaries made quick and reliable measurements
impossible. Nothing but vacuum treatment was sufficient to exhaust the air
from the capillaries in the desired degree.
Another cause of the unreliability of the results lies in a possible variation in
pore pressure at different points of the specimen, Such a variation might result
in considerable errors, particularly below the preconsolidation pressure ( cf.
Section 21).
Other difficulties are also involved (cf. BRINCH }LrnSEN, 1957; SKEl\IPTON
and BISHOP, 1954).
It is evident that the determination of the coefficient 11 in the laboratory
-can be impaired by errors, which are difficult to predetermine.

2. Investigation of Consolidation Process by Means of

Consolidometer Tests

20. Introduction

Laboratory investigations of the consolidation process are carried out by means of

oedometer tests or other similar consolidomcter tests. In this paper, Hoedometer"
,vill stand for the conventional type of consolidometer with drainage of the
sample at top or bottom or both, while '~consolidometer" will stand for another
type of eonsolidometer used at the Institute, with drainage by a central cylindri­
cal drain, and for a consolidometer in general.

27
 During a consolidometcr test, a clay specimen is subjcclcd to a knmvn axial
pressure and to a lateral pressure wl10se magnitude may be estimated from the
condition that no lateral deformations of the specimen arc allowed to take place.
1n reality the axial pressure is affected by '"friction" 1 between the sample and
the consolidomcter ring, whatever precautions are ta.ken to prevent it. I-Iowever,
this source of error may usually be reduced to a negligible order of magnitude.
Of course it is important to know as well as possible the influence of these
and other factors in order to be able to interpret the results of consoliclometer
tests and to use them for practical purposes.
Laboratory research on consolidation of clay, such as pore water pressure
investigations, investigations of friction between the sample and the consolido­
meter ring, investigations of disturbance developed in sample preparation, etc.,
has been carried out by several autbors (RUTLEDGE, 1939; TAYLOR, 1942; VAN
ZELST, 1948; Muns and KANY, 1954; ARAI, 1055; etc.). The purpose of the
present investigation is to study in the laboratory the excess pore water pressure
created in a saturated clay during the oedometer test and to examine the amount
of friction between the soil sample and the oedometer ring.

21. Variation of Pore Water Pressure during Consolidation Process

Description of Test Apparatus and Testing Procedure

The pore water pressure n1easurements were carried out in two different types
of apparatus.
In the first type of apparatus, shown in Fig. 12 a, drainage is allowed by
a filter disc covering the piston plate of the ocdometer, the conditions of con­
solidation in the sample being in all other respects the same as those in the
standard oedometer test. Dy using a special device, the pore water pressure
can be measured at the impermeable base of the sample at three different
distances from the centre of the bottom plate. Thus three concentric filter rings
made of porous glass arc cnchased in the bottom plate of the consolidometer,
and are connected by means of glass capillaries to a counter-pressure regulator,
making it possible to measure the water pressures in the filters when the con­
dition of no pore water flow through the filters is fulfilled. The filter rings are
3 mm in width, and 18, 36, and 54 mm in mean diameter. The capillaries are
0.30 mm in inside diameter, and arc provided \Yith millimetre scales and stop
cocks. The flow of water through the capillaries can be observed by the travel
of a gas bubble produced in them. V\7hcn the pore water pressure is to be
measured in a filter, the stop cock of the capillary belonging of this filter is
opened, and the outer counter-pressure is controlled in such a way that the
inner end of the gas bubble is kept in a constant position.
In the second type of apparatus, shown in Fig. 12 b, drainage is allowed by
a filter disc covering the fixed base of tl1e oedometer, and the pore ,vater pressures
1
The term "friction" is used here, and in what follows, in the sense of bond ralher than in the
sense of pure friction.

28
Fig. 12 a. Oedometer used for pore water pressure investigations. Type I. L eft-hand top,
from left to right: Oedometer, counter-pressure regulator (pressure balance), and mercury
manometer. Right-hand top: Oedometer with capillaries, dial gauge, thermometer, and
water bath surrounding oedometer ring. D etails: (A) Bottom plate with capillaries
("Measuring part") . (a) Filter rings. (b) Enchased rubber r ing. (B ) Oedometer ring, 60.5
mm in inner diamet er. (C) Piston plate and top filter ("Dewatering part"). (D) Glass
capillaries with millimetre scales a.ncl stop cocks. Gas bubbles visible in
graduated part of capillaries.
 Fig. 12 b. Oedometer used for
pore water pressure investiga­
tions. Type II. Top: Ocdomctcr
with two measuring capillaries
and capillary allowing water
escape when mounting sample.
Bottom: (A) Bottom plate and
bottom filter. (B) Oedometer
ring. (C) Piston plate with capil­
laries. (a) Filter ring and central
filter disc. (b) Filter disc allow­
ing water escape when mounting
sample.

are measured at the piston plate, which is in this case impermeable. A central
filter disc, 12 mm in diameter, and an outer filter ring, 2 mm in width and
48 mm in mean diameter, made of porous glass are enchased in the piston plate,
and the pore water pressures are studied in the same manner as described above.
To reduce friction between clay and oedometer ring, the ring was greased
inside with molybdenum sulphide. Furthermore, for the same reason but also
in order to prevent physico-chemica] interaction between clay and oedometcr·
ring, its interior part was made of Teflon (polytetrafluorine-ethylene).
The sample was mounted as follows: To begin with, the air was exhausted from
the filters and the capillaries. For this purpose, the "measuring part" of the con-­
soliclometer, with stop cocks open and glass tubes sealed at their outer ends,
and the "dewatering part" of the consolidometer were placed in a vacuum,.
Fig. 13 a. '\Vhen vacuum was finally developed, distilled water was poured on_

30
Fig. 13 a. Arrangement for developing
vacuum in filters and capillaries. Con­
tainer at the top, turned upside-down,
is used in filling filters and capillaries
with water. To the right, a \¥oulfe
vacuum bottle.
Fig. 13 b. Arrangement for mounting of
sample. (A) Sample tube made of glass­
fibcr-reinforced polyester resin. (B) Ocdo­
metcr ring. (C) Piston plate.

top of the filters so that, when after this procedure the vacuum container was
again filled with air, the water was forced into the filters and the capillaries by
the air pressure, and filled them completely.
The sample mounted in the eonsolidometer ring, the latter being fixed to the
piston of the consolidometer during the mounting process, Fig. 13 b, was then
brought into contact with the bottom plate, which was covered with water so
as to prevent air bubbles from being trapped between the sample and the plate.
Finally, before a capillary ,vas connected with the pressure regulator, the
flow-indicating gas bubble was produced in the graduated part of the capillary
between the stop cock and the connection point. A length of 4 to 5 mm seemed
to be enough for the gas bubble to act as a perfect indirntor throughout the test.
Experience showed that the readings had to be taken very swiftly at a large
rate of pore water pressure decrease, ,vhile at a low rate of decrease, particularly
during the secular part of consolidation, every reading required approximately
five to ten minutes.
To avoid the influence of varying temperature on the results, the consolido­
meter ring was surrounded by water whose temperature ,vas kept as nearly
constant as possible under the experimental conditions. Thus the observed maxi-
1num difference behveen maximum and minimum temperatures of the water
bath was 0.6° C.

31
 Any amount of air, however small, trapped between the sample and the gas
bubble in a capillary made it difficult or impossible to take swift readings of
the pore water pressure, which were particularly necessary in the beginning of
the consolidation process. The presence of entrapped air was to be suspected,
especially in the stop cock. However, this was easily detected before a test by
varying the counter-pressure with t he stop cock shut. If entrapped air was
present, then the position of gas bubble varied with the pressure. The vacuum
method proved to be the only efficient way of getting rid of entrapped air.

Discussion of Test Results

Some typical results of the measurements are given in :Figs. 14 t o 16. To facil i­
tate the interpretation of these results they have been partly represented in
a more appropriate manner in Figs. 17 and 19 to 20.
The distribution of pore water pressure over the impermeable base of the
sample is shown in Fig. 17. When the applied load is below t he preconsoli­
<lation load, the pore water pressure is fa irly uniformly distributed over the
central parts of the base, but decreases rapidly t owards its periphery, where
about zero pressure may occur. The a bove pore pressure distribution seems to
change when the preconsolidation pressure as obtained by CASAGRANDE's method
(CASAGRANDE, 1936) is just being exceeded, cf. I?ig. 18. After this instant the pore
pressure is nearly uniformly distributed all over the base. Exceptions t o t he rule
have been found, e.g. in the case of Sample 9104. However, for this sample,
the preconsolidation pressure is hard to estimate as it has obviously been sub­
mitted to considerable disturbance (see Fig. 18).
The results obtained show that the pore pressure distribution over the base
of t he oedometer is passably representative of that in an infinitely extended
and uniformly loaded clay layer submitted to consolidation, only if the pre­
consolidation load has been exceeded. This should be considered in the case of
an overconsolidated clay, where, obviously, the oedometer test may not be re­
presentative.
The pore water pressure dissipation obtained above the preconsolidation load
from the oedometer t est represented in Fig. 14 and that calculated from TER­
ZAGHI's equation of consolidation, Eq. (1: 1) 1 , can be compared in Fig. 19. When
the load is below t he preconsolidation load the dissipation curves given in Fig. 14
bear no r esemblance to the theoretical curve, while a certain resemblance is
observed when the load is above or equal to the preconsolidation value. How­
ever, a decrease in pore water pressure occurs before the instant of decrease
determined according to TERZAGHI. The latter phenomenon has always appeared
1
A better expression for the excess pore water pressure is found if TERZAGHI's equation of
consolidation is solYed by operational mathematics (see CHURCHILL, 1!)44). Then, at the imperme­
a ble surface, the pore pressure becomes

u11 = Liq [ I - ~
L, ( - I )m 2 erfc 211i+17
~
m= O 2\/Tv -
and this series has a better convergence than has the exponential series, Eq. (1: 2).

32
 Time of consolida/ion, m min
01 10 ,o2 ,o3
) 4 F, A J 4 F. R J 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 lt4
01---+'- -+'-__.=;--t--+-+-+ +=f-t-+--4-+-+-+
-i~=--=.-r-·-·-··=r·-F
= -·-·~.a-
l++ -t: •~'· O-Ol<!<o1cm - - - ,
+--+--+--1·-+1- ·- - .-1 ---- _ · O.Z2- a" kg I hri,l
5
l---+---+--1-~---'---+---+-+-+----
1 1
+ -'--~• -~ J..J_
·1----~~~~~f!1- j I I

10 F"'9===!'-t'"9"'-t--·t--..+~:;;±::l---t---l-rl+-t--t--t--l-r--l
--- ----- - ... r-..

~
0
~ 15 l---+-- -1----l---l--1----+--+--+--+-+----+--+--+-,,._·k----1----+---+,--+-<+--
'·~::T kg en"

,_._ 20 1--+--+----l--l-l--+-- +-++-l-- l--+-+-+-l--l---=::;-- , -4=:;::l---f----1

_, I - - ,.
S
c:.·
••-+--+-+----+- -···- ---·- ,..._._ - - ·-• r--.. r-,-. - --1( •1.70-257 kg/en
(' 2
0 i-. _ _
25
-~ Sample Na. i50'9
' /n,/ial ~~I Heig~t-19.2,r m
g.
,& lntf,al
30 l---+-- -+- + - ~ -- +---+---+-+-+---+="-"-F='-l""F.+-''-=--'-4-----l-+-+--!----l
~ oter 1
co)te, t .. 58 (ll
.._, liquid r·m,t
t9 ¼
Plastic t,m,t 29
1
¾ ;
35 1 - --+---l--+--+--1------+- -+--+--+-+------+S~h-•a_,_s+/'_e,,;ng~h--+~-!k.:..
+- g /,_cc-;rrr_ _ --l---+--+-+----l
SensllMty • 14
3
09 l--- -+---1---+--+-+---+---l--+--+-+-- ---hu_n,_·1_w-,+:g~h-l·;.1.5_si+'g-'l--cm~--+-----+-+-+-l---l
Legend : ~ Par water prrssure T eosure<.
,n Inner filter lrmg I
~ 1Por1e t...ater ~ssure measured
o.s l---+----+---l-+-l-...:.....-+---1-+-l--l----l--+-"-l-+--L-.,..,.:...-1---+--+-++-----I
9

m Puter f,ftery mg I
D
0
'\,.....,1'--,.0 ; ~Of~ rOfer pISSUfe reO. 'µred
.,. b...,~~~ m nfermed10 ftlter r,g
07 !---+-----+-----+--l'--l-------1------1--1-+:- --·r~
~~ . ,- •0.82 - 100 kg/en 2
OS l---+---1--+--+-+---+-·--+-1-+---1-- +-- -+-+-+~-- ----+---+----1--+--;
~~

E ,.,_
OS 1---+---+---l-+-l---+---+- µ.'-1"-+----+--+--1-+-1---- -1---l--+-++----I
\
u ~ \
~
. £; 0/.
' ~ oii • l.7!J,-25
•I},
kl/, '(n
2
'

...~ ~
f ::, I~
~~
••;,..

~ o..., -~r\ \
~ I~~ \

1~ Q2 '
~
\
··, I'\

0
0.4 l--- + ----+-I--H---1----+--+-++---+---l!--+-+-l----+---+-1--H--l

Fig. 14. Pore water pressure dissipation in consolidometer test at impermeable base of
day specimen (or at "midplane" of specimen drained at top and bottom). The respective
values of L1a refer to the loads before and after the application of a new load increment.
Observations made by means of oedometer shown in Fig. 12 a. Pore pressures in inner
filter ring, full-line curves; in intermediate filter ring, dash-and-dot-line curves;
in outer filter ring, dash-line curves.
a
 DI ;
0

081---+--l-+-'-+---+--l-+++----+'~•g~•~•d'--fS~•~•+~~''+·'~'l----+----f--l--l-f--

071---+--+---+-l-+--+-+-++l----l---l'---l--l+-+-+++I--
.
06f-------l--t----t-l-r•.~--i;f;·-~+-+--t-t--f------+-+-t-+--t--h-+1-
1 05 t---l---+---1--H--· +---·'--!~~N---+--l--1-++--l---+--++-1--
1 o, r~~cl~
~
@ OJ
...,.J57 ]l~"'-~"
1~'\\\·_+-++l----l---l-l-l+-
0.. c ,.,,..,,_., ..,,.. j_._ ~~ A r.U• :.?-1.621~/cm2

i~
<11 01
'~~
~,
~ ~
0 ~.j...._..)._)._)..ll__l..,__).._LJJ_j__J_J~~~=bb!d
i
a, 1----1-.-+--t-1-.--+--+--+-1
1I
.. 1 i
OJ 1---+---t-+-1·---~ _---.; ;:
I ['-i'---
02
! . ~t
f----t-+,++-+-+-+-f"l~:--+-----r-1-++---+-++~-I-,
i

[ I ••1·,'2·0.'1Ngj,m'2
.L-l-J-ilLL_L[1I1
'
01

o
. I -rr·. ~:=jr"~--~§·~-bJ·-LLill
~-+--I--+++-" ~--~ ~. i,;:::::T""··
I
-7 ")'..
I'-~
"";.
....,_I_ -.\...._,....,~~ -~/",,,~)
t1
n-o,21,~·lcm
/C--1--4-1-1-- -
·
/I

11

0.1
2 4 6 8I 2 t 6 8 lO 2 t 6 8
102
2 I, 5 8 toJJ.1,1,

Fig. 15. Pore water pressure dissipation in consolidometer test at impermeable base of clay
specimen. The respective values of Lia refer to the loads before and after the application
of a new load increment. Observations made by means of oedometer shown in Fig. 12 a.
Pore pressures in inner filter ring, full-line curves; in intermediate filter ring, dash-and-
dot-Iine curves; in outer filter ring, dash-line curves.
 Time of consofidafion, i'n mm
01
thR/0) t
0 ' ' I I I I I
I i I I I I ka.ai2-bt21<g/Jm2 1
I
I ' '

1 i ,I '

1 I
----r----
15 f--+---J-f-f-\---+----1-t-+1--+----11"--P"r-cs'~'~·0~'2~-f""~'~"'f''rm~·'++t--/
} -- 1 -t--+-W...J
.,, i==r==r=t=rr-+=+cc!:tf=--i--J-Ht-t--{-H17
20 1
11 1

t 25 r--t--i-tti--t--i-ttt------,~--,--ftt'~':;"'='~'r--=":'~'='t~c=m=;~!j!:::j 1

,:130
~ f==F=flFR==t==i==~H::::=t--+::;::~~II ~2'~ ~"lLlJJJ'I j
1

,,.,J,,,,,/,m·
~1,g/
35 r---+--+--+-t-+--r---+--c+--ct+---+---<--<-+-+----+---+---t--l-lf---t
2 m ,:at /.070rr 'n
1
I
09 f--+---l-+--+--f----+-- ....... .

OB f-----+----l-+--1--
•
1 Sa,!ry.!£_~~2c9'~3ccJ=~~-+- -
1/111,a{ sar
e he1gh'-15mm
lmt,alwqte conlM/•179 % 1
1l1qud ll{'>llr6J% ~
"'1osltchm•1~2to/.;-1
She<:rf srp:tigth -•ooss kg c:m
~ ......._L__
I
Scns,t,vily-9 I
\ Umt :Ve']hl-1.5~ 9 lem3 !
07 f----t------1-+--+--1--+---l--1--,-1----+-----i---t'-1-c-~/'+'--1---t- - ' -
f\,/ \fl•li0-3t51<9Jcmz

06 t--+------t-+--++--+--''!,_-..,_-!- ,\ Legend, : .Pore v.a/w prassWo l'nDOSur .,

1 ~ l,n
cMtrOI Mer d,,;c i I 1
I
" I\__ :
as ,1_--+----l-+--1-1---+---l'~,,~"-~
I~~ ~ '" ~\.
Pore wCler pr\'>sdirc :m-qsur~d

1 l!.-•01.12-1.llk~'m~(\ \
-~1---IIL@lr.C.
1
_+'-c·~'----t
!
"-- 01. t--+------t-+--+-t--+--i-+-+-+-__,.·,,,,',1n--i-+-+1--+--f--++~'-----t
: '-'~ l
Q;- 0.3 t---t---t-++i--,t---t---t-H---t-"\·:\\i-i-H---t---t-Ht---1

~
~~~+-~H-l-4~++tt-+~~~~~rr-~44+H
~~
i
~ w t----i--+--t-t---t---il--+-----t-----t---t---t--+-i',~""t-----t---t-++,---1 I

o
'-- I
~__j_____j__W-J_i-_w_j___j__j_U...U..-=!~~,i..wl
04 t------1-----1-H+-+--+-+-H--+--t---+-----t·-t--+--t--+-t-+--t
i
123 l--+--1--++t---"+;:o
. -
--,._IE'~'·p·''"F'-~'~'~'~''\l'l'~'-+-cl--H--t--+-1-1---1
' '

2 6 8 2 '-4 68 2 t 58ID 2 2 4 jt4

OJ 10 10
Time of consofidafion,in min

Fig. 16. Pore water pressure dissipation in eonsolidometer test at impermeable top surface
of clay specimen. The respective values of .dO refer to the loads before and after the
application of a new load increment. Observations made by means of oedometer shown
in Fig. 12 b. Pore pressures in central filter disc, fuU-line curves; in outer filter rmg,
dash-line curves.
 0.8 0.8
' I

ISample 9049 I I I Sample 91041

I
0.7 ' \ ... u ~0.82-171 ' 0.7
I !Omin kgJcm·1 2
/Afr1•082-162i kgjcm
t!-2mm i
"'_,,___
E 0.6
I

/cm I

~ (f •1.70-25
•IOmm
kg 2

I'\
-·-
.!; 0.5 1
.. _ 1 ____
l!t f-·L t--·-
:,
~
/Li~ •162-267~gjcm\
10mm I
~ 0.4 0.4
J-·-+--
Q.

1
~ 0.3 ----- / 1'0'2-0'j'gi;:;;;;'-
t,•4mm \--
.,/'----
-- !

~--t~-+---l I
0.3 '5·
<3"
i 0.2 /
/cm~ \ I --i-'-- I "-r;---
't
r,
V
/Ila- •0-42-0.Bli kg
•4min
'-.,,u'•082'-152' kgjcm~1,. ---
f•40mm \
---
02

0.1 \ 0.1
I

O 0.5
I0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 02
I
0.3 04
\\
Distance from centre of sample, in terms of sample diameter
I?ig. 17. Distribution of pore water pressure over impermeable base of clay specimen at
varying time after beginning of consolidation process.

Effective vertical pressure,in kg/cm 2

1 1
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 2
0
Approximate preconsoltdot101 !odd f-Or 8
::::: ~ ---- r--.. J:::- 'IC--
T,ple No. /9049, obfained
elhod
by k;o I agrande\

<" \ ['-s, \ S mple Na. 9049

.,
.!;?>
\ I'- '
-c: 10
-l!!
~
\
0 1W 5' l[nple Na ~10,

"'
1i
"'
.,; 20
'ls
Sample I 0,
I\
29t 0/ \\ '\
"".,;c· \ \ \

"' ' "

.e
.,:::
Sample Na. 9104
Sampf~ No.2,J
'\r---
<.. 30 : l'\n.-
~ 'v
8 j\ ,...... ,-!-"- ' f~

' amp le No,9049.

-~
,p-
the cor'i'cier
Ugh/ 1;0, f"'.f represent
of co safidafian
40
0
I
Fig. 18. Consolidation characteristics of samples used in pore water pressure investigations.
 01 1 6 810
102 103
2 4 6 8 2 4 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 144
::,c::,
w
-----...___0.9 ---- ·- 7r----- '
40'. 0.82- 1.70 kg/ cm 2 ----I"'-
\ / Theoretical pore ~afe1 , essur,
::,.cc
-'2- 08
e
-- Terzagh, - Cosag andeJ
\

a, 0.7
'
'·, ·K.I 'obfe ved pore wafer pres~il's-
'\[\
s
V\
V\ 06
Som1 e No. 9/JA9
'-
·r--..
\
a,
'--
Q.
05
·-...._,..~a'· l.70-2.57 kg cm
2
\
~ '-,.._ '
1
a,
'--
0
04

03
"" r---.., I'--. \
Q.
a,
C 02 '"" .... \
.!2
%
........__
'\
0.1 -~ ~
~
0
: : :,-
2 I,
6 8 I 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 702 2 4
0.1
Time of consolidafion,in min
Fig. 19. Observed pore water pressure dissipation compared with that determined from
TERZAGHI's consolidation theory.

Mldplane pore wafer pressure dissipation ratio, ,n %

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

~ 10
.i;;
15"- 20
2
30
]
.g 40
~
0
~
0
50
(.)

s
·§
60
Fig. 20. Observed pore water pres- Q.
sure dissipation compared with that a,
determined from TAYLOR's consoli- g, 80
~
dation theory. ::,.
90
"<t:

100

to a greater or less degree in this investigation. Thus it seems as if some of the

pore water which is released by the application of the load and whose pressure is
consequently measured were bound again to the soil before enough time has
passed for it to be expelled (thixotropy). The amount of pore water which may
thus be bound ought to be dependent on various factors, e.g. the temperature, the
load increment, and the initial pore volume of the clay, and ought fmthermore
to be limited. Thus, for a tested clay, a large amount of pore water released by

37
the application of the consolidation load (causing a large change in compression)
resulted in a smaller reduction of the pore water pressure than did a small
amount of released pore water (causing a small change in compression) .
The interpretation of test results made in Fig. 20 indicates that a better
agreement between theory and experiment may be obtained by using TAYLOR';;
theory instead of TERZAGIII's or TAN's theories. H owever, the agreement is not
~o good in our case as in the experiments performed by TAYLOR (1942, Figs. 51
to 53) .
At the beginning of secondary consolidation the pore water pressure has de­
creased to a few per cent of the applied load increment. The pressure occurring
during this period is often assumed to be caused by the pore water expelled by
a rcanangement of clay particles into more stable formations taking place until
the new state of equili brium is obtained.

22. Friction between Sample and Consoliclometer Ring

Description of Test Apparatus and Testing Procedure
The apparatus used in these tests is shown in Fig. 21. It is a conventional
oedometcr with a movable ring, 60.5 mm in diameter, mounted upon a pressure
bellows. The interior part of the ocdometer ring is made of Teflon, and this is
lubricated inside with molybdenum sulphide. The level of the oedometer ring
can be measured by means of two dial gauges, and can be adjusted by a pressure
regulator. When the friction is to be m easured, the pressure in the regulator is
slowly increased until an upward t ravel of the ring only just begins, indicating
with certainty that the friction between ring and sample (and also other friction,
e.g. between ring and piston plate, and in the loading device) has been over­
come. The pressure is then decreased until a corresponding downward travel
only just starts. The difference between these two pressures corresponds to the
double amount of friction.
The friction in the loading device is reduced to a minimum by using a ball­
bearing for the loading axle, and can therefore be n eglected. The friction between
piston plate and oedometer ring can be studied separately, and the observed
valu es of friction between clay and ring can be corrected accordingly.
In spite of the corrections made and the precautions taken against apparatus
friction, the observed values may nevertheless involve some errors. Thus, for
example, possible obliquity of the piston plate with reference to the oedometer
ring might introduce additional frict ion. However, such an obliquity is also
possible in the conventional ocdometer t est and in t he oedometer used for pore
pressure measurements.
Discussion of Test Results
The r esults of the measurements carried out hitherto are given in Figs. 22 and 23.
At t he end of primary compression the observed friction amounted to about
12 % of the vertical load a pplied in the first load step (below the preconsoli­
dation load), and t hen decreased to between 8 and 6 % of the load.

38
.Fig. 21. Apparatus used for "friction" investigations. Top, from left to right: J\iercmy
manometer, pressure regulator, and oedometer with dial gauges and loading plates. Bottom:
(A) Ocdometcr ring mounted on (B) pressmc bellows. (C) Dial gauge for observation
of oedometer ring displacement. (D) Dial gauge for observation of sample compression.
(E) Ball-bearing (Thomson ball bushing A 122026). The oedometer ring shown in right­
hand bottom figure is a slight modification of that shown in le-ft-hand bottom figure.

When a new load step was applied, the friction dropped to about half the
previous value, corresponding to an average of 2 to 3 % of the applied load.
The minimum friction was found to be equal to 1.2 % of the load, and occurred
in the test on the more sensitive of the two samples at a load of 1.63 kg/cm2 •
No doubt, the observed fall of friction is due to the disturbance of clay structure
which is caused by the impact occurring when the load is applied. Thus the
results show that the lateral contact pressure between the rigid phase of the

39
 0.02
i I i I I /cmI 2
0 I Load- 0 23 kf!
' 1
'
I ' I lI
0.02 ~
' I I
I
I i I J
I Lfa'f • qo1<s;/c n2
0
"<
E 0.04 l /4
~ ,Y
!?.' 0.02 -r
~ ~83
I
Ljoo ' kg /c n2
cc' 0 .Sample.I No111.!XJS(
. II ' '
~ I
g 0.08 -
=
Va()'ed clay wlfh bands
of iron sulphide -
e 0.06 f----
Water content• ~
L1qu1d (lmit • 58
t. % ,... '
-2' Plastic {lm1t • 29 %l -~
Shear Strength "0,052 kg /cm
-!2 0.04 ........- Sensd1vify •12
~
; 0.02 11
,,..
l ad·
' .
,163 k j, n2
" 0
'
0.08
( J
I

0.06 \ II Fig. 22. Observed side "friction"

,_...., yj V between clay specimen and ocdo­
0.04 meter ring in consolidomctcr test.
I The respective load values repre­
l ac ~ 217 k j,n2
0.02 ' ' ' sent the successive oedometer
0
2 4 68 2 4 68 22 4 68 32 4 68 4 figure).
II
loads (from top to bottom in I
10 10 70 70
Time of consolidation, in min

clay and the oe<lometer ring was reduced and that, consequently, the inter­
granular pressure in the clay sample may be reduced at the application of the
consolidometer load.
The fall of friction obviously should bear a certain relationship to the sensi­
tivity of the clay. However, the number of tests was too small to determine
a quantitative relationship in this case.
In a friction test on a sample, a series of measurements was generally carried
out during each period of observation. The observed variation in friction might
be caused by occasional obliquity of the piston plate with reference to the
oedometer ring, or by a disturbance of the clay in the immediate vicinity of
the ring. However, these circumstances do not afford a complete explanation.
Thus, after a period of rest, the friction often increased, and this indicates that
a bond was formed between ring and clay during this period.
The coefficient of friction during unloading of a sample is considerably higher
than that during loading. The friction values observed in the present case varied
from 17 to 29 % of the remaining load, Fig. 2

40
 0.02

0
I. I it '
-
ood II I"' ,I
023 kghm 2

0.02 I \_I
I I I• --load
1
• 0,431119 jlm2
0 I I I ' - I '

"'E: 0.08 I •
u Sample No 9107
Grey clay ~ .,
'1,005 -water content •75%
LiQuid l1mlf "75%
,G Plastic l1m1t 23 o/o
c· 0.04 -shear _strength r0,080
M

kg/cm2
~ Sensitivity s 7
t 0.02
I
I
I I I
I
I 'I

Load • 0,83 lrg/cm

2
] 0 11 I I

1i., 0.08 .
g, :I
a; 0.06 I I k
I
s'i 0.04
i
I '\Ii
?'II
0.02 "I I

I t.ood ~ 1:53 kg/fm2

'

Fig. 23. Observed side "friction" i I

0
between clay specimen and oedo­ '
mcter ring in consolidometcr test.
The respective load values repre­
sent the successive oedometcr
0.04

0.02
-- I<,

loads (from top to bottom in 'load • q.23 l<g ,m2

figure). 0 '
2 4 6810 2 4 6~02 2 4 681032 4 6~04
Time of consohdation 1 in min

3. Investigation of Permeability of Clay at Small

Hydraulic Gradients

30. Description of Test Apparatus ancl Testing Procedure

The importance of studying carefully the condition of pore water flow at small
hydraulic gradients has already been pointed out in Section 12. For such a. study,
an extremely accurate apparatus for permeability investigations was constructed
at the Institute.
A pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces of a. sample, as
shown in Fig. 24 a, is created by the different levels of the free water surfaces
in the two containers. The pressure difference causes a flow of water through
the sample, and this flow is measured by means of precision capillary tubes,

41
Fig. 24 a. Apparatus used for permeability investigations. Top, from left to right: Two
water containers, precision capillary tubes with measuring devices, and "oedometer" con­
taining sample and provided with loading plates and dial gauge for measuring compression
of sample. Left-hand bottom: (A) Botlom part. (a) Outer filter ring. (b) Central filter disc.
(c) Enchased rubber ring. (B) Top part. (a) Outer filter ring. (b) Central filter d isc.
(C) Precision capillary tubes with visible air bubbles. (D) Millimetre scale. (E) Reflected
image. Right-hand bottom: "Oedometer" with mounted sample.

42
Fig. 2·1 b. Arrangement for developing vacuum in filters and capillaries. Container at the
top, turned upside-down, is used in filling filters and capillaries with water. To the right,
a ,voulfc vacuum bottle.

Fig. 2'1< c. J\Iounting of clay specimen. Left-hand figure, at the beginning of, and right-hand
figure, after completion of, mounting process. (A) J\Iounting plate. (B) Slice of sample,
20 mm in thickness and 60 111111 in diameter. (C) Sample cylinder. (D) Top part of appa-
ratus (piston plate).
43
 1.00 mm in inner diameter, made of glass. 1\vo such tubes are connected with
each one of two glass filters adjoining the top and the bottom of the sample.
Each filter consists of an inner, central filter disc, 35 mm in diameter, and an
outer concentric filter ring, 6.5 mm in width. The filter disc is separated from
the filter ring by a stainless steel wali, 0.5 mm in thickness. Two of the capillary
tubes are connected with the central filter discs and the other two with the
outer filter rings.
Before a sample is mounted, the air has to be exhausted from the capillaries
and the filters. In our case this was done in a vacuum. During this procedure
the apparatus was mounted as shown in Fig. 24, b. While the capillaries and
the filters were still in a vacuum, water 1 was poured on top of the filters, and
was kept at the ensuing water vapour pressure for a period of at least half
an hour in order to remove possible remaining air. Air was then allowed to
enter into the vacuum container, and the water was consequently forced into
capillaries and filters until it filled them completely. Enough water was used
to cover entirely the free surfaces of the filters even after filling had been
completed.
The clay specimen to be tested was placed between the top filter and a
mounting plate, and was squeezed into the sample cylinder, 50 mm in diameter,
by pressing this cylinder upwards, cf. Fig. 24, c. The top part of the apparatus
was then turned upside down, and was placed on the bottom part. The cylinder
was finally screwed down until a perfectly tight joint was formed between its
edge and the enchasecl rubber ring. During the mounting process great care
was taken that air should not be trapped between the sample and the filters.
To make sure that the sample filled the whole space between the filters, it
was consolidated in the permeability meter before the test until it reached a
final height equalling 75 to 95 % of the original sample height. Furthermore,
owing to this procedure, the pore ,vater in the sample would replace part of
the water which originally filled the capillaries and the filters.
After completion of consolidation, air bubbles, at least 10 mm in length, were
produced in the capillaries. The two capillaries belonging to the bottom filter
were connected with one of the containers, and the other t,vo belonging to the
top filter were connected with the other. The travel of the air bubbles in the
capillaries observed at a given pressure gradient indicated the permeability of
the clay for the gradient in question.
To begin with, measurements were made only of the flow of water through
the central filter discs but later also of the flow through the outer filter rings.
By thus comparing the travels of the air bubbles in all the different capillaries,
it was possible to control the homogeneity of the specimen and a possible in-
1 To begin with, distilled water was used, but was later replaced by pore ,vater taken from samples

having approximately the same characteristics as the specimen under inYestigation. In the case of
distilled water, one could raise the objection that ions could be leached out of the clay specimen
during the test, whereas in the case of pore water being pressed out of a similar clay under high
pressure, the opposite effect, or exchange of ions, might occur. However, the possible influence of
these effects on the results of the permeability tests is reduced by the method of testing.

44
fluence of boundary disturbances, such as remoulding and leakage between the
clay and the confining cylindrical wall.
The amount of ,vater allowed to pass through the specimens during the perme­
ability tests was extren1ely small, and never exceeded 240 mm3 • For comparison
it may be mentioned that the pore volume of the least porous specimen at 5 %
compression ,vas approximately 24 000 1111113 , or 100 times as great.
The initial sample height chosen in our case was 20 mm so as to reduce a
possible influence exerted on the results by the contact surfaces between clay
and glass filters.
For comparison of the results of the different permeability tests, they were
performed at equal and constant temperatures. Thus, Tests 1 and 2 were per­
formed at a room temperature of 24° C ,vith a maximum variation of ± 0.5° C,
and Tests 3 and 4 at 7° C ,vith a maxiinum variation of ± 1 ° C. The specimens
tested at the latter temperature were taken directly from the site to the test
room, and were thus never warmed up.

31. Discussion of Test Results

Permeability investigations, if carefully perfor1ned, are time-consuming, and
therefore only a restricted number of tests have been carried out. The results
of these tests are given in Tables 1 to 4, and are represented in Figs. 25 to 27.
For their interpretation it will be necessary to reconsider the inner texture
of clay.
According to TAN (1954), clay of illite type is built up of a network of ir­
regular, flaky mineral sheets, mainly with mutual flat surface-edge contacts.
A similar picture of the structure of clay was given ah·eady in 1926 by GOLD­
SCHMIDT.
A certain orientation of the grains in the clay skeleton will naturally be caused
by the overburden pressure. Thns, as is seen from the results of consolidometer
tests, if the pore water is allowed to escape in a horizontal direction (i.e. parallel
to the clay strata), the coefficient of consolidation is greater than in the case
where the pore water is allowed to escape in a vertical direction. This orientation
of grains can also be observed by measuring the electrical resistance in horizontal
and vertical directions. By this method we generally find, as was to be expected,
a smaller resistance in a horizontal direction.
The space left between the mineral grains is assumed to be filled with pore
water, consisting of ions and water molecules, which are n10re or less rigidly
bound to the mineral surface. Innermostly, the pore water seems to be fixed in
a rigid lattice, and may be regarded as part of the mineral phase. For the water
phase, the viscosity was shown by RosENQVIST (1958) to increase considerably
when approaching the mineral surface, from 24 centipoises at 30 % to 153 centi­
poises at 10 % water content for the clay in question.
When sedimented clay is gradually loaded by overlying sediments, not all
grains appear to become part of the load-carrying network (the rigid phase, or
"clay skeleton"). Consequently, within this network, the space may be filled

45
 12 r
i

II ,---,.,~~~-~--- - -- ·< _---1- ________ j

:Hrwvy-lmf! curVl' represents Sample ~o S!J12,:
:trght-/me curves refer lo Sample NoS056 i
,Geolechn,col ooil a/her 'data g,~en m Tables I and 2

LI
•
~ 9
/ i I
10 1--~,-,-,,-nd~---:i,;),---;;;,-;,al;

__j_ _Av,:rage
m;;,;, '.ti~w -
flow d•.mr,g/ lolal
j • period QI observation
t --
/pei,od of c._bservahon gene{allyjh.)
:
!
,-

I
;
'- ,I I:_____-_ I1 _ _ ':_ _ ,
0
8
I
"'s"
s,
7

l
~
6

8. 5
1,
~
il' '
3

Hydrau!,c gradient
li'ig. 25. Results of permeability tests on clay samples taken at depths of 8 m (heavy-line
curve) and 5 m (light-line curves) below ground surface. Tests performed at an ambient
temperature of (24±0.5)° C. In drawing the curves which represent the sample taken at
a depth of 5 m (Sample No. 9056) stress has been laid on values obtained
at high hydraulic gradients.

12~~-~-~-~~-~-~-~-~~-~-~-~~

II f---)----f-!'Sa.ropJJ
i:;;e;: ~:a: ;z ;tu aie TabltJ 3
No__P,4)1----+~-+/~-l---=t---+--+--+---tl-----)--~
1
data given in

10 f----~1-----t---f---+--t---t----J---j---f----f------t---t---t----1

4 12 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
2 6 8 10
"
Hydraulic gradient

Fig. 20. Results of permeability tests on a clay sample taken at a depth of 2 m below
ground surface. Tests performed at an ambient temperature of (7 ± 1)° C.
 12

So=m~,o~ No 90~- + ---+---+---+--+---+-------1'---+---+-----j

II t--- + - - ~
Geotechf'llcaf on'd other 'rJalo are given ,n Table 1,
legend See F,g! 25
/
V .
I
10
Corrif)fess101> £ • 5 ¼
c.,

--
QI
9
"'
E
c., V
"S2
s
8

7
I 1/ ./

~-
~ 6
,/
QI
'-
/ . / v
0
5 1----1---1---1---+--+--+--~~- - ----- -+---+---+----+--_J
I/
Q.
.....0
~
/v
sI.( 4

-
2
~~ L.----!----- --- L <. JO¼'

~---
~

I
. .,...,.v ~
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 2.: 26 28
Hydraullc gradient

Fig. 27. R esults of permeability tests on a clay sample taken at a depth of 6 m below
ground surface. Tests performed at an ambient t emperature of (7 ± 1) ° C.

20

18 ~
16

IA
°E
.i;;
-::r:' 12
0
~
<: 10
c::i
14

I/
'/
-
10ml of OJ N h

--
~
-----::1---
_;;=.-

SamoJe No.9053
--= c/r l
'
"t:,
8
{:
!Sample Nof¥!32

~
V
"t:,
"< 6 -
~-
!Sample 'f,/o.9056

Sample Wo9095
.ir
4
/.r-
1,s/ /
2
/.
a I -;:/'
0 2 J 4 ----5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
pH- value

Fig. 28. T itre curves for samples used in permeability investigation: 10 ml of about 0.1
::\T HCl + 1 g of dried, pulverized clay t itrated with about 0.1 N NaOH. The titration was
made for relative comparison only.
not only with pore water in its present sense but also with mobile particles of
colloidal or greater size which may be bound by sorption and hydrodynamical
forces (the mobile phase). This may furnish one explanation, among others, of
a phenomenon observed in the pernieability tests. Thus, during a test, the
direction of flow through the specimen often altered. Furthermore, a given filter
sometimes seemingly became nearly blocked during a certain definite period of
observation, and then suddenly "re-opened". Obviously, the system behaved as
if the mobile particles got meshed during their travel through the pore space,
thus clogging part of the pores. The pores would be re-opened by an increase
in flow velocity, or by a change in flow direction, or in some cases also after
some lapse of time. In general, the apparent clogging effect was rendered visible
by a gradual decrease of flow-within certain limits-for a given gradient with
the time of action 1 . However, a gradual increase in flow was sometimes also
observed, cf. Tables 1 to 4,. For a given sample, the clogging effect was in general
less strongly marked towards the end of the investigation. This may indicate
a gradual change in the character of the clay during the investigation.
From results previously obtained (see Section 12) it was found that DARCY's
law of permeability is not always valid for small pore pressure gradients. This was
also confirmed by the present investigation. Considering the texture of the clay
just described, a deviation from DARCY's law is no doubt to be expected. Thus, the
forces which bind the mobile phase gradually become stronger when the distance
to the rigid phase decreases. As a logical working hypothesis it is therefore
suggested that, within certain limits, the clay becomes increasingly porous, i.e.
permeable, ,vith increasing pore pressure gradient. This deviation from DARCY's
Jaw of permeability ought to depend on the interaction between skeleton grains
and pore water. In this connection it might be interesting to study the results
obtained by pH-metric titration of the samples used in the permeability tests.
The titre curves are given in Fig. 28. They show considerable reactions between
clay and hydrochloric acid for all the samples deviating from DARcY's law of
permeability. Only in Sample No. 9063, which was found to obey DARCY's law,
no marked reaction between clay and acid was obtained2 • In this case the
sample was taken at a small depth (only 2 m), and had been influenced for
thousands of years by rain water and vegetation, and in later times also by
artificial manuring, etc., which affected the character of the clay3.
A threshold value of the hydraulic gradient which has to be exceeded before
pore water flow takes place (as suggested by e.g. BRmINER, 1946, SrLFVERBERG,
in STATENS GEo'rEKNISKA L"STITUT, 1949, BurssoN, 1953, and KEZDI, 1958)
has not been found in our experiments. As a matter of fact, the pore water in
the investigated clays was never found to be at a complete stand-still, not even
1
A decrease in permeability wilh the time has been recorded by several authors, e.g. Bom1rAN
(1937) in the case of packed soils and GRISEL (1936) in the case of concrete.
2
The different characler of this sample, as distinguished from the others, was also indicated by
the inconsiderable clogging effect observed in this case, cf. Table 3.
3
The presence of gas in the pore space might also give anomalies with respect to DARCY's Jaw of
permeability but gas does not seem to be associated with the anomalies obsen'ed here.

48
 V

Fig. 29. Assumed equation of pore water

flow in a normally consolidated fat clay
subjected to small hydraulic gradients.
'a ~
Hydraulic gradient

at hydraulic zero-gradient1. However, in practice the pore water flow at zero­

gradient was of negligible order of magnit ude. In the Author's opinion, a
threshold value does not seem probable, at least not for a normally consolidated
day, since the application of a hydraulic gradient, however small, necessarily
causes a disturbance of internal equilibrium conditions.
The above-mentioned working hypothesis and the results obtained from our
tests lead us to the following equation of rate of pore water flow v (dimensions:
LT- 1) for a normally consolidated fat clay at small hydraulic gradients i, F ig. 29,

·v =:d' . ... ........................ (3:1)

where the permeability x (LT- 1 ) and the exponent n vary with void ratio and
temperature but also from one clay to another
n>l
When the hydraulic gradient exceeds a certain definite limit i1, Eq. (3: 1) 1s
replaced by the straight-line relationship
V = le (i - i0) ••••••••.••••••.••.••••• (3: 2)

where le= n x i/'- 1 , and i 0 = i 1 (n-1)/ n is the intersection point of the tangent
line represented by Eq . (3: 2) and the i-axis, Fig. 29 2 •
1
This ,ms later confirmed in a test in which the hydraulic gradient was kept at zero for a period
of se,·eral months.
' In a recent book FLORIN (1959) suggests t hat, when the applied hydraulic gradient is not high
enough for DARCY'S law to be valid, then the relation between rate of flow and gradient is
represented by a curve bearing a close resemblance to that suggested by the Author. According to
FLORIK this curve could be approximately rep!aced by a straight line intersecting the gradient axis
in t he same way as the extended tangent line in Fig. 29.
FLORIN'S book presents values of i0 which are as high as 17 to 31.
A shape of the flow vs. hydraulic gradient curve similar to that given by the Author would also
be obtained by a suitable combination of DARCY'S law of permeability and the law of visco-plastic
flow which was deduced by SCHIFFMAN (1959) on the basis of the Buckingham-Reiner equation
(cf. REINER, 1960).

49
4
 D1ffeJ(1t marfrs repr sent
d1fferenl tests
.L
V
V
~
.1
,,,.... /
_1---;;..,.,.,
~, 1---,
-2 3
"
4
I
5 6 7 8 9 10
Hydraulic gradient

Fig. 30. 11csults of permeability tests on muddy day from Viisby performed by Sn..,FYEH­
BEUG in l!H7. Sample consolidated under a pressure of 0.3 kg/cm~. Curves drawn by Aulhor,

The gradient i 0 represents the gradient required to overcome the maxmuun

binding energy of mobile pore ,vater.
For the samples investigated here, the coefficient n was found to vary from
n = 1 (Sample 9063) to n = 1.5 (Sample 9032). In the latter case the gradient
( ~ 9.
It may be interesting to compare these results with those obtained by
SILFVERBERG (STA'l'ENS GEOTEiu'HSKA lNSTI'rUT, 1949). By plotting his values
of observation in the coordinate system v/i instead of k/i, we find fairly close
agreement with our own results 1 • Some of these values are shown in Fig. 30.
Obviously, in this case the condition of flow corresponds with good accuracy
to Eq. (3: 1) where the coefficient n = 1.5.
1
In Fig-s. 25 to 27 and 30 as well as in Tables 1 lo ,1 the flow values (or rather rale of flow
values) represent discharge velocilics and not seepage velocities (cf. 'fgHzAGIII, HH·1•).
-------------------------------------~,
1
It might be interesling lo study the magnitude of flow v during a given lime interrnl towards
lhc end of a period of observation at a given hydraulic gradient. This can easily be done by using
the values given in Tables 1 to ,1. If, for example, v 1 is the flow obtained during a time interval
1!t1 and V 1 +~ is the flow during the time inlern1l Llt1 +
Lit~, then the flow v~ during the time
interval Llt2 can be obtained from the equation
b1.,1+2-vi
Vz = b-1

where .:lf1 + .dt~

Jt,
Example: For Sample No. 9032, we have at a hydraulic gradient of 9.8 a mean flow of 1.53 · 10-•
cm/sec during an observation period of 267 min and a mean flow of LOG· 10- 7 cm/sec during the
total period of obserntlion 1 257 min. From the given relation we get during the time interval from

267 to I 257 min (b = \ 265/ = 1.71) the mean flow

1

U. 7 l ·l.OU-l.S,))10-'
v=
3.71
= 003
. •10-' C
1n/s
cc

50
 Table 1 1 •
Smnple 1Vo. 9032, taken at a depth of 8 1n below ground surface
=
Data: Shear strength r 1 1.3:3 t/m' (fall-cone test)
Initial water content 100 == 65 %
Liquid limit W1, =
55 %
Plastic limit wp =
23 %
Compression c == 15 %

I Time of flow,
l\Iean flow, Direction of
Date Gradient in 10- 1 cm/sec flow through
in min
i
!
inner filters I
I outer fillers
sample

13/2 9.8 77 1., .1 ! down,vard

119 l.·19
202 1.56
267 l.ii5
1257 LOG '
14/2 15.n 79 2.11 i downward
i
119 I
2.83
130 2.S:J
I

14/2-16/2 2.8 _,
9- o.,rn upward
1507 0.0!J I
2 660 0.11

16/2 2.8 26
I I I 0.19
I
upward

16/2 20A 50 3.83 upward

§.
88
182
4.0] I ~
4.08
222 4.12
§
§.
16/2-17/2 ii!J 17 l.11 downward
38 l.ll
l 037 1.12

17/2 l.G 37 0.18 downward

63 O.rn
93 0.18
17/2 24.3 31 4.90 downward
I I 58
I 4.'ifi
17/2 13.2 14 2A2 downward
I I 63
I 2 ..12

17/2 4.5 32 0.49 downward

56 0.52
80 0.50

51
 Table 2.
Sample No. 9056, taken at a depth of 5 m below ground smjace
=
Data: Shear strength r1 0.85 t/m 2 (fall-cone test)
=
Initial water content w 0 63 %
Liquid limit Wi =55 %
Plastic limit wp =22 %
A. Compression , = 10 %

l\ican flow, Direction of

Date Gradient Time of flow, in 10- 7 cm/sec
in min flow through
inner filters outer filters sample
I
24/2 23.2 30 12.0 10.G downward
GO 11.4 10.9
90 11.2 11.o
120 11.2 11.1

19.o 30 8.42 8.; 1 upward

GO
90
8.37
8.iii
8.G3
8.Gi I
120 s.a5 8.GO
I
25/2 12.8 30 5.69 4.98 downward
60 5.ilf, 5.26
90 5.fai 5.34.
120 5.53 5.11

7.6 3l 3.23 3 36 upward

Gl 3.2! iUO
91 3.22 3,32
121 3.21 3.26
-
5.!. 30 2.36 1.69 downward
i 60
90
2.36
:l.37
1.G 1
1.59
I
120 2.36 I.G 1

25/2-26/2 j I
I
0.48
I 1008
I
0.21
I 0.0G
I downward

26/2 2.9
I 3:!
G2
I
I.so
1.31
1.01
0.88 I upward

H2 1.32 0.80 '

'
I 122
I 1.32 0.81
I'
0.62 30 0.27 0.33 downward
GO 0.27 0.2-4
90 0,28 0.24
120 0.27 0.22
150 0.21:! 0.28

16.6 30 7.45 6.oo downward

GO 7.38 G.i5
90 7.32 6.81
120 7.32 6.90

52
Sample No. 9056
B. Compression t = 15 %
Mean flow, Direction of
T ime of flow, in 10-' cm/sec
Date Gradient flow through
m mm
sample
inner filters I outer filters

'2i/2 27.L 30 8.25 9.03 downward

60 8.13 8.83
90 8.05 8.75
]20 8.0G 8.,2
I
20.l 30 6.05 6.47 upward
60 5.98 6.4.2
90 5.92 6.37
120 5.92 6 32

14.8 30 4.4L 4.83 downward

60 4.44 4.7 8
90 4.40 4.7-1
]20 4.40 4.73

28/2 9.7 30 2.8H 3.07 upward

60 2.82 3.08
9U 2.84 3.05
120 2.83 2.98
-
2/3 6.0 30 1.84 1.7G downward
60 1.79 l.81
90 l.69 1.81
120 l.G5 ].77

3.o 30 0.86 0.88 upward

60 0.8G 0.88
90 0.85 0.93
]20 0.84 0.93

2 /3-3/3 0.G 30 0.lG 0.23 downward

60 0.17 0.21
90 0.18 0.21
120 0.18 0.22
1152 0.11 0. 12

3/3 18.0 30 5.19 5.63 upward

60 5.13 5.57
90 5.08 5.55
120 5.10 5.50

53
Sa,nple No. 9056
C. Compression , = 25 %
:i\Iean flow, Direction of
Time of flow, in 10- r cm/sec
Date Gradient flow through
in min
sample
inner filters I outer filters

3/3 25.o I 30
60
3.GO
3.li3
3.\)7
3.97
downward

90 3.G2 3.9G
I 120 3.58 0.!)2
4/3 20.o 30 2.81 3-09 upward
60 2.81 3.11

3.0
I 90
120
30
2.77
2.1,1
0A5
3.12
3.09
0.53 downward
60 0.<13 0.50
90 0.H 0.50
120 0.H 0.50
10.0 30 1.3G 1.53 upward
60 1.29 l.-17
90 1.28 1.H
120 l.2i 1..14
r,/3 0.G 30 0.11 0.10 downward
60 0.10 0.08
90 0.09 0.09
120 0.00 0.10
1.5 30 0.20 0.25 downward
60 0.18 0.25
90 0.18 0.25
~--~-- 120 0.18 0.25
i>/3-6/3 II 2.7 30 0.3•1 0.43 downward
60 0.3/l 0.15
i 90 0.33 0.-H
120 0.35 0.H:i
987 0.29 0.41
6/3 4.5 30 0./M, 0.GO downward
60 0.34 0.f)8
90 o.aG 0.57
120 O.;rn 0.57
O.o 30 0.lG o.oo downward
60 0.0[) 0.0G upward
90 0.0[1 0.06 •
•.
10:, 0.0{ 0.0G
180 0.03 0.0-1 )
.
I 20.3 32 2.59 2.93 upward
62 2.65 3.08
Ii
92 2.GO 3.00
122 2.fl2 3.01
I 152 2.Gtl 3.0-1
I 185 2.64 3.0•l
6/3~7/3 I 20.3 I
I
992
I 2.82
I
3.12
I
upward

54
Table 3.
Sample No. 9063, taken at a depth of 2 ,n below ground surface
Data: Shear strength r, = 1.64 t/m' (fall-cone test)
Initial water content w 0 83 % =
Liquid limit w1, 100 % =
Plastic limit Wp = 31 %
A. Compression e 5 % =
Mean flow, Dircclion of
Time of flow, in 10- 7 cm/sec flow through
Date Gradient in min sample
inner filters outer filters

11/3-12/3 0.53 30 0,18 0.13 downward

•

60 0.20 0.11
120 0.19 0.13
180 0.19 0.1"
Ii I 240 0.20 0.12
I 1220 0.18 0.1-l
I i 1340 0.18 0.f4
12/3-13/3 1.05 30 0.27 0.33 downward
60 0.30 0.30
120 0.29 0.28
330 0.30 0.28
1320 0.32 0.21
1530 0.33 0.21
13/3-14/3 2.o 30
60
0.52
0.5G
0A5
0.43 I downward

120 0.57 0.40

210 0.69 0.38
1220 0.Gl 0.3·1
1400 0.60 i 0.35
14/3-16/3 0.3 30 0. l l 0.05 downward
I I 2 700 I 0.12 I 0.0·l I
16/:l-17/3 4.0 30 1.02 1.08 upward
60 O.\J9 1.22
120 0.99 1.07
240 O.\l7 1.07
360
1390
0.97
0.98
1.07
1.05 I
1530 0.98 1.0& I
17/3-18/3 G.o 30 l.17 1.61 upward
60 1.51 1.47
120 1.54 l.-15
240 1.54 l.-!3
1265 1.56 l.4.1
I
i 1385 1.5G lAl
18/3 10.o 30 2.61 2.59 downward
60 2.62 2.65
120 2.59 2.67
210 2.li'i 2.6fi
20.8 30 5.31 5.58 downward
60 5.31 5.Gl
90 5.35 5.GO
120 5,33 5.58

55
 Mean flow, Direction of
Time of flow, in I0- 7 cm/sec
Date Gradient flow through
in min sample
inner filters I outer filters

19/3 25.o 30 6.57 6.67 downward

60 6.06 6.68
90 6.58
6 48
6.60
6.o!l
I
2:20
15.0 30 3.81 4.02 upward

24.4
I
60
90
30
I 3.81
3 82
6.30
I
4.04
4.04
6.69
I upward
I 60 I 6.26 I 6.oli I
Sa,nple No. 9063
B. Compression s = 15 %
-
20/3 0.0 33 0.02 O.oo downward
60 0.02 0.02
120 0.01 0.01
2i8 0.0l 0.01
20/3- 21/3 1 0.5 132 0.0i' 0.05 up\\·arc.l
162 0.06 0.04
1229 0.05 0.04
1390 0.05 0.04
21/3 - 23/3 1.0 30 0. l 1 0.18 upward
60 0. t l 0.11
1471 0.12 0.11
2 715 0.12 0.1 l
23/3- 24/3 2.o 30
159
I 0.27
0.26
0.20
0.23
I upward

24/3 4.0
463
1423
136
I 0.26
0.26
0.63
0.23
0.24
0.49
I
upward
265 0.53 0.49
I 325 I 0.58 I 0.50 I
7.0 30 0.95 0.93 upward
I 67 I 0.96 I 1.0 l I
24/o-25/3
--
25/3
I
10.0

15.o
l 1015
1 270
31
I
1.29
1.29
1.95
I
1.38
1.31!
2.14
I
upward

upward
65 1.95 2.10
109 1.95 2.08
135 1.95 2.09
25/3-26/3 20.o 30 2.79 3.12 downward
260 2.68 2.81
I I 964 I 2.61 I 2.79 I
26/3 25.o
I 30
90
3.29
!l.27
3.42
3.46
upward

I I 130 I 3.26 I 3.47 I

56
Table 4.
Sample No. 9095, taken at a depth of 6 m below ground surface
Data: Shear strength tr = 0.74 t/ m 2 (fall-cone test)
Initial water content w 0 = 66 %
Liquid limit wL 60 % =
Plastic limit wp 22 % =
A. Compression e = 5%
Mean flow, Direction of
T ime of flow, in 10 - ' cm/sec flow through
Date Gradient in min sample
inner filters I outer fi lters

3/4-4/4 0.5 30 0.14 0.20 upward

60 0.L4 0.20
90 0.lt 0.2 0
1 080 0.ll 0.21
1200 0.1 1 0.21

4/4-6/4 1.0 30 0.27 0.38 upward

60 0.27 0.42
90 0.27 0.42
2 820 0.20 0.39
2 9-10 0.20 0.39

0.34 0.96 upward

6/4 2.0 30
60 0.3-1 1.01 I
150 0.38 0.9\l I
l
210 0.38 ...... .... 0.9/i
............
··············· ············ ············-······ ........... -··
8/4 60 0.49 0.,4
120 0.48 0.71
330 0.39 0. 68
390 0.38 0. 68
I
8/4-10/4 0.5 30 0.18 0.05 upward
1 050 0.04 0.07
1440 0.05 0.07
2 490 0.05 0.07
2 !110 0.05 0. 07
--
13/4-14/4 4.0 30 1.5G 1. 18 upward
I 60 l .G l 1.20
I 120 1.55 l 21
1.43
1260 1.29
I
0.18 0 20 downward
14/4-15/4 0.5 30
60 I 0.18 I 0.20
1080 I 0.IG 0.22

15/4 7.0
1140

30
l O. !G

2.54
I 0. 22

2.82 downward
60 2.H 2.,9
90 2.47 I 2.85
120 2.47
I 2.85

57
 l\Iean flow, Direction of
Time of flow, in 10- 7 cm/sec
Date Gradient flow through
in min
sample
,
inner filters I outer filters

16/4 10.0 i 30
GO
4.31
4.09
I 4.48
4.-12
downward

120 4.02 4.3G

330 3.91 4.29
, 420 3.90 4.26

17/4 15.o 30 6.10 6.34 downward

60 6.11 6.32
120 5.08 6,29
330 5.92 6.2fi
390 5.90 6.27

18/4 25.0 30 9.00 10.53 upward

I 60
120
9.95
10.05
10.58
10.5-1
I 210 10.12 10.i'd

Sample No. 9095

B. Compression , = 10 %
20/4-21/4 O.r) 30 O.lG 0.26 upward
60 0.10 0.19
120 0.10 0.16
360 0.07 0.1-l
1410 0.06 0.12
1470 0.06 0.12

21/4-2://4 Lo 30 0.16 0.25 upward

GU 0.18 0.24
120 0.18 0.2·1
330 0.17 0.23
I 1380 0.16 0.24.
,j 1440 0.16 0,2._i

22/4-23/4 2.0 30 0.50 ! 0 ..1-5 upward

60 0.48 0.47
360 0.-H 0.H
1380 0.37 0.48
1440 0.37 0.48

23.'4-24/4 4.0 30 1.11 1.18 downward

60
120
1.10
1.10
I l.lO
1.18
300 1.03 1.20
1320 1.00 1.20
1 380 1.00 1.20

58
 :Menn flow, Direclion of
Gradient Time of flow, in 10- 1 cm/sec flow through
Date
in min sample
inner filters I outer filters

21/4 7.0 30 l.81 2.11 down,vnrd

60 l.83 2. I 1
120 1.81 2.08
300 l.77 2.09

24/4-25/4 0.5 30 0.1'! 0.13 downward

60 0.14 0.15
1080 0.10 O.t6

25/4-27/4 O.o 30 0.oo 0.00

60 -0.01 0.01 downward
2 9l0 0.01 0.00 >

27/4 10.o 30 2.58 3.H upward

60 2.5H 3.08
120 2.-1 i 3.M
390 2.52 2.98

27/4-28/4 I 0.5
I 990 I 0.07 I 0.12 I upward

28/4 15.o 30 4.08 4.50 upward

60 4.09 4..is
120 4.04 4.50
3,0 4.08 4.-15
·--~-----
28/4-29/4 I 0.5
I 1 050 I 0.07
I 0.15 I upward

29/4 25.o 30 7.09 7.30 downward

I 60 7.05 7.31
120 7.03 7.3G
240 7.02 7.37

l 30 7.01 II 7..t3 upward

I I 60 I 6.95
'
7.38

Sample No. 9095

C. Compression , = 20 %
I downward
30/4-4/5 30 0.07 0.08
0,5
60
i 0.08 0,11
540 0.08 0.os
1 710 0.08 0.08
3180 0.08 0.08
4 6i0 0.08 0.08
5 790 I 0.08 0.08

4/5 -5/5 1.0 30 0.1/i 0.15 downward

60 0.1\i 0.1·1
120 0.15 0.1\i
420 0.15 O,u;
1410 0.15 0.lG

59
 l\Iean flow, Direction or
Time of flow , in 10-' cm/sec
Date Gradient flow through
in min
I inner filters I outer filters I sample

2. 0 30 0.27 0. 28 downward
5/5- 6/5
tiO 0.28 0.30
l8U 0.29 0.32
450 0.29 0.3i
1470 0.27 0.33
1590 0.27 0. 33

6/5-8/5 4.o 30 0.68 0.4 5 downward

60 0 6-l 0.4 9
120 0.6-l 0.5-l
1 455 0. 57 0 .6 1
2 7!.10 0.59 0.61

8/5 - 9/5 7.o 30 1.00 l.01 upward

60
360
1.01
1.01 I l. 02
1. 02 I

1350 1.01
I 1 OG
I
9/5-11/5 0.b 30 0.07 0.1 5 upward
60 0.06 0.10
2880 0. 06 0.07

11/5- 12/5 10.0 30 1.59 l.63 downward

60
390
1410
1.58
1.55
1.56
II 1.66
l.6 6
1.66
I
12/5 15.o 30 2.18 2.42 upward
60 2.10 2.4.a
120 2.12 2.39
420 2.12 2.38

12/5-13/5 1 8.5
I 1020
I l.23
I 1.32
I upward

13/5 25.o 30 3.81 3.95 downward

60 3.77 3.93
120 3.76 3.9 1
390 3.78 3.90
I
13/5-14, 5 1 4.1
I 990
I 0.58
I 0.63
I downward

14/ 5 20.o 30 2.116 3.22 upwa rd

60 2.8 6 3.19
120 2.82 3.18
420 2.91 3.13
---·
14/5-15/5
I 5.5
I 1020
I 0.7 -l
I 0.79
I upward

15/5 11.0 30 1.61 1. 6 downward

I GU
120
l.63
l.63
1. 4.
1. a
I 360 l.63 I. 0

60
Sample No. 9095
D. Compression e = 30 %
Mean flow, Direction of
Time of flow, in 10- 1 cm/sec
Date Gradient flow through
in min
sample
inner filters I outer filters

18/5- 19/5 0.5 30 0.05 0.08 downward

2i0 0.03 0.0 6
1 ~!)l) 0.08 0.05
-
19/5-20/5 I l.0 390 0.06 0.08 downward
I I 1440
I 0 07
I 0.08
I
20/5-2 1/51 2.0 I 500 0.13 0.16 downward
I 1440
I 0.Iil
I 0.15
I------
21/5-22/51 4-.o 30
r 0.2, 0.30 downward
GO
390
U.26
0.25 I 0. 31
0.29
1380 O.t6 O.ao
I I
22/5 -23/5 7.0 30 0.45 0.50 downward
I GO 0.4 6 I 0.58
420 0.11 0.bO
1500 0.46 0.46
I I
23/5-25/5 3.0 30 0.23 0.23 downward
60 0.22 0.24
1 560 0.I!l 0.22
2850 0.19 0.22

2';,/j-26/5 10.0 30 0.61 0.,3 upward

I 60
360
0.62
0.63
0.71
0.70
I 1380 0.63 O.i0

26/5 15.o 30 0.93 1.03 upward

I l 20 0.92 0.97
I 390 0.92 0.96
I

26/5 - 27/51 8.5

I 990
I 0.50
I 0.b2
I upward

27/5- 28/5 I 20.o 30 1.27 1.38 downward

120
390
I 1.28
l.26
1.35
1.34
I I 1380
I 1.26 1.33

23.0 30 1.56 1.66 upward

28/5
I 60 l. 58 I l. 6!l
I
120 1.66 l.66 I
I 330 1.54
I 1.67
I I

01
4,. Consolidation of Clay by Drain Wells Based on New Theory of
Permeability Presented in Chapter 3

40. Deduction of Consolidation Ec1uation

The law of permeability, as giYen by Eq. (3: I), will now be applied to the analysis
of consolidation of a normally consolidated clay layer by vertical drains only.
In this case it is con,·cnient to write the equation of permeability in the form 1
v==i.1ni·Ywi 11 •••••••••••••••••••••••• (4:1)
where i, (L 2 T- 1 ) == r./mc /'iv corresponds to the coefficient of consolidation c11 ,
used in the classical theory, mv (L 2F- 1 ) is the coefficient of volume compress­
ibility, and Yw (FL- 3 ) is the unit volume weight of witter.
To investigate whether or not i. can be regarded as a constant, the samples
were subjected to consolidomcler tests in addition to the permeability inYcsti­
gations. In this way it was found that }. slightly increased with pressure. I-Iow­
cvcr, the values of 1nv obtained fro1n the consolidometer tests ,verc influenced
by the sample disturbance, and were largely dependent on the curve fit. Further­
more, a decrease in ;.;: ,vith the time might occur and would neutralize a possible
increase in }. caused by 1nv. For these reasons it was not possible to draw any
definite conclusions as to the true variation in}.. All the same, with the guidance
of previous experience regarding the coefficient of consolidation c11 , the error
caused by assuming}, to be a constant may be expected to be negligible at small
consolidation loads, at least in the case of mineral clays.
The basic assumptions for the following theoretical study arc stated below.
(1) Eq. (4: I) is valid;}. is constant.
(2) The clay is saturated and homogeneous.
(3) AU compressive strains within the soil mass occur in a vertical direction only.
(4,) I-Iorizontal sections remain horizontal throughout the consolidation process
(equal strains).
(5) Pore water flow occurs only in ~t horizontal direction (at right angles to
the drain wells).
(6) Settlement is clue only to outflow of pore water.
(7) No excess pore water pressure exists in the drain wells.
(8) The zone of influence of each well is a cylinder of nnit height.
On these assumptions, the flow condition at radius Q, cf. Fig. 10, becomes
2 n ev =- " (R' - e') m, ~ u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4: 2)
where v - rate of flow at radius (!, t
R - =
½ D radius of influence of the drain",
m, - coeffient of elastico-plastic deformability, conYentionally defined
as coefficient of volume compressibility,
11, - mean value of excess pore ,vater pressure at the time t.
1
E. Forslind has poinle<l out the similarity of Eq. (,_1,: 1) to the equation of diffusion, and made
some remarks regarding how to make use of this similarity.
~ For a drained area with drain distance= l,, D = 1.13 L when the drains are arranged in a square
pallern, and D =
1.05 L when the drains a.re arranged in a triangular patlern.
62
 Inserting Eq. (4: 1) into Eq. (4: 2) gives

i=
1 ;Ju
d f2
}'w = -
(
2
R'
}'w
u)-'- [ Q1 (,I - R~
,7
dt u
o' i·1_1_
_ 11 ....... (4: 3)

The expression ,vithin square brackets can be expanded in the following bi­
nomial series:

_ (n···l)(2n-1) rl _ (n-1)(2 n-1) (3 n-1) [! 8 .• · ]

:-3! 11:1 R0 4! n·' R8

Integrating term by term, and inserting the boundary conditions u == 0 at

u == r, the excess pore water pressure u at a given time t becomes

U, = }'1e
n- (
Jt
1
-
R' ,),,)-'- n
--. J-;-- 11 - -
2 I. t n-1 '
I,,.,,·
0 n
.
1 n-l
n(3n-l)
(@)'
If -
(n-1)
2!n'(5n-1)
2
(e)·'
IT -
0 , ]l 4 4
(R)G- ...·1_-rn
n-1[ l
(n-1) 2 (2n-1) n-1 T w •

3!n'(7n-l) n(3n-l)R ( )- ... _,··< - )

llut
H
i, 1r(R'-r') = j~, 2 1r e cl e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4: 5)
,.
and hence, since r'.! ~ R.'2 ,
_
= n--1( 2n-l;Ju)-'- ".:':.' ( r)
U )'w " -
1 - Jt n R n f n, R ............. (4: 6)

where the convergent series

- -n'
-
n-1
I[ --
1-
3n-l
n-1 (n-1)
n(3 n-l) (5 n-1) - 2!n' (5 n-1)(7n-l)- ..._ -
2
·1
1
1 ( r )"- 1·
1 1 n-1 ] (. r )" n-1
- 2-;; R " + _2n - 311-l + 2n 2 (3n-1) R " +
, [ n-1 , (n-1)' n-1 ] ( r )' n-l l
' n(3n-1)(5n-1)' 4n 8 (5n-l)- 2n 2 (3n-1) R " + ··· 1
Since n > 1, we thus have

(2 )'w)n-1
t=--~ n11+1 Ut-n [ f ,n, Rr )] " + C
(n-1)/4 (

where C is a constant of integration.

63
 The boundary condition u= u 0 for t = 0 gives finally

t = ~
/4
n n+l ",,,n- 1
I
[-=1- - -1)-
un-1 ltto n-1
] ... . ........ (-1-: 7)
where

a= -4(/- 1) [t (n, ~)J"

The functions f(n, ~) and a are represented in Fig. 31 for n = 1.2, 1.3 and 1.5.
Introducing the aYerage degree of consolidation
- -
fj = tto=--U
Uo
lhe time t required for a given degree of consolidation U is

t = a D"~1Ywn-1 [ --1:_--1 - 1] . . . . ..... . .. (-1-: 8)

i. 1
(u oi"- (1- u)"-

The excess pore water pressure u at radius (2 is obtained from Eqs. ( 4: 4) and
(4: 8) . Thus, from Eq. (4: 8) we get

.......... ( 4: 9)

and hence

in which
11

2(n- l )f (n, ;)
F(n, x)=x"
n-1 l n-1
1 - -- - - x·-
n l3n- l)
.,(
2!n- 5n-l
•
- ) x1
(n- l f
- •••
]
_

(The variable x represents in this case if or ~ .)

The function F(n, x) for n =
1.2, 1.3 and 1.5 is shown in Fig. 32.
The pore water pressure gradient becomes

. .. ... . . . .. ... (4: 11)

G4
 0.90

0.85
\\
'
\' i
\ I
0.80
'rl, \

0.75 ~·-t-\
\ i\ \ \ '

\ \i\ .
I\
i

~0.70

~ \.\ \]\ I\
\--\-_i i

- ---7\ r--' a•/2

7', ,1~~
~ 0.65 I

~
~
~ 0.60 ·-·

'-io.:
","' "'- 'F,, .
.,,§ass "'-r"-~
'

§
,;; 050 \ ', ',,}'-~',;~ 11
'le
'3 \ t: i"' "'
~ 045
f~~~'
'-- " I " "-
~ "' ,.,v>Z~-
,!,
,?_ 040 l~a-lJ I
1~j~~~ I ~
!
'
'
"~ Q35 -- ."-
I
I
.
-...'-.... i '-....'---:::'
·---~~.

2 "'I I
~1-- . ._____ . . .
I -...-...--.· '--....
t;
§ 030
"- I

··-
I"--..... Ii
025 ~ - ' '
I~ i
~i
020 ·-- l_l~ - --- '
'I
,

0.15 - ~-
~
I r------..,..._
I
iI
0.10
I -t----...
II !'
I
'

Q05 t

I I I
'
0
00, 0.06 0.08 010 0.12 0.14 016 0.78 020 0.22 024
RafJO of the d1Gmeters of a dram and Ifs zone of influence, d/ D

Fig. 31.

'
 lO

Q9

0.8
/
C>
"'
~
~ l--

------- V
~

---
---- ---
- ---
l--

/ / V
n•I.Sy

I v/ /
Q7
V
><' Q6
~
Lt.
c: as // /
.Q
u
C:
~ Q4
I/ Iv
03
I/
I

02

0.1

01 02 0.3 04 0.5 0.6 Q7 Q8 09 1. 0

Ratio x
Fig. 32.

41. Discussion

According to Eq. (4: 8), the time of consolidation at a given void ratio decreases
with increasing magnitude of the load increment producing consolidation.
The expression for the pore water pressure gradient, Eq. (4: 11), indicates that
it is not possible to make a small-scale test on consolidation by drain wells
which is representative of field conditions. Thus, if the subscript f represents
field conditions and the subscript c refers to laboratory conditions, and if,
furthermore, the conditions LJq1 = t1% and D 1/ d 1 = D e/de are fulfilled, then we
obtain the following relation between the pore water pressure gradients in the
consolidometer and in the field:
J u) _
D1
(rlgc-DcJQ J
(r) u)
Accordingly, the pore water pressure gradients occurring in t he consolido­
meter will be extremely high as compared with those occurring in the field, e.g.
in the case of De= 6 cm, and D1 = 1.5 m, 25 t imes t he field gradients. This

66
 ~
~
Fig. 33. Initial hydraulic gradients obtained ~
from Eq. (4: 11) for the drain spacings and
loads which were used at Ska-Ecleby. 0 L...:.11..L-.;;ii.:JL...;.;:...i;~~- -.i...._;:::il
0 02 0.4 0.6 08 1.0
Distance from centre of drain, in terms
of ifs radius of influence

difference between laboratory and field conditions can have important practi­
cal consequences, if the limit of the given law of pore water flow is exceeded
in the consolidometer test but not in the field. This seems undoubtedly to be
the case, and the theory presented here is therefore relevant to field conditions
only. For example, under the conditions in the test field at Ska-Edeby, the pore
water pressure gradients obtained from Eq. (4: 11) for n =
1.5 and u0 Llq =
would reach the maximum values given in Fig. 33. For a drain spacing of 0.9 m
and u0 = 2.7 t / m 2 , we thus find an initial gradient i1 = 0 < 10 within 76 % of
the zone of influence of a drain. For a spacing of 1.5 m and u0 =
3.9 t / m 2 , we
find i1= 0 < 10 within 91 % of the zone, and for a spacing of 2.2 m and u0 =
= 2.7 t / m 2 , ~t = O < 5 within 94 % of the zone. In this case, during the main
part of the period of consolidation, the gradients are obviously within the limits
of validity of Eq. (3: 1), as found in Chapter 3, while this is not the case in the
laboratory tests.
An approximate value of }, could be found on the basis of the results of the
consolidometer test if the limits of validity of Eq. (4: 1) were known. Thus, if
DARCY'S law of permeability is considered to be valid during the consolidO ··
meter test, then, according to Eqs. (3: 2) and (4: 1),

whence

Further comparisons between the theory presented and the results obtained
from field and laboratory tests will be made subsequently.

67
 5. Full-Scale Tests at Ska-Edehy

Aerial photo of test field.

50. Description of Test Field and :i\'Ieasuring Equip111ent

The test field at Ska-Edeby was planned so that it should not interfere with
the buildings of a future airfield (cf. Section 10). Owing to the limited possi­
bilities of choice, the site conditions are not unifor1n, and this has complicated
the inlerprctation of the results.
The field comprises four different test areas. Fig. 34 giYes their situations and
the depth to firm bottom in the field.
The areas were located with the guidance of sounding results so that the
depths to firm bottom should be as nearly equal as possible, and so that the

68
Fig. 34. T est areas and depth from ground surface to firm bottom, in m , in test field
at Ska-Edeby. Coordinate system gives horizontal distances, in m.

distances between tl1e areas should be as large as possible in order that the t est
results obtained in an area might not be appreciably influenced by neighbouring
areas. However, owing to irregular bed rock, t he depth to firm bottom in the
areas van es from 9 to 15 m. The average depth to firm bottom is estimated
at 11 m.

69
 Mesh width of sieve, in mm
0.075 0.125 0.25 05 2 4 8
100 I

90
I : I /
80
i I i I I
Cl)

g, 70
I I i
I i i I
I I
C:
t'­ 60 I I i I
Cl)

Q. 50 i i i I
C:
-~
a to i i I I
. I
E
E 30 i i I

~
20 i i i I
10 I i I '/
a I ~1 I
001 002 004 006 01 02 0.4 06 2 4 6 10
Aggregation size, in mm

Fig. 35 . Grain distribution of drain sand.

Draining Operation

All test areas but one were pro\'ide<l with sand drains. The draining operation
was carried out as follows. First, the top soil was removed to a depth of about
25 cm, and was replaced by a working table of sand and graYcl, approximately
50 to 70 cm in thickness, over which the equipment was to be operated. A hollow
mandrel was then driven through the working table and the soft clay down t o
firm bottom by means of a pile driver with a 1200 kg hammer and a maximum
fall of hammer of 0.5 m (as reported by the State Power lloard of Sweden).
During this operation, care was taken lo keep the mandrel vertical. The mandrel
was a steel pipe, 14 m in length and 15 cm in inner diameter, closed at the bottom
when driven down by a plane lid, 18 cm in diameter, but open when withdrawn.
When the mandrel pipe had reached firm bottom it was filled with saturated
sand-grain distribution shown in Fig. 35-to a heigh t of 4 m above t he surface
of t he working table and was then withdrawn, leaving a sand column, about
18 cm in diameter, in the clay. In the places where the depth exceeded 10 m
the pipe was first filled with sand, then withdrawn a distance necessary to refill
it as described above, and finally withdrawn completely. If the length of the
mandrel was insufficient to reach firm bottom, as it proved to be in a minor
part of Test Area No. III, then difficulties arose in filling the pipe with sand.
Thus the clay at t he lower end of the mandrel seemed to be too soft to resist
the pressur~ due to the sand drains. In that case great quantities of sand were

70
 ! Piezometr-r
7.5
B
f Vertical settlement meter
o-t Concrete block for measuring horizontal V/5~4P12
displacement of ground surface 15
..,. Plastic tube for measur,ng hcnzonluf
displacement al different depths

(G.- ground ;urlace, 8.- f,rm bottom)

F19ures below or above the number of a gwen measuring

point represent the depths below ground surface at wlllch
measurements were made
2.5
1° jJ-15
I
I
1/p---HIO
74
1.5
V/2 .o s.o
25 a }PIO
Jg 2g/fi4
B. s.i,,
9
V2 ff] \ \ ~ p ~~:
7.5 G 9.0 \ 50 5.0
B. \ 7.5
P4,•r -~~~--~
206 75
vs
15
' 'HI
----~--- ----- - -
/
/1.g55
V7
Drain
spacing
_I-IJ1_~2~0=
6'-'75'----

/ . ~.s • 0.9m
I p '5Q
Drain / V6t~
·
spacmg 1
/ 1.5 ~ o;,65.o
5.o ~
=2. 2m ; G • 6
I is l.5
I 5.0 SQ
75 P7
n-,~~,..,.--. f.o-H/2
Jg °R7 0 Sm JOm

Scale

\
7.5
\ 8.
V!Ot!PB.
1.5 \

Fig. 36 . Test Area No. I : D rain spacings, and meter locations and depths, in m, below
ground surface. Settlement meters Nos. V2, V7 and V l 2 are placed in sand drains.

often used u p before sufficiently strong supports were finally obtained for the
p ipe to be filled .
The drains were arranged in a triangular pattern. I n all, 3500 drains were
installed, and their average length was 12 111.

T e st A reas

The test areas are circular . Area N o. I is 70 111 in diameter, and is divided into
t hree equal sect ors with the respective drain spacings 0.9, 1.5 a nd 2.2 m . It is
load ed by a gravel blanket about 1.5 111 in thickness, including the working t able.
Area N o. II is 35 m in diamet er, the drain spacing is 1.5 m, and t he tot al
overload, including th e working table, is gravel, about 1.5 111 in thickness.

71
 P8!

''\ V7!
1.5

'
V41 'p4
l5 2.5
5.0 5.0
8

legend, 6 Piezomeler
t
~ lvs
f Vertical settlement meter
o-+ Concrete block for measurmg
~ /.5 horizontal displacement of
,,S> ground surface
<>-1- Plastii; tube for measuring
o<o
,:, horizontal displacement of
,f; different depths
0-v o Sm 20m
For other particulars,
see Fig.JS
P6!1V6
5.0 /.5 Scale
8

Fig. 31. Test Arca No. II: l\Ieter locations and depths, in m, below ground surface.

Arca No. III is 35 m in diameter, the drain spacing is l.5 m, and the total
overload, including the working table, is g1·avel, about 2.2 m in thickness. To
take precautions against possible slides, this area was surrounded by a loading
berm, 12 m in width and 0.7 m in thickness.
Area No. IV is 35 m in diameter, and the overload is gravel, 1.5 m in thick­
ness. I--Ierc no sand drains ,vere installed.
The unit volume weight of the overload material ,vas continuously checked,
and was found to be 1.79 t/m3 on an average.

Vertical Settle,nent illeters

The settlement of the ground surface and in the interior of the clay, and in
Test Area No. I also in sand drains, was observed at different points within
and ontside the test areas, see Figs. 36 to 39.
The settlement of the ground surface was n1easured by settlement meters
consisting of rods ,velded to rectangular plates, which were placed directly on
the ground below the sand fill.

72
 PB, "'8
5 0 'i' v,
8. I5

legend, l Piezome/er
1 Verlica! set/fement meter
a.. Concrete block far measuring
PS·' 6 horizon/a! displacement al
50}'. 1_5 ground surface

B
•"-=5~m~=====""'20m a-. Plasf1c lube for measuring
Scale honzontaf d1splacement al
different depths
For other par/,culars.
see Fig.36

Fig. 38. Test Arca No. III: l\Ieter locations and depths, in m, bdow ground surface.

The settlement in interior parts of the clay and in the drains was measured
by means of settlement meters consisting of rods, 19 mm in diameter, ,vclde<l
to earth screws, Fig. 40, ,vhich were screwed down to the desired level (cf. also
l(JELLi\IAN, ICALLSTENIUS, and LILJEDAHL, 1955, Fig. 4). The earth-screws used
in the drains were smaller in diameter than those used in the clay (125 as com­
pared with 222 mm) and were perforated.
The settlement on top of the drains was measured by settlement meters
eonsisting of rods, 19 mm in diameter, welded to circular, perforated iron plates,
150 111111 in diameter.
The rods were coated with asphalt and wrapped in aluminium foil. In the
gravel blanket they were protected by a galvanized iron tube, 2 in. in inner
diameter. The level of the upper ends of the rods was 111casurecl by a precision
levelling instrument.

73
 ~---~y4j"!p4
15 2.5
so 50
a

legend, 6 P1ezometer
i Vertical settlement meter
<>+Concrete block for measurmg
honzontal d1Spfocemenl of
. ground surface
o-+ Ptasftc tube for measuring
horizontal d1spfacemenl al
different depths
/ D-=~-5~m~======"20m For oilier porficu/ars,
P6/J.V6 see Fig 35
50 15 Scale
a

Fig. 39. Test Arca No. IV. 1\Ietcr locations and depths, in m, below ground surface.

Fig. 40. Earth-screw used for

settlement observations below
ground surface level.

74
Horizontal Settlement Meters

The horizontal movements of the clay were studied in two different ways.
The displacement of the ground surface was measured by precision measuring
tape from iron pins fixed in concrete blocks, which were placed immediately
outside the test areas and which followed the movements of the ground surface,
lo wooden piles placed at great distances from the test areas so as not to be
influenced by them. Since the piles might be displaced by accident, the distances
between the pins were also measured.
The measurements in the interior of the soil were made by means of plastic
tubes, which were driven into the soil clown to firm bottom and which were
supposed to follow closely the movements of the clay. To begin with, the incli­
nation of the tube at different depths was measured by an inclinometer ordinarily
nscd for measuring bore holes in rock. There were reasons to believe that the
inclinometer was affected by v ibrations during the first measurements which
took place during the driving of drains. Furthermore the inclinometer seemed
too long and heavy, and it was suspected that the inclination of the tube at
the point of observation due to the soft clay supporting the tube might be
affected by the inclinometer itself. These defects were already observed in the
second measurements, and the corresponding results are therefore omitted here.
However, at an early stage, a new type of measuring device was installed
outside the sectors of Area No. I and also outside Area No. II. A flexible metal
tube, 105 mm in inner diameter, was carried down to a depth of 3 to 4 m. A hole
for this tube was pre-bored through the dry crust down to a depth of 2 m. The
space between the tube and the clay was filled with fine saturated sand, and
concrete was poured around the top of the tube.
The inclination of the tube with reference to the ground surface at depths
of 1, 2, 3, and, where possible, 4 m was measured with an instrmp.ent specially
made for this purpose, Fig. 41. This instrument consists of a straight metal rod,
20 mm in diameter, "-hich is guided at the top of the tube and at the point

D,splacemenl of
ground surface
a

Fig. 41. Sketch of instrument used for

Oisplacemenl at
determination of horizontal displacement depth z
at a ginn depth, z, below ground surface.

75
 0 Sm Jam
Legend. o Cement tubes, 6 in in dtameter;
through gro~el fill Scale

Fig, 42. Locations of cement piprs through gravel fill in Test Arca No. I.

of observ:ition. A precision water level is fixed on the top of the rod. The angle
between the rod and the water level is measured by a dial gauge by which the
inclination of the rod can be determined with an accuracy of l in 10000. In
practice the accuracy is less, especially ,vhen the measurements arc carried out
at a depth of 4 m. Here the rod must be lengthened, and the apparent ineli­
uation can be appreciably different from the true value. llowevcr, this source
of error was reduced by rotating the rod twice through an angle of 120° and
measuring its inclination each time.

Piezorneters
The pore water pressures were measured at different levels outside and inside
the test areas, Figs. 3G to 39, by means of a Type SGI II piezomcter (KALL­
STENIUS and WALLGREN, 1956, Figs. 18 a and 20). The accuracy of this type
of piezometer is estimated by the above authors at ± 10 cm of water column.
Attempts were made to place the piezometers half-way between the drains,
i.e. in the centre of a "drain triangle". In reality this attempt will be hindered
by difficulties, such as the fact that sand drains are seldom nrtical ( cf. Sec­
tion 53).

Jfeasures Tahen for Future Investigations

For future investigations, ce1nent pipes, 6 in. in diameter, were placed in great
numbers within the areas, Figs. 42-43, leaving holes through the fill. In drained
areas the tubes were placed half-way between the drains.

76
 legend o Cement lubes, 6 in. in diameter,
through gravel fill

Fig. ,1,3, Locutions of cement pipes through

gran?-1 fill in Test Areas Nos. II to IV.

51. Geological Description of Site 1

For the geological investigation, five cores were taken in Area No. I. T\vo of
them were taken im1nediately before, and the other three approximately one
year after, the completion of this test area.
The irregular topography of the site has had important effects on the sedi­
Jnentation of the clay and also on its stratigraphy.
The soil2 in the test areas consists of post-glacial clay to a depth of :l to G m.
Underneath there is a zone of glacial varved clay, which contains thin layers
of sand or silt of varying thickness near the bed rock. Sand or silt:~ is generally
found in the immediate neighbourhood of the bed rock but does not continuously
cover it (cf. also Section 55).
The dry crust has a varying thickness, generally 1 m.
1'he clay has in some places a high sulphur content. The carbon content,
determined according to KoLTIIOFF and S,rnDELL (cf. SrLFVERBERG, 19:37), is
,ipproximately 0.4 % both in the post-glacial and late glacial clay.
The clay content (((particle size" less than 2 ,u) varies generally from 60 to 70 %­
The grain size distribution in a core taken in Area No. I is shmvn in Fig. 44.
• This description is a brief summary of a report by JXRNEFORS (1957).
~ A mineralogical investigation has been requested by the Institute but has nol yel been carried oul.
=
:i Silt finmo + mji.ila ("particle sizes" from 0.06 to 0.002 mm).

77
 Grain size disfnbufion, i~ %
'""""=v------:::-- - ~ - - - - -.o o 20 40 60 eo 100
Ory crust

Grey-green

~
u

~
u
~
!:!>
It)

cf 5

~
u
"t:,
~ Bands of iron sulphide
'-
~
~
u
t:I
l5 10
11 >---+---+----+--+----<

12 ~~ _ _.__..__~-~

Fig. 44. Geological profile and grain size dislrihution in core taken in Test Area Xo. I.

52. Geotechnical Description of Clay

General Details

The preliminary geotechnical investigation was limited by the short time at

disposal before the drainage and loading of the test areas had to be carried out.
Nevertheless, a rather extensive testing programme was performed, and some
of its deficiencies were remedied at a later slage.
The shear strength of the clay was deter mined in situ by the vane borer test
(CADLING and 0DENSTAD, 1950) and in the laboratory mainly by the fall-cone
Lest (interpreted according to HANSBO, 1957) as well as by the unconfined com­
pression test and by the laboratory vane test (see KALLSTENIUS, 1958).
The sensitivity was determined by the field vane test and by the fall-cone test.
Determinations were also made of the unit volume weight, the water content
in per cent of dry weight, and the Atter berg limits. In view of th e extensiYc
testing programme, the time-wasting determinations of t he Atterberg limits were
sometimes replaced by the simple "finlekstal" (fineness number) determinations
(STATENS JARNVAGAR, 1922). At a later stage, determinations were also ma<lc
of the void ratio and specific graYity of clay mineral.
The geotechnical dat a are shown in Figs. 45 to 50.

78
 Shear strength, Sensitivity Unit weight, Water content and Afterberg's limits,
in tjm2 in t/m3 in¾
0 0.5 /0 1.5 2.0 0 10 20 30 1.3 1.5 1.7 D 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
LcgenJ
I
.. Fiol vane
Fall- cone
0
____/
D 0

.
" LaD. vane
Unc. ~ , ; ;
I
I
I
1
7
-
I ~ l, I

E
~
2
3
/
\
2
3
I 11.'ld vano
'fi'Fa/1· COIi!.'
3
2
'\
I
2
3
/
,./w
_.,,. --
•
u
J2 4
1/1
4 4 4
•p/ "L
5 '~ 1\ \I /;
~ 5 5 I 5 5
"C
I
I I
V i
i ---~~
~ 6 6 6 6
~ 7 7
\ 7
I\ 7
I /. V
~ I
.!,
.,,w
,s
8
I\
8
I
8 8 ,-{ l

I\
g9 • I
~ I
9
\\
9
\
9
I
ID ID 10 IO
',_"-, I\ I
\

11 ~-
I
11 11 II

12
I 12
I 12 12

Fig. 4•5. Geotechnical data on clay. Test Area No. I, drain spacing 0.9 m. Legend for shear
strength curves: fu1l-linc, field vane tests; dash-line, faH-cone tests.

Shear stren..qth, Sensitivity Unit weight, Water content and Afferberg 's limits,
in t/mZ inl/ml m °lo
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 D ID 20 30 1.3 1.5 1.7 0 20 40 60 80 l00 120 140 160
D D D 0
lcgcml, Slff.! fg.45

,- I / - 2
-
Field r/Jll11
Fall-cone
2
"\
/
2
I
I
--
"' J
,/
~

I
3 3 3

-1-\V ~
,-
·;
\
4 f--~

6 6
4

5 \
4

6
-
ttI ? - - .wL

1
,_ i - - ,_ -}- ,_ 11
7 ~
7 7 1;-
8
I 8 8

9 9 9
/ /
ID ID 10
i
11 I 11 II 11

12 I 12 12 12

Fig. 46. Gcotechnical data on clay. Test Area No. I, drain spacing 1.5 m.
Legend, sec Fig. 45.

7!)
 Shear_ sfrength, Sensitivity Unit weight, Water content and Atterberg ·s limits,
mt/m2 in t/m3 in %
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 10 20 30 1.3 1.5 1.7 0 20 40 60 80 l00 120 140 160
0 0 0 0
If11genfI See F,945
I I
2
~
-- 2
I
' --r
Field l~ane
\/ •Fo11-
2 2 ""- '
., ,_ - \ ,?-
E
3
,_ WfV
-f 3
cone

I
1
J \
3
Wp/ w, ~
4 4
I
4 ~
'
5
I 5 5
\\
I _J__ /i/
,_ '-• .
i'
6 6 I 6
,_ 1-. 7 I I 7
\ 7
J I
~
,_ ~.-1
~- -
-
8

9 --i~~_J_
I
•
II
I
8

9
8

9 ~
\ \

10 10
I I 10
I 10
1\1
II II II
\
II
11
12 12 12 12
Fig. ,1-7, Gcotcclmical data on clay. Test Area No. I, drain spacing 2.2 m.
Legend, sec Fig. ,1:5.

Shear strength, Sensit,vdy Unit weight, Water content and Atterberg's limits,
m t!m2 int/m3 m %
O O5 iO 1.5 20 0 10 20 JO I 3 1.5 1.7 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0 0 0 0
I I I I
I
lfgend; See F19,~5
~, I I 1

I I I~ I~ I \
'I/'
E
2 I
I I
. ---,
2

3 ' I
2
J
\
2

3
,_
~r ,111
I I 4
ilField)vane
1yFal/-!cGfle 4
I
4 1
_iwej w'- I"'
i
I, : '
I \ I V: V
--t<i.\( 5

6
-5

6
5

6
I II
\\ 7
\ 7 7
,! //
I 8 __j I 8 8
1: ,\j
;: 9 I ~ I
9 i I 9 9 /2
2- j,_
" 10 I~ 10 10 10
\1.
II
I II
I
II II
ff I
' i
12
'
I
12 12 12
I
Fig. 4.S. Gcotechnical data on clay. Test Arca No. II. (Average of two observations
except for points in parentheses, which represent single observations.)
Legend, see Fig. 45.
80
 Shear strength, Sensitivity Unit weight, Water content and Atterberg's limlfs,
in t/m2 mt/m3 in%
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 10 20 30 1.3 1.5 1.7 0 20 to 60 80 100 120 ltO 150
0 0 0 0
egr,J. See Fig.45
I I I
I
11
~
~
s
.-
2

3
I
I 2

3
\ 2

3
I
"~=
2
3
I
V
I
.....-"1 --
I /

0
.le
!,
4 ~
{{i 4 flfl!, vane
FalJ.!canr,
4 4
w,
I
w
5 5 5 -- 5
'p

"§"
I
I - I
6 6 6 5
I
~ 7 7 7 7
I
~ '
.e I
•
-Q 8 8 8 8
,s 9
1\ 9 9 9
ii}
C,
10
I\ 10
i\ 10 10
I ,I \
"\ •
11 11 11 11

12 .•.12 I/ 12 12
I

Fig. 4,9. Geotechnical data on clay. Test Area No. III. (Average of two observations
except for points in parentheses, which represent single observations.)
Legend, see Fig. ,.i.s.

Shear strength. Sensitwtfy Umlwe,ght, Water content and Atterberg's limits,

in tf.m2 mt/m3 in %
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 10 20 30 1.3 1.S 1.7 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150
0 0 0 0
j egenJ, S1re IF,gAS
I I
2
-:-- 2
/7 2 I 2 /I \\
€
7
i~~;~ ~~~: ' y

s 3 , 3 3 3
I
.- - I 4 _."i,_
w,
\ ,w
4

-~ 4
"5
0
.le
!, 5 - 5 5
I I
" I /'
"§ 5 ? 5 I
5
I
5
I ,
0
6, 7
•- ~
7 -- I
7 7
I
~
.e
•
-Q 8 8 8 8 I
I
,s 9 I'\ 9 9 9 I
ii} I I
C,
10
/ \ 10 10 10
I

11
i\ \ ,.,,11 11 I
11
I
I' ~
12
'oo/2 12 12 '--<~

Fig. 50. Geoteclmical data on clay. Test Arca No. IV. (Average of two observations
except for points in parentheses, which represent single observations.)
Legend, see Fig. 45.
81
6
 The agreement between strength values obtained by the different methods is
fairly reasonable. The clay is very soft, even for Swedish conditions. Thus the
shear strength is slightly above or around 0.5 t/m2 (= 0.05 kg/cm2 ) just below
the dry crust, and then increases with depth to 1 or 2 t/m 2 near firm bottom.
The observed sensitivity is normal for Swedish clays. I-Io,vcver, at a depth of
1 m the results of the field vane test indicate the existence of quick clay. This
result is not recorded in the fall-cone test. It may be due to the fact that when
the test is performed in situ free ground water is added to the clay during re­
moulding. This is rendered possible by frequent fissures in the clay at this depth.
The observed void ratio of the clay varied from 2.1 to 2.3 at a depth of 2 m
and from 1.7 to 2.1 at a depth of 8 111.
The results show variation in the properties of the clay in the test field and
also in the test areas 1 • This variation, which is observed even between neigh­
bouring borings, makes the interpretation of the results difficult and accounts
for the ,vell-known fact that samples taken from a single boring may give a poor
picture of the clay properties.

Consolidation Data

The compression characteristics of the clay were originally determined by con­

ventional oedometer tests carried out by AB Orrje & Co. on samples, 60.5 mm
in diameter and 20 mm in height, at the successive loads 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6,
and 3.2 kg/cm 2 . Enough time of compression under each load was allowed for
the primary consolidation to be practically completed. Ordinarily a time allowance
of 3 days was used, sometimes even 1nore.
The oedometer tests were as a rule carried out on samples taken at depths
of 2, 5, and 8 m below ground surface. The samples were taken by means of
a SGI IV sampler, no other sampler being available at that time for such an
extensive investigation. This sampler is easily handled but gives some dis­
turbance that can be observed in the compression curves.
The results of these tests are given in Figs. 51 to 56.
Later on new samples were taken between Areas Nos. I and II by means of
a SGI VIII sampler, which gives better samples (cf. KALLSTENIUS, 1958). Con­
ventional oedometer tests, also including unloading, were carried out at the
Institute on these samples taken at depths of 3, 4,, 6, and 7 m below ground
surface. In the tests performed at the Institute a time allowance of 1 day (24
hours) was ordinarily used. The results of these tests are given in Fig. 57.
Consolidometer tests were also made on samples taken with a SGI VIII
sampler and with a soil sampler with metal foils (l(JELLMAN, KALLSTENIUS,
and "\VAGER, 1950), where drainage was allowed on1y through a central drain,
cf. Fig. 58. This rendered possible a better correspondence between the pore
1
Note, for example, the variation in depth lo the high-plasticity layer which is situated at a depth
ol' about 5 m below the ground surface and is about I m in thickness. This is even more obvious
from Figs. 72 to 74, pp. 115-116.

82
 Effective vertical pressure,,'n kg/cm
2
1 70
2 4 68 2 468 2
0 8
leg nd, Figure Wllhm cif&te represf!nt!f /he
depth which sample~ was' token
or' '
r--.. I"--- l19ht-lme curves fepre ent I/tu
coe,.1c1 n. o, con 0 /uO on

~
'\

""
\ Ml\,
~
®1 \ \

\ I\ ~ I~®'
"'\ I\ \ "\l"
~ V
I)
\
____ , ~~,
$0,
I
-
40 1·\ 0
Fig. 51. Data on consolidation of day. Test Arca No. I, drain spacing 0.0 m.

Effective vertical pressure, in kg/cm2

1 10
2 4 68 2 4 68 2
Le.s ·oo P@u,e j;'Mn
depth .
c,cile
t which
;ersqnl~
/he
srimp!e wa lfhen
8

I"- I"'- ltghf-lme curves ;epre ,enf he

coe,,1c1 n, o, cansouaa on 7 b'
\ \ \
"'
"'
,..
i,·
6 ;:_

\ \
5
-
0

"::,
0

~l'1,
1

4
0"'
§::
"a-
\11\ 3 ' 5·
0
::,

"
I "
I\ I" 2 3
,,._
'
"
G)
I\
"'L~ ~

'
I

""'
(2)
I
' v- ~\ "
~

40 " ,',__
~
0
Fig. 52. Data on consolidation of day. Test Area No. I, drain spacing 1.5 rn.
 Effectwe vertical pressure, in kg/cm 1
2 4 6 8 1 2 4 6 8 !O

Fig. 53. Data on consolidation of clay . Test Area No. I , drain spacing 2.2 m .

2
Effectwe vert,cat pressure, m kg /cm
,0-1 1
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 TO 2
0 . . . . - - - -.........--,......,..--,---"T""""""'T""""'T"""T"""---, 8

\)
7 0
Cl>
::::
n·
6 m·
;;;..
0....,
()
5 g
l/\
0

4
a:
Q
a-
::,
()

J "5
:3
c5
b.
2 ()
3
~
.,,
ri

40'------ - " - - -J..__-'--------L__,__ __,__ _ -'---__,___,_------L_ - - J 0

Fig. 54. Data on consolidation of clay. T est Area No. II.

 2
Effective vertical pressure, in kg/cm
2 4 6 B 7 2 4 6 B IO 2
B
I : legJ/ld. Figure rlfhm circle rekes~ts the
~-,-~ i' depth ~ which sbmp/e \was t ~en
l19hf•II curves ~epresent jfhe
' ~ coeff1c1 nf of cor 'SO/ida 7 r,
"" 0

'~~\' ~
~
6 ;,•
\\\ J\':& ~ ' ~
0

11 \ j\
5 ":,'
0
VJ
\,I I\
\ \ ,, 4
0

&
5
\
\I
\ ~.,\ J
:,

~"
s·
\j\ ~
\ I

'11~I ®
1 1\ ~- ~: 2
c5

"3
"''
\'
\\,,
·,,K _,-
Q) \ \ ,
\
\

k:V
..
/
~-~~ ''Ql \>I
I
~
VJ

""'
'<>- -
I ~ - ~ - CC' ,.-0
40 0
Jfig. 55. Data on consolidation of clay. Test Arca No. III.

2
Effective vertical pressure, ,n l<g/cm
2 4 6 8 I 2 4 6 8 IO 2
8
Leg na
1
F,guce ~ithm ,,,/te "f'"F"'t the
~ '-, ~"'
depth a which lamp/e was taken
I
l1Qht·l1 e curves reJ!rAsen} he
coett,ci nf al co sobdaf101

~t\,
\\' ':,.. \
\

' '~
1~\ \ \

'l2l '~ \,
1\ '\®
~
""
Q)

\ '\._1 ~
®
\i V ~
\ / f!::;
40 0
Fig. 56. Data on consolidation of clay. Test Area No. IV.
 2
Effective vertical pressure,in kg /cm

-
2 4 6 8 I 2 4 6 8 IO
Legend, Figure w~ hrn ci cle rJpresents
--~ '\
x
the depfh,m m, al hi'h sampf
was faki 'I

:;, 10
-~\ \
\\ \
-~
., :;,

'
-<:
-le
~lz I\
\ ~ ~\
Cl.
§
"' 20 I\
~
.,;
\
I\ \\
~
0 \ ~ 't~
L
' "'F'~"':~"\,_ ~
*.s ,_ -·~1
-,r1,,-..
' --. I
30
c'
·~
.,"'<..
____
,
'- ---- "
,...__

"" ":~
'
0
Cl.
E 40
,_
--- r--.
1-,...__
'\
: I
®.
',,

i !'. -
~
l)

50 Ii •
Fig. 57. Data on consolidation of clay samples taken between Test Areas Nos. I and II.

water escape in drained areas and that in the consolidometer test. The sample
height used in this case was 40 mm and the drain diameter was 10 or 12 nun.
The material used for the drains was either sand or mica.
The interpretation of the results obtained from the mica drain tests was
complicated because the drain diameter became smaller during the test. Thus
the diameter was about 7 mm on an average after the test and varied generally
from top to bottom of the sample. These results are therefore omitted.
In the sand drain tests a stiffening effect of the drains was suspected, but was
not to be observed. Sand used as drain material seemed even superior to mica
as in the case of sand no change of drain diameter ,vas to be observed during
the test. The sand drain tests were also made in order to study the effect on
clay behaviour in consolidation due to remoulding.
The result obtained in this case is given in Fig. 59.

86
Fig. 58. Specimen prepared for con­
solidometer test with central drain and
split diametrically into two equal parts.

Effective pressure I in kg/cm 2

7 10
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2
0 ,-,:==::::::i:::::r,-r-r-rnT~ 8
--------- ",J"'1
1---t---t--,\l , Ho/, foe o,ol,o/1 d,om bo
I
aj;,,;;-
I
7b'
t \I / 1
open \lube - "removmf tlhld" "' 3'
n
~ 10
-S!
f---t---t--1-i\-c.----t---1t--+-
(l
i \I 1
--,· i -
Hole !tor cenlral drd,m b:~d w1lh
/ closed lube - 'd1'Splacm9 lmefhcd ·
si 0
E' ~

s§
is 1---t---+','-',-!+7--11 r---~---
~
"'0
~

L
20
4 g:
:,
:cP
I h}/f'--r --I-H---1
J's
cl

E" !_.---- ::::: -r~ T'- I 3

' 2 -fy "'
8 .,'/ I I "1
I "'
,,-( I Remqu/ded sarpp!:___,,-+--+---,
1 ~
" ! Ii llgh/- /me c~rves repre'Sent
! II /he coefftc1ent of conso/1da/1on
40 1 I 1 1 1
0

Fig. 59. Consolidation data obtained from consolidomcter tests where drainage
was allowed through a central sand drain.

An increase in consolidation index is obtained if the pore ,vater escape takes

place in a horizontal direction (i.e. parallel to the clay strata) and not in a
vertical direction (er,> cv). The results obtained by using central drains agree
fairly well with those obtained by consolidation of slices of clay cut out in

87
 Effective pressure
t:I'
q
+ ibc,
,be, •be, "' fr( log. scale)
E.·O
C:
-~
tl
a, Fig. 60. Graphical determination of e2 from com­
'--
E'
0
pression-pressure curve. The trlines are drawn
from the point of intersection of e = 0 and
'-'
15 =
a a0 to the points of intersection of the verti­
'-'
..:;:
'--
=
cal through a o0 + L1q and the respective
~ compression curves. The respective values of e2
are defined by the deformations along the e2 -

[,
= =
lines from a o0 to a 2 a0 •

u verlical direction so that the pore water escape in the oedometer is parallel
t.o the clay strata (cf. LUNDSTROM, 1057). Remoulding causes a downward dis­
placement of t he void ralio vs. pressure curve and reduces the value of the
coefficient of consolidation.
The disturbance due to the SGI IV sampler may cause a change in the com­
pression characteristics, and may lead to underestimation of the final com­
pression. However, satisfactory values of the compression characteristics can be
obt ained by judgement based on experience concerning the disturbance factor
for the type of sampler used (cf. T ERZAGHI and PECK, 1948; ScrrMERTMANN,
1955). In practice, at least when dealing with clay disturbed by driving of sand
drains, an acceptable approximate value of the final compression for normally
consolidated clay is obtained by choosing for e2 , cf. Eq. (I: 5 b), the value de­
termined by the graphical method shown in Fig. 60.
A comparison between the compression and consolidation charac teristics ob­
tained by the conventional oedometer tests is made in Table 5.
From the relationship between preconsolidation pressure, shear strength and
liquid limit previously stated by the Author (HANSBO, 1957), t he clay was fo und
to be normally consolidated. However, in spite of the disturbance effects of the
sampling operation, the preconsolidation pressure obtained by CASAGRANDE's
method (CASAGRA..'\IDE, 1936) is often found to be higher than that corresponding
to the calculated value for normally consolidated clay. This seemingly peculiar
phenomenon can partly be ascribed to friction in the oedometer, but this does
not explain the whole discrepancy. Thus, LEONARDS and RAMIAH (1959) found
from oedometer tests with and without secondary consolidation t hat after a
period of rest a quasi-preconsolidation pressure was developed in the clay, which
was considerably higher than the maximum previous consolidation pressure.
Such a quasi-preconsolidation pressure developed in clay with the time of rest
was also mentioned by LAMBE (1958).

88
 Table 5.
Estimated aYerage
Conventional' t 2 Modified' s, Minimum of c0
between depths of
Drain in% in% in 10 -' cm'/sec 2.5 and 7.5 m
Area spacing,
m m depth depth I cvl~
depth
2m l depth
5 m I
depth
8 m
depth
2 m I
depth
5 m I
depth
8 m
depth
2 m I 5 m I Sm
Ii
'
in %
0
0- '
cm·/sec

0.7
I 0.9 11 8 12 12 15 25 0.4 1.0 0.5 17
1.5 13 10 10 11 19 23 0.3 O.ii 0.7 18 0.5
2.2 16 1I 14 8 10 28 0 .2 0.6 0.5 14 0.5

II 1.5
I 10 I !J - 13 I 10- 14 I 8 I lf> -17 I 20-21 I 0.6 I 0.3 - 0.4. 0.5 - l.4 I 15 - 16 I 0.4- 0.7
13 - 15 18 - 19 0.2 - 0.-t 0.5- 0.G 0.5 - 0.6 13 - 15 0.4- 0.6
III
I 1.5 12 - 13 10- ll 10 - 11 10-11
1
IV
I
no
drains
I
8
I 10--11 I !l-11
I
7
I 13 - 16 I 17- 21
I
0.5 I 0.4.-0.51 U.4-0.5 1 13- 15 I 0.4-0.5
1
"Conventional" refers lo the method of determining r, by the inclination of the virgin compression curve, whereas "modified" refers to the
method of determining r 2 which is demonstrated in Fig. 60.

00
co
53. Pore Water Pressures

Introductory Remarks
The piezometers used in the test field at Ski\-Edeby have no doubt generally
given reliable pore water pressure values. However, some difficulties can be met
with in the interpretation of the results.
The main difficulty appears in drained areas ,vhere the observed initial pore
water pressure and the rate of pore ,vater pressure dissipation (sec Section 11
and Fig. 11) depend on the distance from a drain to the point of observation.
Nmv the exact position of the piezometers between the drains is not known.
Observations made at a given single point in a drained area may therefore give
a misleading conception of the pore water pressure caused by the loading and
draining operations or of the average pore water pressure dissipation. To give
comparable values of the pore water pressure in a drained area, the measure­
ments should thus be canied out at a number of comparable points.
The interpretation of the test results in some places is rendered difficult
owing to the irregular bed rock, or to the sand and silt layers near firn1 bottom,
or to the fissures which have also been found at great depths. Thus the filter
stone, which is continuously driven downwards, might come to pass a fissure
or a sand layer, and this would no doubt influence the measurements.
Of course, instrument errors may in exceptional cases influence the 1neasure­
mcnts. However, these errors are generally easy to detect.
For example, instrument errors might be due to stresses in the rubber mem­
brane of the piezometer pick-up, to the fact that a filter stone might become
blocked, to air bubbles in the measuring system, etc.
Furthermore, some part of the oil-filled measuring systen1 may occasionally
not be sufficiently heat-insulated. In such a case, a change of temperature in
the tube causes a pressure, which may influence the n1easurements if the change
is appreciably quicker than the time lag of the piezometer 1 . This effect can be
studied in Table 6. Here the tubes were intentionally left uninsulated for 20 to
30 cm of their lengths, from the extension pipe to the insulating box protecting
the manometers. The greatest change of pore pressure due to the change in
temperature has occurred in piezometer No. Pl: 9.0. However, the filter stone
of this piezometer may have been nearly blocked or surrounded by a clay lense
of extremely low permeability.
\-Vith satisfactory heat-insulation no similar temperature effects were to be
observed.
1
An expression for the time lag was given in KALLSTENIUS and WALLGREN (1956). However,
this expression was based on the Yalidity of DARCY'S law of permeability. If this law is replaced by
the new equation of permeability, Eq. (3: 1), we obtain the corresponding time lag
T K, [
= -;; _(duT)n-1
1 1 J
(du 0)n-l _
11

where I('-!. 0v Yw ( 9
~ - I )-n r 0 -(2-n)
•h(n-1) n
ev volume factor of piezometer

90
Table 6.

Observed manometer pressure, in t/m:!

Arca No. I
Piezometer 11/9 195S; 12/!J 1958; 15/9 1958;
No. 01 p.m. 04 a.m. I 02 p.m.
temp. +
18° C temp. + 6° C I
temp.+ 1s° C

p 1: 2.5 O.;o 0.75 0.79

5,0 0.70 0.GO O.i5
9.o 2.18 l.GO 2.23
B. -0.83 -0.90 -0.82

p 7: 2.5 1.28 1.18 1.31

5.o 1.83 1.75 1.84
13. 0.25 0.19 I 0.21
I
p 9: 2.5 0.90 0.70 0.88
5.0 1.45 JAO 1.41
9.0 0.U9 0.55 0.58
I
p m5.o ' 0.86
I 0.90
I 0.85
I
Finally it is important for the connection between the nozzle and the sealing
cap to be tight. If this is not the case, the piezometric head corresponds to the
water level in the tnbe.
In May 1958, all piezometers were removed from the field and overhauled
in the laboratory in order that possible instrument errors might be detected
and eliminated.
The observed pore water pressures sometimes seem strange. I-Iowever, the
problem of variation in pore water pressure, e.g. with the ground water level
and the time of the year, is a complex one, and has not yet been finally solved.

Test Results
The observed pore water pressures are given in Figs. 61 to 66 and in Table 7.
Detailed information about all results of the mcasure1nents would require too
much space.

r0 = \/ A1'4 :r (.A1 = filter area)

'Yw unit volume weight of water
Ll1LT = accuracy of piezometer
Llu 0 = difference bebveen recorded and true pore water pressure
Choosing, for example, n = 1.5 ·we thus find
5
,
T = K,
~ \
( /
xVLht 0
.Ju 0
- - -1 ) , where
,duT
[(1 =0.828 0v\lri'wl.
0

The importance of this new expression for the time lag is particularly great where high accuracy
is needed.

91
 4
"'E lmlial lo
-:C:-3
-S /~,
-,; 2
0 ,.J load, r( duced b setlleme t
~
~
0
0 t
1957 1958 1959
8 M J JIA S10 NID JIF MIA Ml J JIA S10 NID JIF MIA

7 ""
~
6 ,_.1!1
#,;
'\ \ ,.,,,
5
A
Q
I
\
1~~
\:..:0
-,
\0
,,,
0 \ '{' ---- ',,
4
,zl: ,,_

,=--- ---- --- ,,

)'
•r('s
.,..,:~s '
3

2
-r J.. P5B_...,,_
1-~...

-- ~ --
--- - r:--=- _____._
-~~
'- ,,

- ""'- - - --· -- •

' '-.....- ---

/

E ''"-', /

--
///

-S
-,,·
0
~
-c
' - ~

\Avera e of P~:7.5,PS,7.5, and P/217.5

·'< 0
-b
~
E
0
6
i 1\
5 - I
'' ''('~S'
-~
,,
4

3
-
-- ~--
~: r~ " ,/ --- --
--- '·

j',
----
I
,"-
'-~
r--..
,?-,1'
s
----v· /r
~ 7.. ~o
/"" -__-::z,2.s ---- --
-
2
- ....
Pl,

Fig. 61. Overload and observed pore water pressures. Test Area No. I,
drain spacing 0.9 m. Of. Fig. 36.

92
 lri,l1a/ h,Jd

I
I I

I
I
I
I I
I
I
I I
lw:ed tlt/emen/i
I

u load, by II

ii I
1957 1958 1959
8
Ml J JIA SIO NIO JIF Ml A M' J J'A SID NID JIF MIA

7
ii,.
I
6

5
!
"'
'§[
~it •
>'"'1
l'-1.f,_
---1--- (:_9.:._5.:.f!.

~k ~' ,l,...--,--
I ---T---
---- ---
~1,_ \ r .,,
f:..9, 2.5
- i------ -
4
1\
I"--, . I
l--_._",
,,_
,.. ......... _----- ~--
3
n\:
,,
ti
........ lA, ,,, ---- .i!~~~ --~ - /i

-
'
' I',
....... --- --- --
/,....,,.,.,,,. -
2 -- --
' ',
E
.~
.,,-
-- - ---
'Aver, ½e of P4 7.5,Pfi,7.i and
I
P/2,7.s

"~

"'0 I
I
~E 6 I
C I
ill
0:5

4 Ii
11\~
I

I
I
['f",-<
~-- --- I
.!:.!2:§!!_1
-- -T--7---~
3
II. i"~~.• / / -- 7-
P!! 5.0
- ---J._
I
,_ __
' ~ J_ +.. . . . . . . --l----
2
~')~
' .....
pJ!,9-
-~.....- -,:-pt':1.J..
-- ---
-- -- -· =---1~=-
I
I
0
I
Fig. 62. Overload and observed pore water pressures. Test Area No. I,
drain spacing 1.5 m. Cf. Fig. 36.

93
 t·----i----1--,--11--1-----1_---1_-~~
""::::-3f--]~r:::;;'~;;,~"~"~"~'~m~oor:::=J:========:t==~'===t==t=~
I
c::
1
;21--~-/----,·-~'----1
, ! r
' - - 41--------~'--~---+---+'----1
r

.g
~ 1 ,--/
r ; Load, reduce~~by s~//ernl - - - ----- --------'-·!-------ii--+----J
i
0 I-/'---' ---'1________-'------==----'i__...,_,__-+i--,-,'----;
11 _ _

1957 __ · ''' '' 1958 i 1959

8 7417T7TA7sToTNT7T--7Ti'TN7717MDTJ I A s I o I NI o I JI FTM!A
I

I'i I I I
- · I
! ' '1 :
1
I ! i
7 l--+---'---'-------'---------'------'--+---'--+----1
,

i I ! I

, I
5

2
I
1----~----l-----ll----+----l--------1----+--l----+--t-----l

0 '--~-.....;._ _......__ i
_..__---'-----J----1--'-----'---'--.......- - ' - - - - '

Fig. 63. Overload and observed pore water pressures. Test Area No. I,
drain spacing 2.2 m. Cf. Fig. 36.

94
-
"'E 4
-3
.!!;
-g 2
I
'
I'
' I
I
)lru/10/ /Jd
!
i
'
I

.e
~
~
I 'toad, reduced iby selllebenl
I I
~ 1
a I I
0 ' I I I
1957 ! 1958.~~=-~~~~I 1959
8
MIJIJIAISIOINID!J!FIMIAIMIJrJIAISIOIN!DIJTFrr:n,f

71---t-----t--+-----t-----+--+--+----t---t---+---t--J

5
.,,!,,\ -ff
'l,
,---,
51----+-~scc+--+-----+-----+--+--+----t---t---+---t--J

,!/
I
-Ll'e .....
I
i
'~o
,,,,
---i --1
·-·--+-·--~
i
-
4
5! "tK
'6:
---.:,.J~ <s
I-_,___
- -... _

1;] i% --...
"' !
<•
~[!\
---
3 -~"-M--·S·l!----t-_-_-_+-P-/9-0-+---t---_+---+i---+---+---+---t----,
[E,a--1-=::::-"""'-=-- ...,___
Iv.,. ---1 ---r I - -::,,,....,..-,--- 1----r-----"
~ 2 f-'----'!~-"""""i~,-'-{+i --+1-+--+---/-/+-11/~/,.LeF-==i·---.
-g 1 1----1----.jl-----l-'-'_,:,..,,,,==e==--'--l(
__....j._ _....j._ _-J-_ _-J-_ _-I--~
i --\ Avera e of P41 5qp5,5ri, and
1

PB 50

~o
~ 1---1-----,1----t---+--+--+--+---+---+---1----+----f
E
-~ 6 l--tl-f---tf---t---l---+--+---+---+---1---1----1----1
Q

0
' -,---r--
~-~--'-----'-----'----'----'---'---'-----"--'---'--___J
I
Fig. 64. Overload and observed pore water pressures. Test Area No. II. Cf. Fig. 37.

D5
 I '-..ln,f1a/ iJood
I I

! Iload, !'
reduced bv selllemenl
'
\I
r
I
1957 ' 1958 1959
8 Ml J JIA S10 NI DI JIF MIA Ml J J/A S10 NID JIF M1A

t I I

~- ,.r~ i
7 '
I ,~ I''
,<) ~- !
I
6 n ~~t*-=
-.:.,o ....,___

1---: -
------'-:--
!J\

'"!1' I --~L- I --
--~~--
~
5

4
~)
-'N
:11:
C: ~\:

''
C
'Z~ \..
___ 1

--:::f-
- -

-- --
.......

',, --"":::::.: _,_,_ r--

,,_ ,-- ..::-.::::i
! I
3 ' I
------ "'---+--
~ ·,, ~,
---- ;>< ~:.::.: --
---- ---- :..--""
--
,~: 1:~:=
2

Leraori
-----
d P8·5.0
/
/

~-~\ ----------
~o
~'
5

4
w,~~ "--'
I\

I ~
.

I <_~ ';;;:J::_-::_-----
',---i-----
I -t~/<-
I ---- '"'>,::::----

---/,.,..__,c
,--.::. ---
,,,. ""'+- --
---::--
---- ---
---
3

2
t:,- -
f--"'
~.'!.- -
~,
I ~"' ','~ ---- ---~
-r ---
;:_,,-,.-~ ---.....
----
-.:.:--- t.-==.--== ,=--==i
---- --- --
. '

0
Fig. 65. Overload and observed pore ,vatcr pressures. Test Area No. III. Cf. Fig. 38.

96
 4
"'43 /lnil1al toad

.,-,,· 2 I \load reduced bv settle nenl

I
1
0
{!
lli
r
_j
a'
0
1957 1958 1959
8 MIJ JI A SI 0 NID JIF MIA MIJIJIA 510 NIDJIFMIAI

3
:H~
· v,\__..... I _~ I
1.,,,,,,,/II // 1i
I
1 ';--......_
~
!:!.:1:L--"

~
E2
.s
-,,·
0
lli
-c
J! 1w\ I ;
0bv1 us ins/rumen/ error
-~ 0
.!::
lli
E
0
---------
6
-~"'
0.
5 : I Ps,s.o
.J--.....+1---'---r----
=- ----!--- ---I-··----+---+---
~- --
I
- .
P7·5.0
c:t::;::: -=-i.... ' _ _, - - - -
4 P2-50 I

0 .___..,__ __,__ _.1-_..,__....._ ___.'---'--~----'---'--~-~

Fig. 66. Overload and observed pore water pressures. Test Area No. IV. Cf. Fig. 30.

97
7
Table 7.
Temp.
Piezometric head, in m
Date in
•c
Test Area Ko. I I Test Area K o. II
P4:7.5 IP8:7.5 I Pl2: 7.5 I P4:B. j PS:B. IP12 :B. P4:5.0 IP6:5.0 IP8 :5.0I P4:B. I P6:R. I PR:B.

t9:i7
17/5
18
+1 1
13
2.10
2.35
~.25
2.20
2.20
2 :· I ' :' I, :' I I I
20 16 2.15 > 2.10 •
21 10 2.25 • •
23 10 > 2.25 2.10 2.20
2! 7 2.20 2 20 2 .15
25 6 2.25
'27 8 2.15 2.20
2d 11 2.25 2.20 2.1 5 2.05 2.10 2.20
29 8 • > 2 .30 2.20 2.30 2.25 2.80 2.00 2.05 >
30 18 • • 2.20 2.1 0 2.25 2.10
31 11 > > 2.35 2.15 2.15 2.20 2.26 2.05
1/6 13 > > 2.20 > > 2.80 2.20 2.15
2 13 • 2.15 2.15 2.05 2.25 2.85 2.15
3 17 2.30 > 2.21> 2.20 2.20 2 .2 0 2.10
4 13 2.25 2.20 2.35 2.30 • •
5 8 2.15 • 2.25 2.20 2.25 2.05 >

6 9 > > 2.20 2.20 2.10 2.20 l.95

7 10 > 2.25 2.25 2.85 2.10 2.10 2.25
8 10 > > 2.15 I • 2.05 2.05 2.15
10 Hi 2.25 • 2.20 2.20 • 2.10 2.10 2.20
11 12 2.20 • 2.15 2.25 I 2.20 2.25
12
13
18
11
• •
2.20
2.20
2.15
I 2.1 5 2.35
2.3i> 2.25

14 16 2.2 5 2.20 • • 2.40 • • >

15 19 2.25 • 2.20 2.25 • • 2.60 > > >

16 19 2 .35 2.20 2.25 2.20 > 2.10 • > > •

17 23 2.80 2.20 • • • > > • •

18 7 2.26 2.15 2.15 > > > > 2 .20 • >

19 9 2.15 2. 15 > • 2.50 2.15 2.05 2.16

20 13 2.10 , 2.15 • > • 2.10 >
22 14 2.25 2A 5 2.00 2.05 2.25
24 14 2.15 2.05 2.10 2.10 2.05 2. 10
25 17 2.15 2.10
26 17 2.20 2.20 2.10 2.10 2.16 2.0 5
27 17 2.15 2 .1 5 2.05 2.10 2.30 2.00
28 15 2.20 2.20 2.1 0 2.16 2.36 2.05
29 15 2.10 2. 10 2.05
1/7 20 2.25 2.15 2.15 2.40 2.45 2.20 2 . 16
2 15 2.10 2.25
3 16 2.10 2.15 2.3~ 2.50
4 20 2.20 2.25 2.15 I 2.45
2. 00 . > 2.00
f) 15 2 .26 2.20 2.10 2.35
6 16 2.45 2.45 2.20 2. 10 2.00 2.10
2.20 2 .•25 1
8 15 2.25 2.15 2.ln 2.20 2.55 2.85 2.05 > 2.15
!l I 15 • • I 2 .10 2.10 2. I 5 2.50 2.20 2.05
Table 7 ( continued).
Temp. Piezometric head, in m
D ate in
·c Test Area N o. I I Test Area No. II
P4 :7.5 IP8:7.5 1 P12, 7.5 1 P4:B. I P8:Il. IP12 :B. P4 :5.0 I P6 :5.0 j PS :5.0 j P4 :B. I P6 :B. I P8:B.
10 1G 2.20 2.20 2.10 2.15 2. I 5 2. 10 2.40 2 45 2.15 2.05 2.00 2. 05
11 18 2 :!5 2.25 > > • > > 2.50
9 ..
2 .25 • 2.06 2.15
12 JS 2.ao • 2 15 > 2.20 • 2 45 - -00 2.35 2.10 2.0 0 •
13 17 > > > > > > > > > • 2.05 >
14 20 2.35 2.35 2 25 2.10 2.30 • 2 .55 2.65 2.40 > 2 . 10 2 .25
15 21 > > • 2.30 2.35 > > 2.70 2.50 > > >
16 21 2.40 > 2.30 > • > 2.60 2 Sb 2 .5 .'i > > •
17 20 2.45 2.40 2.40
I 2.3~ 2 .4 5 2.15 2.70 2.90 2.65 2.1:'> > 2.35
18 2! 2 .50 2.45 2.45 2.40 > 2.20 2.75 > 2. , 5 • 2.15 2.46
19 24 2.45 > 2.40 2.35 > • > 2.95 • > 2.20 >
20 21 2. 10 2.40 2.35 2.30 • 2.15 > > 2. iO > 2.15 2.40
22 2j 2.50 2.45 2.50 2.40 2.55 2.20 > > > 2.20 2.20 2.45
23 25 2.55 2 .05 2.65 2.45 2.65 • > > > 2.15 • 2.40
24 20 2.45 2.50 2.50 2.40 2.55 > > » 2.75 2.10 > 2.45
9·
_ .) 19 2.5 0 2A5 > • 2.50 2.15 > , > • > 2.40
26 2t 2.45 • 2 40 2.~5 2.46 2.10 > 2.9 0 2.60 > 2.15 2.25
27 18 2.40 2.40 2.30 2.30 2.35 > • 2.80 2.50 , 2.10 >
29 19 > 2.35 , > > > > 2.90 > > • >
31 23 2 45 2.45 2.40 2.35 2 .45 » > 2.95 > • > 2.35
,
1/8 19 > 2.40 2.35 > 2.1! 5 > • > > > >
2 15 2.35 2.30 > 2.20 2.26 > 2. 70 2.85 2.SO • 2.05 2.16
3 rn :2.30 2.15 2.05 2.15 2. LO 2.05 2.50 2.75 2.05 2.05 2.00 1.96
5 18 • > > 2.10 • > > > 2.1 0 2.10 > 2.00
7 l7 2.35 2.3 0 2.20 2.20 2.25 • 2.60 2.95 2.30 > 2.10 2.20
8 15 2 25 2.15 l. 90 2.1 0 2.10 > 2.45 2 .,0 2.00 • 2.00 1.80
10 19 > » • » 2.J 5 2. 00 • 2.7 5 2.10 2.05 > 1.95
12 19 2.35 2.30 2. I 5 2.10 2.20 2.05 2.55 2 90 2.30 :l.00 2.05 2.10
14 10 • • 2.10 > > > » > • > > 2.15
15 17 • > > 2.1;; > > 2.50 2.75 2.15 > 2.00 1.90
17 19 2.3 0 2.2 0 > 2.20 > > 2.55 2.80 2.20 • 2 05
'
19 ]7 2 .a5 2.35 2.20 > 2.25 • :!.60 2.95 2.35 > 2.0 5 2.15
21
22
17
15
>
2.2 0
2.30
2.15
2 . LO
l.95
>
2.o~
•
2 .15
2.0 0
•
2.55
2 45 2 75
>

•
2.2 5
2.05 . > > , 2.1 0
I
2 .00 1.95
24 18 ~.30 > 1.85 2. 15 > • > • • > 1. i 5
2o 15 2.20 2. 00 • 2.00 2.05 > 2 .35 2. 70 l .90 2.05 l.93 1. 70
28 15 2.25 2.05 • 2.10 2.10 ; • • 2.GO l. 8 5 2.10 2 00 >
31 14 2.20 1.95 1.80 2.0 5 • • - - - - - -
3/9 13 2.15 > > > 2.05 2.05 > • > > U5 1.60
2 1/10 8 I.so 1.30 0.0 0 2.10 1.1,0 2.40 l.90 l.9 5 1. 20 2. s r, 2.05 1.50
l G/ 12 1 1.50 0.95 0.30 1.65 l 35 2.L 5 l .15 1. l 5 0. 75 1.15 l. GO 1.00
1958
2 1/ 4 4 1.80 1.45 • 2.00 l.G5 1 2.45 1.20 1. 35 1.oo > 2 00 l. 7 5
Piezometers replaced by new ones
20/8
9/ 12 1
I 19
1
2.25
1.8()
2 15
l 90
2.20
1.95
1.90
•
l. 90
1.95
1.85
•
2. 15
. 2.4 0
2 .35
1. !I/}
2.05
l.9 u
>
l. 90
>
1.95
2 55
1959
9 /4
I 6 2.15 2.05 2 .25 2.n o 1.85 1. 9~ 2.25 2.55 2 25 l.85 2.00 2.00
Date
I Te.mp.
Ill Test Area Ko. III
Piezometric head, in m
I Test Aron Ko. IV
·c
P4:5.0 I P6:5.0 I P S:5.0 I P4:B. I PO:B. I P8:B. I I I
P4 :5.0 P6 :5.0 PS :5.0 P4 :B. PO:B. PS :R.I I
1 957
1/ 6 +16 2.25 1.55 1. 70 1.45
2 13 • 2.30 2.10 2.00
3 18 • 2.25 • •
4 13 • > • • I
5 8 • • • •
6 9 2.30 2.20 • 2.10
7 10 2 .25 2.26 • 2.05
8 11 2.30 • > •
10 16 2 .21\ • • 2.J o
11 12 • > • 2.05
12 18 2.30 • 2.15 2. 10
13 11 2.20 • 2.10 >

14 16 • • • •
15 20 2.30 2.30 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.25 2.20 2.05 2.20 -
11> 19 2.:?5 > • • 2.10 • • • 2.10 -
17
18
23
7
2.30
2.35
•
2.35
I .,en 3
•
2.10
•
2.10
.,en I •
3 • I
>

•
>
>
•
•
2.15
2. 10
-
2.35
19 9 2.45 2.30 .,"' 2.15 > "'., • • 2.10 > • 2.25
20 13 > • ._,
"'
c:,,
2.20 > "'.._, > > 2.20 > > 2.35
22 14 • > 01
0
2.10 >
c:,,
i:i:I • > > • • 2.20
24 14 • 2.25 ::;· 2.15 >
::;· • 2.20 2.15 • • 2.25
25 17 • • >-3
> >
>-3
2.15 2.25 2.20 > 2.20 2.15
26 18 2.-J.O • "'~ • > "'....
In 2.10 > • > 2.1 5 2.20
, •
27 17 2.-15 • > • • ?:- • • • 2.15
28 15 2.40 • .,
;;i
• • .,
"' > • • • 2.20 2.20
29 16 • 2.30 z
?
2.15 2.05 z
?
> • > • 2.10 2.1 5
1/7 2l > 2 35 H • • H
> • • • 2.15 2.20
2 16 • 2.30
H
• • H
• • • • • •
3 18 • 2.35 • • > > > • 2.20 2.15
4 21 • 2.40 • • • 2. 30 • > 2.15 >

• • 2 .20 •
f>
6
17
17 •
2.:J5
•
>
>
>

• I
I
>
2.36
•
>
>
>
> • >

8 15 > 2.40 > • I • 2.30 > > 2.10 •

• • > 2.26 • • • 2.10
9
10
16
18 2.8,>
2.35
2 30 •
>
> I • 2.35 • • 2.20 •
11 20 2 .45 2.a;, • > > 2.45 > 2.10 > •
12 20 • 2.40 • • • > • 2.15 • •
•
13
14
15
19
20
21
.
2.GO

2.G5
>
2.45
>
•
•
•
•
2.10
>
>
>
2.15
2AO
2.50
2,,),)
>
>
2.30
•
2.2i>
2.25
•
2.30
2 Ii>
•
>

16 2-! • 2.50 • 2.lii • 2.65 • 2.30 2.35 2.20

17 22 2.70 2.G:, • 2.25 • 2.70 > > > •
18 2~) 2.75 2.70 2.10 2.ao > 2 80 • 2.35 • •
19 I 23 I > 2.7:'I > > > 2.75 I > > 2. 80 •
100
Table 7 ( continued).

Date
I }Q I
Temp. Piesomet,ic head, in m
Test Area No. III I Test Area No. IV
P4:5.0 I Pti:5.0 I PS:5.0 I P4:B. I PO:B. I PS:B. P4 :5.o IP6:s.o IPS :s.o I P4 :B. I Po:n. I PS :B.

20 2J
I
2 75 2.70 2.10 2.25 2.15 2.70 2.35 2.30 2.30 2.20
22 21:i 2.80 2.7f> • 2.30 • 2.90 2.30 2..JO , ,
23 24 , 2.70 , 2.25 - - - - - -
24 22 2.85 2.75 > > 2.95 2.35 2.50 >
' '
25 20 2.80 2.70 > 2.20 - - - - - -
26 24 • > > > > ~-80 2.30 2.40 , •
27 19 2.ib 2.65 , >
29 20 > , > 2.25
30 2,1 2.85 > > • > 2.15 • 2.35 > >
31 25 2.90 2.ii) > ,
1/8 19 2.so 2.G5
' 2.20
2 17 2,GO
2.50 2.-10 2.30 > 2.50 > 2.25 2.25 •
3 14 2.75 • 2.10 2.25
f) 21 2.80 2.G5 w 2. lfl 2.30
ee "'
a" , , , , ,
6 22 2.85 > > • >
7 18 , , 0
, 0

8 16 2.75 2.50
"" >
'
2.25
~

9 18 , , '"
C,
c.i, , > '~"
C,
2.20 2.20 2.25 2.05 2.10 >
10 20 2.80 >
0
2.10 ,
e
12 19 • 2 GO
>-3
> > ">-3
13 19 2.&5 2.G;i
il > 2.30 il , 2.45 2.20 2.10 > 2.15
H , ,
:;>
16 2.80 2.GO >
, "0
10
16
19
2.70
2.55
•z • >
•z , ,
16 2.flO • 2.25 2.30 2.05 • •
17
19
20
20
18
2.85
•
2.GO
2.G5
, -
?'
•
•
2 30
,
,
-
?

,
16 2.oo
, ' ,
> • 2.15 > >
21 17 2.85
22
'
18 2.75 2.50 > 2.25
23 15 , • • • 2.36 2.05 2.10
' ' '
14 18 • ' ' 2.::IO
26 rn 2.70 2.-10 • 2.25 2.to 2.25 2.25 l.90 2.25 2.05
28 18 2.75 2..15 2.15 2.30
30 16 2.65 2.35 , 2.05 2.15 2.20 1.85 2.lb 2.00
, '
2/9 13 • • 2.25 • • • • • •
21/10 8 2.25 uo 2.50 2.ri5 2.10 1.85 • I.so 1.85 2.30
16/12 2 l.75 l.4.5 2.GO 2.·10 2.20 1.55 2.10 1.30 1.55
1958
'' '
21/4 4 l.70 I J..40 I 2.55 3.,o I 2.25 l.70 2.70 1.60 1.70 2.40
Piezometers replaced by new ones
21/8 17 2.45 2.26 2.20 2.50 2.05 2.10 2.15 l.95 2. 10 2.20
9/12 1 2.35 2.30 l.U5 2.00
' 1.90 2.05 l.85 Loo •
1959
9/4 7 2.45 2.50 • 2.15 2.20 2.25 2.70 2AO 2.30 2.on

101
Disturbance Due to Driving of Drains
The pore water pressures obserYed within the areas were extrapolated in order
lo estimate the maximum "disturbance pressures" u c1 reached after completion
of drainage, see Table 8. The corresponding disturbance pressures remaining
after completion of lhe loading operation are also given in this table.
Table 8.

Drain Maximum dislurb- Maximum dislurb- Pressure

Area spacing, ance pressure after ance pressure after observed at
No. in m completion of drain- complelion of load- depth, in m
age, in l/m' ing. in t/m'

I 0.9 4 2 9
I l.5 2 1 5
I 2.2 2 l'h 9
II 1.5 2 1 5
III 1.5 3'/; 1 '/-t 9

However, although these maximum disturbance pressure values were selected

among all the values observed within the respective areas, the real maximum
disturbance pressure may naturally be higher.
Obviously, the excess pore water pressure created by the drainage operation
is considerable.
The disturbance will reach its maximum in the vicinity of a drain . Further­
more, the disturbance is assumed to increase to a certain extent with depth
(cf. KALLSTENIUS, 1958), and this seems to be confirmed in our investigation.
Thus the fact that the excess pressures measured at a depth of 9 m in the 1.5
sector of Area No. I and in Area No. II are lower than those observed at
a depth of 5 m may be due to contact between the filter stone and a neigh­
bouring drain at a depth of 9 m or to sand layers in the former case and instru­
ment errors in the latter.
The average disturbance is to some extent a function of the displaced clay
volume, i.e. of the drain spacing and the average drain length 1 • This effect can
Table 9.

Drain Average drain Average Maximum Number of

Area disturbance
No.
spacing, length, deviation Llua ulisen·n tion
in m in m pressure iid in t/m' points
in t/m'

I 0.9 1L 2.1 0.2 2

I 1.5 9 1.6 0. 6 2
I 2.2 1l 1.1 0. 3 2
II l.5 11 1.7 O.o 4
III 1.5 13 2.1 0.1 4
1
Of course, olher factors, such as sensilivity and type of clay, would have an influence on the
disturbance pressure but the influence of these factors will not be discussed here.

102
 u,
be studied in Table 9, where 1 represents the observed average disturbance
pressure at a depth of 5 m, obtained by extrapolation as before.
As was to be expected, the disturbance pressure increases with decreasing
drain spacing and also with increasing drain length. We should not venture to
draw further conclusions from these values, but it may be worth mentioning
that, within the limits given in Table 9, ua at a given depth is nearly pro­
portional to the average drain length and to (3.9 - L), where L represents the
actual drain spacing in metres.
A study of individual pore pressure values shows that the disturbance tends
to increase towards the centres of the areas.
Driving of drains caused a rise of pore water pressure also outside the areas
and this was indicated even by the piezometers situated farthest away . Thus,
excess pore water pressures were observed at a distance of 35 m from the peri­
phery of Area No. I (approximately 0.05 t / m 2 on the average at a depth of
7.5 m), and at a distance of 17 ½ m from the peripheries of Areas Nos. II and III
(approximately 0.1 t / m 2 on the average at a depth of 5 m). The maximum rise
of pressure observed at the observation points situated at a distance of 2 m from
the periphery of Area No. I and at a distance of 2 ½ m from the peripheries
of Areas Nos. II and III is given in Table 10.

Table 10.

Drain Excess pore Pressure

Area spacing, water observed
No. in m pressure, at depth,
in t/m2 in m

I 0.9 0.8 5
I 1.5 0.6 5
I 2.2 0.6 2.5 and 5
II 1.5 1.o 5
III 1.5 0.8 5

These values are single observations. For a given clay, the disturbance ought
to increase to a certain extent with increasing displaced volume (see above and
Section 54).

Influence of Loading on Pore Water Pressure

During the loading operation the step-by-step rise of pore water pressure ob­
served within the areas corresponds fairly well with the step-by-step application
of the gravel loads. However, the rise observed outside the areas in the course of
load application is also considerable. Thus, at a distance of 35 m from the peri­
phery of Area No. I an average maximum rise of about 0.4 t/ m 2 was obtained at
a depth of 7.5 m, and at a distance of 17½ m from the periphery of Area No. II
a rise of about 0.5 t / m 2 was observed at a depth of 5 m. This corresponds to
approximately 15 % of the load in the former case and 20 % in the latter.

103
 ..·>: Or~~•!. (i( · .: ·:-. .._-::_ =:·::<:.. :~/;.----::,eg,m , • ~x~e,:,sd::~~ o:sa::.'~/::.~~~'Jath,1958
+ Rodia/ stress at 5 m depth determe·
fled according to theory of elast,c,ty.
3 Poisson·s rat,o •0 5
,i. Do. Po1sson·s ra/10 •025
-t Tangential stress al 5m depth de ­
termined according to theory of e/as­
"' licdy Poisson·s ratio• 0.5
'$ 2 1--- - --+-- - -+- ~--t-------t .+ Do Poisson·s ro/10 • 0.25
. I SI
.!:, D1stribu/100 of vertical slresses at q, depth
~- etermined according tb theory of elasticity
::,
Ill
Ill
a,
it

00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance from centre of test area, in m

Fig. 67. Observed excess pore water pressure d istribution at a depth of 5 m below ground
surface in Test Area No. IV compared with distribution of theoretical stresses produced
at the same depth by overload. Cf. pp. 143-146.

The theoretical distribution of stress under a loaded area (see Appendix) is

compared in Fig. 67 with the results of the pore water pressure measurements
carried out in the undrained Area No. IV. One of the piezometers in this area,
No. Pl: 5.0, was no doubt incorrect to start with. Therefore, the pore pressure
values used for the above comparison were those t aken after this piezomet er
had been replaced. This was not done until more than a year had passed since
the completion of loading. However, during this period-with the exception of
the first two months-the pore water pressure dissipation was practically of no
importance. During the first two months a rapid decrease of pressure, similar to
that occurring in the pore pressure measurements carried out in the laboratory,
cf. Section 21, was detect ed at the points of observation outside the areas and
also inside the undrained area. This decrease seems to be different in nature
from that characterized by the hydrodynamic law of pore water pressure dissi­
pation1. However, it is small (0.1 to 0.4 t / m 2 ) , and has an appreciable influence
only on the results obtained outside the areas.
In Fig. 67, the average excess pore water pressure at a distance of 35 m from
the centre of Area No. IV has been put equal to zero. This means that the
previously mentioned "non-hydrodynamic" decrease is estimated at 0.3 t/m 2 ,
i.e. the same value as t he original excess pore water pressure observed at a dis­
tance of 35 m from the centre of Area No. IV.
These results can be used in determining SKEMPTON's pore pressure coefficient A
(SKEMPTOK, 1954). Thus the observations made inside t he periphery of t he
loaded area gave A= 0.77, provided that PorssoN's ratio v = 0.5 and that the
' This phenomenon "·as discussed in Section 21.

104
coefficient B =
l. At t he periphery of the area the pore wat er pressure may
have been influenced by creep of the clay. Thus the t heoretical sh earing stresses
at the periphery equalled or even exceeded t he observed shear strength of the clay.

Seasonal and Daily Variations in Pore Water Pressure

The observed pore water pressures are at some places considerably influenced
by the time of the year. This might be due in some degree to the above­
mentioned difficulties and errors in measurements, but in a case where the
temperature at , or not too far from, the point of observation is influenced by
the seasonal variat ion of temperature (cf. p. 123), the pore water pressure should
also be influenced. This phenomenon can partly be attributed to the difference
in thermal expansion between pore water and mineral grains ( cf. BARBER and
STEFFENS, 1958) . Since the pore water has a higher coefficient of thermal ex­
pansion than t he clay mineral, a decrease of temperature would result in pore
water pressure decrease1 . A possible seasonal or daily variation in ground water
level would also influence t he pore water pressure. Furthermore, differences in
ground water level in the sand drains and in surrounding clay may occasionally
occur, and this would likewise influence t he pore water pressure.
A daily variation of pore pressure due to the influence of the moon or of t he
height of the barometer would probably not be recorded in the measurements.

Influence of Load and Drain Spacing on Rate of Consolidation

According to the equations advanced in Chapter 4, the time of consolidation
depends on th e initial excess pore water pressure. This effect was studied by
comparing the rates of consolidation within Areas II and III, which have the
same dimensions and drain spacings, but are submitted to different loads. At
a depth of 2.5 m t he results might be influenced by fissures and at a depth of
9 m by sand or silt layers2 • Thus, to compare are the values observed at a depth
of 5.0 m. The consolidation at this depth is here considered to be caused solely
by the drains. This is justified by th e fact that a "hydrodynamic" decrease of
excess pore water pressure was not to be detected at a depth of 5 m in t he
undrained area, or was found to be negligible as compared with the accuracy
in measurements.
The r esults of the comparison are given in Table 113 and Fig. 68.
1 The prcblem of the:mal influence on the p:ire water is intricate (cf. e. g. STEG:\IULLER, 1958) a nd
a complete explanation of a pore pressure change because of a change in temperature is hard
to giYe.
" In Area No. II the piezometer at a depth of !) m (No. PI: 9.0) seems to give incorrect values or is
in contact with an adjacent sand drain.
3 The initial excess pore water pressures u given in Tables 11 a nd 12 represent the ,·alues obtained
0
a fter completion of loading (equal to observed maximum u 0 ). T his might be disputable, considering
that part of consolidation has then undoubtedly taken place. However, t his seems to be the only
practicable interpretation a nd does not depend on mere intuition. The error introduced might have
a visible effect in the u 0 -values obtained at a close drain spacing, particularly 0.9 m spacing.
Cf. also p. 111.
In Areas II and III the initial piezometric head existing before drainage is estimated a t 2.3 m
on an average. All excess pore water pressures given in Table 11 were deduced on the basis of this
reference Yalue and this is of course only a rough approximation.
l 05
Table 11 .

U1,= lOO(l - .!:..) %

Area Piezometer Llq t1 0 Uo
No. No. t/m' l/m' 21.10 16.12 I 1958
21.4 20.8 9.12 9.4
1957 I 1957 I 1958 I 1958 I 1959
1

"I
P 1: 5.o 3.i 14 33 36 52 58
P 2: 5.o 3.2 3.2 j 21 26 3n 34 51 42 65 54 75 Si 67 68
II 2.7
P 5: 5.o 3.2 24 34 47 !>O 67 67
P 7: 5.o 2.5 40 34 36 64 74 78

III
P ]: 5.0
P 2: fl.O
P 5: 5.0
P 7: 5.0
3.9
5.4
3.7
4.7
4.7
4.6
14

22
28
23 1

291
58 "I
33 2-! 42 38 52 49 6~ 60 80 72 79 76
44
65
72
48

60
65
61

rn
75
74
77
I
Time of loading, in days
500 600 700
eo No.I,0.9m drain s pacing
V ' - ' ] /.5 1

10 .[/
'III
20

Q
30
.;-

·-
-S
c:: 40
.Q
15
~
0
II) 50
§
.._
0 60
<lJ
··--..........._
~
•,,

'----.....: ..
Cl 70
. '--------...
80

90 ·----· ·-:---..__ __
100

Fig. 68. Average rates of consolidation in Test Areas Nos. I to III obtained from the pore
water pressure observations which are given in Tables 11 and 12.

100
 As was shown in Chapter 4, the relation between the times of consolidation
of two clay layers provided with equally spaced drains and acted upon by loads
o f different m agnitude is
t1= l.,A2 (iio2)"-
t2 U:01
t
•........ . .. .. •.....•. .
_
(;J:l)
In this case the values of J. may be considered to be equal for the two Areas
Nos. II and III, and the probable value of n, as deduced from Fig. 68, becomes1

log (~)
n = 1 + _____.,;.!..!.!___ =< 1.5 to 1.6
log (".:11H1)
Uou
W e also find from Table 11 that the ratio of the initial excess pore water
pressures, uom / u0n, in this case happens to be n early equal to the rat io of the
loads, Llqm/ Llqu. Probably, this is merely accidental, but it m ay also be due to
th e previou sly discussed effect of differ ent drain lengths in these two areas.
The individual values given in Table 11 apparently speak against the above
theory. Thus, the lower the individual initial excess pore water pressure, the
higher the rate of consolidation. This contradiction to the result obtained when
studying th e average valu es of pore water pressure m ay probably be ascribed
to differences in distance from the piczometer to the adjacent drains. The rate
of excess pressure dissipation thus increases considerably when the distance to
a sand drain decreases, cf. e.g. Fig. 11. Consequently, since the piezometers were
installed about or more than a week after completion of dra inage, the initial
excess pressure observed in the immediate vicinity of a drain will be small while
the rate of consolidation will be high. Now it must be r emembered that the
equations advanced in Chapter 4 refer to the average consolidation, and h ence
not to the consolidat ion occurring at a given point between adjacent drains.
Therefore, when studying t he validity of the given consolidation equations,
average values have to be considered.
The small number of comparable piezometers within Test Area No. I-only 2
in each sector-makes it difficult to check the validity of the above con soli­
dation t heory for differ ent drain spacings. Nevertheless, the values given in
Table 122 and Fig. 68 may furnish some information.
1 In determining u regard has been paid to the Yerlical settlement of the filter stones of the piezo­
rneters.
The progressi,·e reduction of excess pore water pressure caused by the reduction of load due to
settlement (part of the load sinking down below ground water level) is neglected here, since it
amounts in both cases to the same percentage of the initial values. This is easily seen from the
relation Llii. =
y'fJu =y' Liq h mv U, in which Liu is the average reduction of pore water p ressure due
to settlement flu of ground surface and y' is the reduction of weight p er unit volume of submerging
part of load. Thus, at two different loads LI q, and LI q,, we obtain, at the same degree of consolida-
t ion (U1 = Uo), the relation LI u, LI q,
--,::;--,::;­
i, 01
LI u2 LI q, uo~
0In Area No. I the initial piezometric head before drainage is estimated at 2.2 rn on an a,·erage.
All excess pore water pressures gi\'en in Table 12 were deduced on the basis of this reference Yalue
and this is of course only a rough approximation. See also foo tnote 3, p. 105.

107
Table 12.

Area
Drain
Piezorneler
U1t = IOO (1- .2:.)
ll11
%
No.
spacing,
in m
No. t/m~"" 21.10 ! ]6.121 21.4
1957 1957 1958 I 20.8
1058
I 9.12
1958
I 9.4
1!)59

0.9
p
p
5:6
G: :'J
l
3.6 3 -
3.s I .,
5Gl iS I 69
42 -19 o9 I · 83 "8
70 I
l ~= )so l 95 93 93 I 92
91 91/

I 1.5
p 9:5
Pm:,
3.a I
2.5/ 3.L 13) 19 20 L,
:22 29 39
10 - 1i f _[ 3G 34
l " l 46)'9
37 58 ~~ 51
60
J-s°
2.2 p 1: 5 18\F 20 I 1s 24) 32 30) 9- 37)as 41) 39
2-") 2-
p 2:5 3.o ·' i2 I " 1, I ,JO 23 ~I 38 36

As is seen from Fig. 68, the relation between times of consolidation for different
drain spacings as obtained hitherto becomes

5.7 < !'-' :S:

0.9
G.5 (G.4 at fi = 50 %)
and
t.,., ~ -
0.9 <
-
-'"'
t1.5
<. l.G (1.5 at U
-
= 40 %)
By comparing the rates of excess pore pressure dissipation at drain spacings
of 0.9 m and 2.2 m in Test Area No. I with that obtained at a drain spacing
of 1.5 m in Test Area No. II, Fig. 68, we obtain
t1 • -
2.1 < -t·" < 4.0 (3.8 at U= 50 %)
OD
and
2.2 <
-
-= :S: 3.2 (3.0 at U= 40 %)
t•)')

t1,5 -
-

According to the classical theory, the relation between the times of consoli­
dation is
t1.r1 _ ,1 c11, o.n
--1,J;<, 4 - -
to.<.J C1i, 1.5

and fo.2 _ z.,.,1C7i,-1.5

-- -
t1.5 Cfi, 2.2

For equal values of c11 , these results agree fairly we11 with the latter two results
(3.8 and 3.0) given above on this page.
According to Eq. (4: 8), for n == I.5, the above relation becomes

iui = 5 _65 \/3.7 J.o.n = 6 _2 i:o o

to.n 3.1 J.1,5 /41.5
and
t,., - - -21.,
- - 3 24' ,;3.1 -- - i.1-,;
-3 o
t1.u • 2.7 J.2.2 • J.2.2

For equal values of }., these results are closely in agreement with the first and
last results (6A, and 3.0) given above on this page.

108
 If we choose n = 1.6, then this relation becomes
5
t1.5 = 6 .04 f (3·7);1 i.o 9 = . Ao g
1
to.9 V 3.1 ;.1.5 6 7 /41.5
and 3
t2 2 = 3.47 .5 f (3. 1) /41,5 = 3.8 ~1.5
t1.5 V 2.7 J.2.2 A2.2

Experience has shown that e" decreases with increasing disturbance (ef.
Fig. 59), and so does no doubt k Therefore, the theoretical time ratios are
actually smaller than those obtained for equal values of eh and of J.. If we take
t his into consideration, we still find acceptable agreement with t he classical
theory, t hough not so good as that with t he new theory. Thus, for the classical
theory, we find t he following conditions which must be satisfied in order that
the theoretical t ime ratios shall fit in with the observed mean time ratio:
1
Ch 09 = {1.45
-·- an d -eh'-lo = {0.56, respect'1ve1y
Ct,, 1.5 0.86 C1t, 2.2 1.11
Similarly, for the new theory we find the following conditions:

for n = 1.5, /40.0 = { 1.03 an d -J.1o· ={ . Iy

0.43 , respective
A.1.5 0.61 J.2 2 0.86

and for n = 1.6, Ao.9 _ f 0.96 - =

and }.1.5 { 0.42 , respective
. ly
},1.5 - l 0.57 J.2.2 0.84
In practice, the difference in results for n = 1.5 and n = 1.6 is small.
Since the above ratios ought to be smaller than unity the new theory is
obviously in better agreement with the practical results than the classical theory.
Another way of treating the disturbance effects on the coefficient of consoli­
dation would be to introduce a zone of smear (cf. BARRON, 1948). However, this
meets with practical difficulties and does not seem to be more in accordance
with reality than the method used above.

Comparison between Theoretical and Observed Time-Consolidation Citrves

According to the classical theory, the time of consolidation, t, may be obtained
from Eq. (1: 29), which gives, for drain spacings:

L= 0.9 m, t = 0.102 · 10' (cm~} I n ~

c,. 1-U

L = 1.5 m, t = 0.444 · 10 4 2
(cm ) I n ~
eh 1-U

L =2.2 m, t = 1.20 · 10' (cm~) I n ~

1

C1, 1-U
' The top figures in the right-hand members of these equations refer to the lime ratios observed
at 50 and 40 % degrees of consolidation, respectively, in Test Area No. I alone, while the bottom
figures refer to the corresponding time ratios observed in Test Areas No. I (0.9 and 2.2 m drain
spacing) and No. II (1.5 m drain spacing).

109
 By comparing the tc1,-values thus obtained with the time-consolidation curves
observed in Areas I and II, Fig. 68, we find the C1,-values given in Table 13.
Table 13.

tc11 in cm" c;, in cm'/ sec

u
% Area No. I
L =
0.9 m
I Area K?. II I Area Ko. I
L = l.o m L = 2.2 m
Area Ko. I
L =0.9 m
I Area K?. II
L=l.o m
I Area Ko. I
L = 2.2 m

20 230 1000 2680 0.99 10-4 2.08 10-4 l. 90 J0-4

40 520 2 270 6 140 0.9 9 10-4 1.29 10-4 l.! 7 10-4
70 1 230 5 330 14400 0.8 1 10-1 1.03 10-4
90 2350 10200 27 600 0.50 10-4

According to t he new theory, we find the corresponding values from Eq. (4: 8),
which gives for n = 1.5 and

L = 0.9 m, t = 0.0935 · 1 ! (cm 26

· ) ( ~ - _
1)
;., \/ uo \/1- U
Yw
L = 1.5 m , t=0.547·10"(cm
26
)( 1 -l)
Vl
J.
5
Vuo
25
-
Yw
U

_ 1.77 · 10 (cm · ) (
L= 2.2 m, t -- - - -- - - - -1 - - 1 )
J.
VYwuo-
y\-u
By comparing the t}.-values with the time-consolidation curves observed m
Areas I and II, we find the }.-values given in Table 14.

Table 14.
tJ. in cm' i. in cm0 /sec
u
m I L = 1.5 m I L = 2.2 m
Area No. I Area No. II Area No. I
==3.70.9l/m
% L 0
!i = 3.2 t/m" u = 2.7 t/m
0 L = 0.9 m L= 1.5 m L = 2.2 m
= 3.2 t/m' u = 2.7 t/m'
ti 0 0 0
u0 = 3.7 l/m' ti 0 0

20 57 36 1 1 270 0.2 5 10-4 0.73 10-1 0. 90 10- 4

40 Hl 890 3 130 0.27 10--1 0.50 lQ-4 0.60 10- 4
70 40l 2 530 8 900 0.26 10- 4 0.49 10-4
}0- 4
90 1 050 6 610 23 300 0.22
I
Obviously, the phenomenon of decrease in c,. with the time of consolidation,
cf. Chapter 1, can to a certain degree be explained by the non-validity of
DARCY's law of permeability for clays at small hydraulic gradients. Thus, the­
agreement between observed and theoretical rates of excess pore water pressure

ll O
 Time of loading, m days

...,-------r'o;..;;o_ ___..;;2'-ro..;__
o _--,Joro_ _ _, -_ ____,;_,----6.,0_0_ _--,700
Legend, • Area No.L0.9 m drain spacing
• 1,2.2· ' • •
• II
10 H'\-\\~-----f'.;;:..._,..--- - - l -- ----+---"-+--..,__ __,_---1'---'-...Lllf'--_._---__,

c9 30
s
c::.·
~ 40
~0
II')
c::. 50
0
(J
....0
II>
II> 60
~
Q
70

80

90

100
Fig, 69, Theoretical time-consolidation curves compared with observed consolidation values
based on pore pressure investigations in T est Areas Nos, I to III. Cf, Fig, 68,

dissipation in the new consolidation theory is far closer than in the classical
theory, However, we also find that.?. slightly decreases with the time of consoli­
dation, This might be ascribed to the assumption that 'X/ mv is a constant but
also, for example, to the above-mentioned non-hydrodynamic decrease of excess
pore pressure (thixotropy). Furthermore, if the values of U1, in Tables 11 and lZ
were reduced to constant load values (cf, footnote 1, p, 107), then the decrease
of }, with the time would be greater. On the other hand, the circumstance that
part of the consolidation had taken place when the loading was completed does
not affect the .?..-values in our case, where the observed average excess pore water
pressures were used 1 , The scattering of observations around the theoretical
curves has a trend which might be related to t emperature effects.
The comparison made in Fig, 69 2 between theoretical time-consolidation curves
corresponding to the classical and the new theory (n 1.5) and the results =
obtained in the t est field gives more obvious evidence of the superiority of the
new consolidation equation,
1
The influence of secondary effects on the pore water pressures occurring during the period of
primary settlement is probably negligible.
0
The expression "fitted consolidation cun·e" used in Fig, 69 refers to the values of CJ, and J. which
were fitted to the field obserrntions.
111
54. Flow of Clay in Lateral Direction

Direct llleasure1nents of Horizontal Displace1nents

For the subsequent interpretation of the results of settlement measurements
(Section 55), it is useful to know how much these results are influenced by
lateral outflow of clay. As has previously been mentioned, only the lateral dis­
placement of the ground surface was accurately measurable. After the original
methods had been improved, some results of qualitative value were also ob­
tained for interior parts of the clay.
The results of the measurements of surface displacements are shown in Fig. 70.
The displacements obtained at different drain spacings due to driving of
drains are compared in Table 15. Here the displacements were measured in
a radial direction, away from the centre of the test area in question.
Table 15.

Drain Distance from J-Iorizonial Size of

Area drained surface
spacing, <lisplacement, drained area,
No. in m to observation in cm in m~
point, in m
I
0.9 3 9 1280
I
I 1.5 3 5 1280
'
--- I 2.2 3 J /'l
I
1280

II
I 1.5
I 1•;,
I 3
I H!iO
I I
III
I
1.5
I 1 'f,
I 3'/,
I 960

As ,vas to be expected, the displacement of the ground surface increases ,vith

increasing volume of displaced clay, i.e. with decreasing drain spacing and in­
creasing drain length and, within certain limits, also ,vith increasing size of
drained area.
The approximate values of displacements clue to ,i load q applied in drained
areas after completion of drainage are given in Table 16.
Table 16.
Drain
Area q Total load, Displacement,
spacing,
No. in t/m 2 in t/m2 in cm
in m

0.fl 2.3 9 - 4 1/~

-·'
I 1.5 2.3 2., i{
2.2 2,3 2., 2'/,
__ ,
II L5 1.8 9 - l '/,
III LG '2A 3.9 2 11~
IV No drains 2.l 2.i l '/,

112
 1957 1958 1959
UM J J IA S IO NID J IF M I A M\ J J \A SI O N IO J IF M IA
.~ ~ ..,,,,,_...J:!..1?...._
e }f ,,
12 1--.:r:""'tl-~i'll----l---l---=
~ ---'~----
- , --------l-----l---l----+----l----+----i-------!i
.~ ~ ', TEST AREA No.I
10 1-~c5}-a-11*~_
-_..-+
__ .--+--+---1-~""---:1-,-.,-"'---+ - -+----+---'c=c..:....i.:....::.=.:....i-:..:.::.:.=---
a1-i1~~1~ ~~-~~·-±·,..-rr···,,,···,. -f---
:· r.cc:::-+cm--1---+--+""-- _-_·--+""'
- =::t,~~~=-+---1
i \i}'i,:~.~~ ->~----. ·::'······· .............
1:-.,., /"~./:f.8 · . ":..,~iJ~~~. . . __ -·-........ ··~,N.~
----
···- - ·"~'"" '········ •... ·····::o:j:

u • - ~~
j 2 - .
:,.:
-- -
~
~··· ········· ... ·········
--a- _ _ _ _ '"'"-·
.......
-········ ·······+
b ---
c~ OI--J~~~- +.-- -+---=+-,---+---,-,+---+- -+-- --+-- --
-=+="'--d, - -~
~ 'Legend, i Single ot:servaticrs r--~

....
0
:
-... f
• A~erage 'Of three, obser ations
===- Measurer1ents from concrete blocks to wooden m~es
] 6 o, 5 - - Measurer,1ents b ?tween concre e bloc/<. s

~E
~
..l;!
~
~
'"tJ
, _

2
D
' ,--'----
I _ __ , . _ _

-- ------

-
--- ---
~~
TEST AREA No.II

----~ ---._ ..._

c... f::1::l
~
,.
VI~ o,.'!!
.!;; t: u a,
g Br- ~e~~~~-~
~~ i;lg,~o ~ r--,...__v---r---
~ - -* ~-+--~----+--+---1-----1----1---+--~
TEST AREA No.III.
61---'::,;~0~~;f+- - + - - - t - - -t---t---==----1<=::---+--+---l--+--==.......j
~ i.,·'
'-" .k // ----- ---
4 1-- ~~$1--b.L/:___+ - - + - ---·-f-::.·-=---=1::::--+---f---l--...::i=:-:-,.,.---:l:::-----j
- - - -- - -
I/ ~ __..,-' ---- -------- --------
1/
2 t---!IHl:,\t-,~-+--+--+--~---+--+--+---l-----4---+----=--:::::.._..j
, ,,
0 r---'-,,!;:,-'-='--t-- -t- --+- -+ - -+-----l---+- -+ - --1-- -l-- ---l
g,
~ TEST AREA No.N
2
t---~-.
::~~~;;;;;;-;;;;;;;;;;;;~:;;;;:;;;;;;;;::::t===::!F:::::::::;:;;;
~-~ -- t===:'.~===I====t==.----1
r
0 1-- ~ ~- ~ =--....L...--+--......l--_L---,..:l-,,-,,--..L...--L....--=::·-:+==-..-_ ,1,.,,.,,...----1
---i-_
1957 1958 1 59-.
MIJ I J IA S I O Nl D JI FI M I A M I J I JI A I s l Ol Nl O J I F M I A

Fig. 70. Observed lateral displacements of ground surface at distances from peripheries of
3 m in Arca No. I and l½ m in Areas Nos. II to I V.

113
8
 Horizontal inward displacement, in cm
E
.s; 0
-I 0 2 3 4 5
,,-<.,
s2
s
II Fu/f's--lme curv{!s repre· !

"'"§
senfi observob'ons outside
sec/or w,th 0.9.lm drom :
0 spo~mg
5, Dosh-lme cu~ves refer;
~
lo sector w,tf,_ 2 2 m i Fig. 71. Lateral displacement of bound­
-'2 dram spocmg '
~ \ ary of Test Arca No. I, measured dur­
.Q 3 ing the period from Oct. 2,1,th, 1957
,s
;g 4
(represented by zero-displacement), to
the dates given in the figure.

Obviously, driving of drains also appreciably reduced the rigidity of clay

outside the areas. Again ,ve find that the disturbance increases with the Yolume
of displaced clay.
During the process of consolidation, the points of observation were initially
displaced further away from the centres of the areas (Yisco-elastic and plastic
deformations), but were subsequently moved in the opposite direction, tmvards
Lhe centres of the areas. The latter phenomenon is no doubt connected with
increasing curvature of the ground surface under the loaded areas, and must
necessarily occur if the continuity of the soil surface is maintained. For an elastic
medium, this is tantamount to a decrease of Po1ssoN's ratio )'.
The lateral displacement of the interior of the soil was not successfully meas­
ured until October 24, 1957, after the beginning of the inward displacement of
the ground surface. The displacements n1easured after the aboYe date haYe so
far occurred in a direction tmnirds the areas, though they were smaller than
in the case of the ground surface, cf. Fig. 71.

Indirect Determination of Horizontal Displacements

by Control of Change in Water Content
The Yolmne displacements could be checked, for example, by continuously con­
trolling the change in water content of the clay layer. Howcnr, the Yalue of
this method is limited owing to the scattering caused partly by the heterogeneity
of the soil and partly by the increasing rate of consolidation when approaching
a drain (cf. Section 53 and Fig. 11). An extensive investigation is required for
the method to be accurate. Otherwise, it ,vill be 1nere estimation.
A continuous control of the water content has been made on samples ,Yhich
,vere taken as nearly half-way behvecn the drains as possible. An example of
the results obtained at a given time in Area No. I is given in Figs. 72 to 74.
A comparison of the results obtained at different time interYals is made in
Figs. 75 and 76. All values given here are mean values for the clay layer originally
situated behveen depths of 2.5 and 7.5 1n below ground surface. The observed

114
 Shear strength, Sensitivity Unit weight, Water content and Atterberg's limits,
in tjm2 in t;fn3 in °/o
0 05 10 1 5 2.0 0 10 20 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 0 20 ,o 60 80 100 120 1£0 160
+2 +2 +2 +2

±0 --- --t----t-,~ ±0 ±0 ' 0 1--+--+1,-r--+----+-+v----,,!1-d~~

i 1/ \ .,,( . _....;--- I
r I,,1 -
F" 1 ~
I
I

1-11
wp \ w--+-+--+---1
wi-<-~,i1+---i.

1
---<.'---- ; I ""/"i'..4=-------i-+.-----1----1
I) -5 7\ I /(' I
I --1-•-i---- - 5 ,_, 1--HHff-+-f-+-----+1-+-1---I
i
I I ii
~,i--,->Iir·l-+----+---+---c-----1
I i

\ -f- !--f'--<','----+-+---+---+-------,
I
,_ ~- _}_' l-1---t----+-t-----+----I
I
'
I' -10 -10 L_____L___j_ _J__j__j___L_L___J

l<'ig. 72. Gcotechnical data on clay. Test Area No. I, drain spacing 0,9 rn. ,June, 1958.

Shear strength, Senslf1v1fy Und weight, Water content and Atterberg's ltmlfs,
m t/m 2 in t/m 3 f{) /4
0

0 05 1.0 1.5 20 0 10 20 lJ 15 17 l9 0 20 ,o 60 80 100 120 !£0 160

•2 •2 +2 +2

.
±0 -
I I/ ±0 ' ±0 ' I I
±0
I I ,- ' I
I I I I J ,, I -g1i t,
'
I
I)
7-w__.
LJ....j,J_....
i];r-
w -1-.....-..---~<:i-1:t-
~"'"

E -- ~ ' -~
I
_ _1:-,,.__ L_1Jd ,,,. I O~§
\;Q.<>
g,{: ~I-

'
'I'-!
I/
' -)-
-IAI ..
;d
~-r-
'' ' -5 -5 -5 -
~"'"'
.!.-'
I '
I i I

I
I I i
'

i I

I I !
I

-10 -10 -10 -10

I
Fig. 73. Gcotcchnical data on clay. Test Arca No. I, drain spacing 1.5 m. June, 1958.

115
 Shear strength, Sensitivity Unit weight, Water content and Atterberg's fimds,
m t/m2 in tjm3 In o/o
0 05 1.0 15 2.0 0 10 20 1.J 15 1.7 19 0 20 t.0 60 80 100 120 140 160
+2 +2 +2.---.-~-,--c---,--,c--,---,
! ! '2
I . ' i
i I
;_-. '
' I
. ±0 -~- to I-":\
' .' .
i I .
- .<
_Ii
1---t-
-\-
\I
I I
! (
•
I ?
I_L I
< !

I \.I,, • -5
;>
-5
i I I
! i I •

:"! I ;
i

,1
I '" I
I
I
! I I '
-10
I 10 -/0
I
'
I i

Fig. 7-1. Gcotcclmieal data on day. Test Arl'a No. I, drain spacing 2.2 rn. June, 1958.

values arc compared with that theoretical ,vater content curve in which the effect
of horizontal displacement is neglected. This curve is obtained, for a saturated
day, from the equation

w=w.,-cl"('y,,.+wo)
h )
····················
1s
(5:3)

where -W 0 initial mean water content of the investigated clay layer,

h thickness of the layer,
tlh compression of the layer,
'Yw specific gravity of pore water,
Ys specific graYity of solids.

The results show the difficulties of drawing from this method any conclusions
as to the lateral outflow.
A phenomenon concerning the Attcrberg limits can be observed. Thus, it
seems as if a progressive reduction of the Atterbcrg Jimits took place. This has
been observed on specimens consolidated in the oedometer, but was not ex­
pected to happen in the field. Perhaps this is due to the foet that, in determining
the Atterbcrg limits, the part of the pore water which has escaped in the process
of consolidation is replaced by ordinary or distilled water. The physico-chemical
properties of the tested clay have thus become different from those of the
original clay.

llG
 %
100
I
I
Legend,
I
---
;o---<>
p-- -c
0.9 m
1.5
2.2
.... drain
.... spacing
....
90
~~rt water contents I
80 ::-;--==-~--- I
"-:~........ I ! ___ ? ' ------·"
~ ::-:,.._'..,_
~ft 30 '-.·.~_.....__...,.__......C:::...--------......_ ~--
I -- ·

70 R
~ .,
-isi'-------- "'---~-------~-----
w-=:.:;
- --·- · 3 ~
':)s;;:.--
'
-.._
---- ---
60 -~--··---~........
l,qLJlr limits .. ...,_r....-· <
-- _..i--
.. .. · -Wp•}J':t,<f
p25%__ _ _ _ 1......- . . -.......

---
--":::_~
-
wp•2J,i

50
Ml J J IA S I O I N I D J I F M I A IM I J J I A S 10 N I D J IF MI A
1957 1958 1959

Fig. 75. R esults of water content inwstigations performed at different time intervals
in T es t Area No. I.

/o
100
'egend, Test area No. llI
0- - --o
N ..

,
O•••••,O
" "
90 - -
Natural waterc ontents
..-:::~ ...~--.. ···-·········
80
~ ...._-·-·······-·· ····- --o
---
j,-o..••••••••••-

--------- ---- -- ___f

Wp•}5$

t'.e~~.e. . ~~~- =------·~. .l oo. ·--,\\...,..._ ----- ----

70

---- -- ----
----
.d

wrisJ'"
--- -- -
II:"::::----
--- --
···········-- ····--·-d'w
p 2,% wp• 23%

60
-w-;;;2,%"
--- ----
-uqu1d iimitsA1/L- -- ---- :C=~ n%-- ----
50 MIJ J IA S 10 N I D J IF M IA M l Jf?. J IA S 10 N I D J I F M I A
1957 1958 1959

Fig. 76. Results of water content investigations performed at different time intervals
in Test Areas Nos. III and IV.

55. Vertical Settlements

Introductory Remarks
The measurements of settlements were carried out with great accuracy. N ever­
theless, errors might appear in the results on account of the human factor but
they are generally easy to observe, and do not cause difficulties in the interpre­
tation of the results. Other difficulties will be discussed in what follows.
As has been mentioned previously, the thickness of the dry crust is approxi­
mately I m on an average, while the depth to firm bottom varies from 9 to

117
 I I
/nd,af /oc <I,

r 1~
. ~- 7
I 2 2m dra ~ spacing

\:: 150.9•• ..
~ load, r ec <JCed bys'tefflement
,J I .
0
r 1957

,
0 M J / J IA s l o N in JlF M IA Ml
1958
J J I A s in N i n I
1959
IF M IA
A1957
~ '~
legend · - ;tasur ed se/1/emerl( since I.June 19
-- timated '5elflemen since complet,on J, drainage
20 I ' ~

\ ' ,, r - --------
~

E.
u 40
~
'
~
~ ~
--, ~
.s;
Q)
(J
J2
\ '"'-
~
~..........
~
'J~ ------ ----,~
~
--- ~
~ -~-- t::::::
60
-~~
--~
V1.,_. -

l '
~ . -- ~
'c;
~
~
80
-]~ '--~
1--.......
=.::: 1J Time of drc n drivJnr, ( 22 m a cingJ ..__
:::::--
~ 100
-----~ --- ___
l
i-.._ _ _
~I)
SDac,naJ
.,_
f Tin e of dr, n dr,vms, (I.Sm sbacmg/ f---- -
120

I /me ol c r am drw11 lg 10.9 m

i
pocmgJ

Fig. 77. Settlement observations in Test Area No. I . Cf. F ig. 36.

more t ha n 15 m , When studying the consolidation, it is convenient to consider

a clay layer which is not influ enced by the above-men tioned fact ors. In our
case, settlement measurements have been made at t he ground surface and at
depths of 1.5, 2,5, 5.0 and 7,5 m below the gr ound surface. T h e settlements of
t he ground surface and those at a depth of 1.5 m are certainly infl uenced by
the dry crust. It is therefore advantageous to study the consolidation of one or
both of t he t wo layers, 2.5 m in thickness, situated at depths of 2.5 to 5.0 m and
5,0 to 7.5 m, respectively. If comparisons are to be made between the magnitudes
or t he rat es of compression of a certain definite layer in t he different test areas,
then t he best result is surely obtained from t he layer, 5.0 m in thickness, sit uat ed
at a depth of 2.5 to 7.5 m. In this way t he high-plasticity layer m entioned in
Section 52 will be included with certainty, while this is not th e case if each one

118
 4
°"
~ 3
ln!l,al /Jod J L _,I
-S iI IT I .
-o· 2
0
-S?
~
a
Wr
=:!:-/
1!1
Legend

-
•-• T;,s/ area Noll
'DI
-JY
'"load, reduced by set/le eol

Ml1\
I
0
1957 1958 1959
0 SID NID JIF MIA Ml J JIA SID NIO JIF MIA
Le9end·1-- M~asured betllemen~ ~mce Jt ne 20/h rdri;,o NaO:l.Jur,e 18 h rarea Jo mJ,
~d Junell/111957(arodNa, IYJ
'=, - - r/imaled S!/f//emen/ smce !comple/Jo1 of drainage
lv,.artest area Noll!,
20
~
J,,', II
---~
,, -
\:,\
E 40

'\ ,_
u
s
~-
u ~ f:::::-._
-2
L
~
60 ' -- --. ~
~~
V/ G

-0
C
~
0
~
-- ~ :::::::-:--- )

- - --
L
80
"' ',
~
-
0
c ~
,_., G
E

--~
~/
Q,.
~
100
r---._: 4'o.~

120
tl me of d m dnvm in test area Ne D --- ~
--- i:::::::,
140
II 'im' dr'" dci"'i'
o/ lo /e;I
onm N,DJ

Fig. 78. Settlement observations 111 Test Areas Nos. II lo IV. CJ. l<'igs. 37 to 30.

of the two 2.5 111 layers forming an integral part of the 5.0 m layer is studied
separately, cf. Figs. 72 to 74.
The consolidation of the layer, situated at a depth of 1.5 to 5.0 m, will be
considered in the case ,vhere settlement n1easurements haYe been carried out
at depths of 1.5 and 5.0 m below the ground surface only.

Test Results
The results of the measurements are giYen in the forn1 of diagran1s. The settle­
n1ents at the ground surface and at the 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 1n levels at given points
within the different areas are represented in Figs. 77 to 80. The corresponding
compression of the 5 m layer situated originally bebYeen depths of 2.5 and
7.5 111 below ground sul'face is given in Figs. 81 to 82.

119
 4
3 lm,bol 1ol
'
7
I
I
I
' I I' I
I
!

I !' I
I I f22m dr.Jrn spacm;
2 ' ' '
,.J load, redted b/ ~llemrml \'!-!5·
-....09• .,
0 11
I
I
•...• 1958
I
! 1959
1~.p
J JIA,S!O I Nlo I JIFIM'A IM J' JIA i SI o
I

0 Ml NI n I J, F :11TJi:1
~-'II'
~-...c:::::::-·-r·-·t--·~- Ii 1 I

--r~=--,
V1J·'l5 ,._
, ~~- 7-----~
; ~:,... -...,_,.__ I: ·-·
1 ·--1·-
20
'
'~
i~r~--=~_..:_;
I ·----4,..
I I~-- ----c.,---
-...._;-..::::::-i__
!---T--~---1-
I
-.__1VJso
VJJS r

I I'
40
I 1 1 • ._______ / 1--:.-:::::::J~!.:.,tqJ:-~---~
.,. . . '"-I- ~---
r------:.~v, i--D
I~ ,b,,..._ ' : , · . --...,_._:125:

I r---_k__i 3
60 I '-- 1
-- - -- vu·n, ~~
"" ! Oi 'I ,·---..-;
'

80
~ !
I
i
!
~ i
~ I I
100 I
I I'
leg,rnl
--
--~ - osm d'f:m
1

~~ 1.
spac1 g
i
!
'
I
I
I
120 I

i
140
! i
Fig. 79. Settlement observations in Test Area No. I. Cj. Fig. 36.

Elev<ttion of Ground Surface Caused by Driving of Drains

The soil removed by driving of drains caused a rise of the ground surface that
was to be observed in the settlement meters which are nearest to the test areas.
Thus, at a distance of 1.5 m outside the drained surfaces of Test Areas Nos. II
and III the observed rise was approximately 1 ½ cm on an average at depths of
1.5 m (6 observation points) and 5 m (2 observation points) below ground sur­
face. At a distance of 1 m outside the different sectors of Area No. I, the
respective Yalues of the rise obserYed at depths of 1.5 and 5 n1 were:

8½ and 4 cm at 0.9 m drain spacing

3½ 1 cm 1.5 111
" " "
1 ½cm 2.2 111
" " " "
120
 4
"''$ I '../ ~
lr11l1al lead-
I

3
s •

0
-i:,·
t,
.ga,
,.
2
r fr
-=l,- i
I
Legend
-
o---<>
Test area No.II
..
..
..
..
• ll[
• IY
~ Load, reduced by s('/1/er enf

I
0 I
1957 1958 /959 I

0 M J J A s 0 N D J F 'M A M J J A s 0 N D J IF M A
IY.V1 75

'~ I I I IJl,Vl·SO

-·- ·-·-·-·-,- ·--·-- ... ll VJ 7,

lY. VJ} 5

20
~ ~- ~ ,---
"""·I ---. ill V/75

I '· ----
I ~ " ~ ~,~ -1__
40

E
(J

s
ca,
~
E
60
I

~
I ---
~---.
.- -.....,,//lv
• ' so

(
~
VJ. }S
I

·-·r---=
I I

80

~
~
I
JOO
Legend
--
-- .
o-----0
Tes/ area No. II
. • lI1
• N
r--

120

140

Fig. 80. Settlement observations in Test Areas Nos. II to I V. Cf. Figs. 37 to 39.

These values were single observations, and consequently, the statistical devi­
ations are not known.
The observations made farthest away from t he test areas showed an average
elevation of the ground surface of 2 mm (9 observation points). However, this
value is close to the limit of accuracy of the measuring method, and is com­
prised within t he natural range of variation in ground surface level, e.g. due
to the variation of gravitation caused by the influence of the moon and the suu
(cf. e.g. TOMASCHEK, 1957), to varying soil temperature, etc.

Seasonal Variation in Rate of Settlement

The influence of seasonal variation in temperature on the rate of settlement is
complicated since a change in the soil t emperature may have the opposite effects
stated in what follows.

121
 4
"-t J
I
2 2m drdf/1 spacing
.G
°b' 2 I '
,..J load, ff!< µced by· jsl!lttement , 15 •
"
-"'- I I u-
1---1~--+---i------;· ---+--+--+--+----il----t---+--1
~
0
0 r1 I I i
1957 1958 1959
0

100

200
E
E
G
c'
300
'"'-'~ ...~-,~ ·,
·~
'- '~/~
§- 400 l---f----1----+I---+--,·~~,_ :i:..., ...._ ,
8 ri --;....__ I ~ i YO 25-7s1

,,l,/j Time of b'rain drrvi,'ng, 2 2m. spacing -....,~-~ - - - -

500 f---"-c-f----l---+---+--+--t---\---f-----7
1 '11_'_.:::::::Z-=......,.;,s_,,.~,

I, I ~~-~-~~--,~
[! Time af ~rain &ii'ig, 1 5 m spacmg i
600

spacing
700
Fig. 81. Compression of the 5 m layer situated originally between depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m
below ground surface. Test Arca No. I.

Firstly, a decrease of temperature increases the viscosity of pore water and,

according to LAMBE (1958), is assumed to expand the double layer. These effects
cause a decrease in rate of settlemcllt1.
Secondly, a decrease of temperature reduces the thickness of the clay layer
in direct proportion to the coefficient of thermal expansion of the clay and to
the change in temperature. This causes an apparent increase in rate of settle­
ment. In this connection ( cf. also Section 53) it should be mentioned that the
decrease of temperature also causes a reduction of the excess pore water pressure
1
The lempernture effects on the consolidation behaviour haye been studied in the laboratory, e.g.
by FIXN (1051) and Bun:.\IISTER (1051). Thus, according to FIKN, a decrease of temperature
reduces the coefficient of consolidation of remoulded clay and causes a yertical downward dis~
placement of lhc Yoid ratio 'VS. pressure cun·e. .According to BuR1HSTER, a temperature drop (rise)
makes the slope of the void ratio ·vs. prf'ssure curve of undisturbed clay flatter (steeper).

l 22
 4
I I
3
lni/Ja/ load /1
! ! / ! I
'

2 I
Legend ....__. Test arNJ No.JI ~Lood, rc<fuced [by settlement
'C,---0 # •1I1
I
I

0 I 9
L' 7957 / \H
0
11TJ1! JI I Ai S, 0 I N' D ! J IF MI A IM I J I J I A I SI O 'N 1 0 J'F1MIA

100

200
E
E
s
c· 300
0
.;
V,
~
~

rt .:oo
8

500

~~
600
·1! I.1 I
!
II - 1~1- 1---~I
!.

, 1

-r--
, I I
L-~fi(_,m_,_'_'•~t_"_c_n_w~_c.t_,_"_'_1~;_m_ _,__ _~!____ '
700
Fig. 82. Compression of the 5 m layer situatc<l originally between depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m
below ground surface. Test Areas Nos. II to IV.

and, according to the new theory, this decrease leads to an increase in time of
consolidation.
Thirdly, seasonal variations in load, e. g. variations in ground water level and,
during the winter, in snow load, ,vill influence the rate of settlement.
:\Ioreover, frost has an influence on the rate of settlement in the interior and
in the immediate neighbourhood of the frozen zone of the soil. Frost might also
i-educe the effectiveness of drainage by clogging the pores of the sand fill on
the top of the drains (or on the ground smface),
It is. probable that a variation in soil temperature docs not occur at a greater
depth than 7 to 8 m below ground surface (cf, l\Iom.r and RoSENQVIST, 1957).
Newrtheless, we find in general that the rate of settlement of the clay under­
neath a depth of 7.5 111 increases in the late autumn. This may be caused by

123
a lowering of the ground water level. Similarly, we generally find that the rate
of settlement at depths of 2.5 and 5 m increases in the late autumn, cf. Figs. 70
to 80. In the layer bet,veen depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m, the rate of compression
seems to increase during the winter season. This might be due to thermal com­
pression. The settlement of the ground smfacc is not appreciably influenced by
the variation in soil temperature.

Estimation of Final C01npression

In addition to estimating the time required for complete consolidation, the main
problem to be solved when assessing the advisability of building on clay is to
find the magnitude of final compression. If yertical drains arc driven through
the clay bed, then we have furthermore to solve the problem of finding the
influence of drains on final compression.
The final settlement ( compression) o,,,
can be obtained from the following
equation
o,,, = o, o,,
+ + a,+ o" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(5: 4)

where c\ - instantaneous settlement,

Ov settlement due to primary consolidation,
Os - settlement due to secondary consolidation,
oil = settlements caused by outflow of clay in a lateral direction (cf.
Section 54).
For an elastic medium, the instantaneous settlement of the centre of a circular
area submitted to a uniformly distributed pressure q can be obtained from the
equation

b, = I R., q ........... (5: 5)

E

where RA - radius of loaded area Ai

E modulus of ehisticilyi
I influence value, determined by the -value of Jl/R ..1 i

where II is the depth to firm bottom.

Although the assumption of elastic behaviour is not fulfilled in the case of soil
(cf. Section 12), Eq. (5: 5) may neyertheless be expected to giYe sufficiently
accurate 1·esults in practice. However, the practical use of this equation is com­
plicated as the apparent modulus of elasticity E is difficult to find by con­
ventional laboratory investigations (cf. e.g. BERGSTROM and LINDERHOL:\I,
1946). Thus, for example, at Skil-Edeby, the value of E obtained from uncon­
fined compression tests on samples which ,vere taken at a depth of 4 m (cf.
KALLSTENIUS, 1958) by means of a sampler SGI IX was less than, or about,
5 kg/cm2 • For other sampler types, E was found to be considerably lower. The
correct apparent value of E must be ]1igher than that which is obtained from
this type of test. Thus, at Sbl-Edeby, the instantaneous settlement of the centre
of Area No. IV at a load increment of 1.2 t/m2 is approximately 4.5 cm. o; =
If this Yalue is inserted into Eq. (5: 5), we find, for the depth and the loading
conditions in this ease (II/RA= 2/3) and ,, = 0.5 (TERZAGHI, 1944, Fig. 138),
the apparent modulus of elasticity E = 16 kg/cm'.
The Yalue of t\ for a given clay layer is most easily found from measurements
made at the instant of load application. In this manner we obtain, for the clay
layer situated between depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m in the nndra.inccl Area No. IV,
lhc following compression:
01 = 6 mm for a loa<l increment of 1.2 t/m::?
Consequently, the minimum instantaneous compression by ·which the observed
total compression should be reduced is
2 3
for A rca N o. ·
I , approximate 1y - · · G == 19
.., nun,
1.2

II, l.S · G= 9 mm,

" " 1.2
3 .,
" "
,, III,
"
'...:.:' · G
1.2
= 17 mm.
However, these values may be increased considerably owing to the effect of
disturbance (cf. 1\I}j;NARD, 1957), and it is therefore difficult to give accurate
values.
The primary part of the long-time settlements will be estimated by means of
two methods, 1..n'z., firstly, by using as a starting-point the con1prcssion charac­
teristics found in the laboratory, and secondly, by comparing the excess pore
water pressures and settlements observed most recently.
In the calculation of the primary consolidation settlement by the aid of the
first method, account must be taken of the reduction of load caused by the part
of the load sinking down below the ground water level. The ground ,vater at
Sk.1-Edeby is often found 50 cm below the original ground surface, of which
25 cm had been taken away before the gravel blanket was laid out. Thus, the
ground water level is situated only about 25 c1n below the gravel blanket, and,
with the requisite accuracy, the reduction of weight can be put roughly equal
to 0.7 times the settlement of the ground surface. In this case, the final primary
compression OP of a clay layer of thickness h can approximately be expressed by
the rnlue given by the equation (cf. Eq. 1: 5 b)

.,
u = Iz. --
s,
1orr
a + d q-
0 ;l ba (5: 6)
JJ log 2 ° 00
where e2 additional deformation due to doubling the load,
i'io effective preconsolidation pressure (average value for the layer
in question),
LJq pressure increment (average value for the layer in question) under
which consolidation takes place,
final settlement of ground surface,
0.7 t/m3 (average for total settlement period).

125
 The results of these calculalions relating to the clay layer situated bebYcen
depths of 2.5 and 7.5 111 arc giYen in Table 17. In these calculations, the effect
of the disturbance caused by the drainage operation as well as the lateral out­
flow and a possible stiffening effect of the sand drains on the clay are disregarded.

Table 171 •
·-
Draln
Area dq ·y'Og i,,
No.
spacing,
in rn II if,, Vo
t/m!:
I t/m!:
I t/m!: Cnl

O.!I 17 ~.8 2.; 0.8 63

I 1.5 18 2.8 2.; O.; 70
__ ,
22 14 2.8 9 - 0.9 50
I
II I 1.5 15-16 2.8 2.i 0.9 64-f)/
III
I l.5
I
No drains I
13-15 2.8
I
II
3.9
I l.1
I 66-'15

IV
I 13-15 2.8
I
2.i
I 0.9
I 47-54-

In the second method, the final primary compression is determined fron1 the
equation (cf. Eq. I: 3)

c\, = o1 +-~- ........................ (3: 7)

u
where c\ == consolidation settlement at the instant of completion of landing,
0 == consolidation settlement after completion of loading,
u = degree of consolidation obtained by observing excess pore pressure
dissipation.
Several approximations are involved in this method.
Firstly, the observed values of o will have to be reduced by the part of com­
pression 011 which is due to lateral outflow of clay.
Secondly, U refers to the total consolidation of the clay layer, i.e. to the com­
bined action of horizontal and vertical drainage.
As has previously been mentioned, the excess pore water pressure at a depth
of 5 m in the undraincd area had not changed since the instant of loading. No
consolidation in a vertical direction ,vas therefore obsc1Ted at this depth. llow­
cver, the settlement measurements show a certain amount of compression of the
investigated clay layer in the undrained area also. This compression might be
due solely to the effect of vertical drainage or, which is more probable, to the
combined effects of vertical drainage and outflow of clay in a horizontal lateral
direction. Owing to the shortcomings of the measurements of horizontal displace­
ment of clay (cf. Section 50), no direct information has been obtained about the
influence of this factor at a greater depth than about 3 m. However, indirect
1
The value of£::: gi\'en in Table 17 was delermined by means of the methorl suggested in the above,
cf. p. 89, 'l'able 5.

126
information may be obtained from other observations. Thus, as has already been
mentioned, judging by the pore "·:lter pressure measurements, the effect of
vertical drainage is negligible at a depth of 5 m, and the main part of com­
pression occurring at that depth is consequently due to outflow. Furthern1ore,
by comparing the magnitudes of compression of the upper and lower clay layers
situated between depths of 2.5 to 5.0 and 5.0 to 7.5 m, respectiYely, we find
that at least the upper layer is influenced by vertical drainage.
For the undrained area, the relation between the vertical average compression
bfl of a layer, 5 m in thickness, and the average lateral outflmv !; 11 , tz at the peri­
phery of the area is obtained from the equation

n35:!
4
and hence On== 0.57 011 ,!l
If we assume that the upper and lo·wer layers have the san1e mnount of
outflow of clay 1 and that only the upper layer has so far been influenced by
vertical drainage2, then we obtain on April 8, 1959, i.e. after 035 clays of loading,
01l = 2 ½ cm, corresponding to an outflO\v of 011 , tz == 4 ½ cm. This value refers
to the clay layer, 5 m in thickness, situated between depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m.
In consideration of the results given in Section 54, this value seems reasonable.
If the above assumption is accepted as true, the effect of vertical drainage
on the layer in question can be estimated at V- v == Hi% on the above-mentioned
day. On the other hand, if no regard is paid to lateral outflow, Uv is equal to
22 o/o. If we take for fJ1t the corresponding values given in Tables 11 and 12, the
corresponding total consolidation U is obtained from the equation ( cf. CARRILLO,
1942)
U= tT1,+ U,-U,, UV .................... (5:8)

The values of V calculated from this equation arc given in Table 18 without
correction and in Table 10 with correction for outflow.
If we take for o the Yalues observed in the field 3 and for o1 the observed
Yalucs reduced by the previously estimated minimmn values of Oi, then we find
the final compression values ,vithout correction for outflO\v given in Table 18.
Except for Test Area I/0.9 and I/2.2, the rnlues of op given in this table arc
mostly considerably greater than the values of OP given in Table 17. llowever,
if the values of v in Table 18 are reduced so as to take account of the out­
flow 01z, they will agree more closely \Yith the corresponding values in Table 17.
1
In reality, lhe upper layer is likely lo haYe a greater amount of outflow than the lo·wer layer, The
Yalucs of fJ v <lcLermincd by this method arc therefore undoubtedly loo high. However, the influence
on fh exerted by a slight error in U,. is negligible.
e This assumption is justified by the pore pressure measurements carried out at a depth of 9 m in
the undraincd area, cf. Fig. 66. No decrease of excess pressure has been obsen·ed at this depth.
:i The Yalues used in this connection refer lo gi,·en points within the areas. The distribution of

compression underneath the loaded area is discussed below, p. 13'1,.

127
 Table JS.

Drain
Area
s~acing, o, 0 u op
No. cm cm % cm
mm
I
0.9 9 I 37 94 48
I l.5 5 I
48 66 78
'
2.2 l
I' 26 52 51
II l.ti 7 42 75 63
III
I l.5
I 6
I Ul
I 81
I 81

For example, let us examine the effect of outflO\v on the assumption that the
decluccd value of 01z == 2 ½ cm, i.e. 01,, ft== 4, 1/2 cm, for the undrained area
is correct. Let us proceed by making the working hypothesis that, for a given
load, the outflow under a drained area, compared with that under the undrainccl
area, is proportional to the corresponding instantaneous lateral displacement of
loading. This may be estimated from the data given in Table 16. For Areas
Nos. II and III, 011 = 0.57 01,./1 ancl for Arca No. I, "" = 0.29 o,,.fl· By simple
proportioning, ,Ye find the following effect of lateral outflow in April 1959:

Arca No. I/0.0 I/1.5 [ 1/2.2 II III

i I I
I
Vfi
I I
cm 3
I
2
I 2
I 3
i
6

If the values of a in Table 18 arc reduced by these values, we obtain v,, as

giYen in Table 19.

Table 10.

Drain
Arca spacing, o, v u o,,
No.
I in m cm cm
I % cm

O.o \) 34 93 46
I 1.5 5 46 63 78
2.2 1 24 49 50
II
III
I
1.n
1.5
7
6 I
39
55
I
73
80 II 60
7~

The agreement between the values of Ov in Tables 17 and 19 is good, par­

ticularly since the values of e2 in Table 17 are rough approximations and in
consicleration of the fact that the estimated value of o1 in Table 19 may be too
high ancl that the values of "" deduced in the above are uncertain. However,
a disagreement is found for those sectors in Area I in ,vhich the drain spacings

128
arc 0.9 and l,;) m. Thus, for a spacing of 0.9 111, the value of Op given in Table 19
is considerably lower than that given in Table 17, whereas for a spacing of 1.5 m
it is considerably higher. In the former case, the difference between the com­
pression value given in Table 17 and that gi,·en in Table 19 is probably caused
by a stiffening effect of the closely spaced drains on the clay, which prevails
oYcr the contrary effect of remoulding. In the latter case, the difference between
the values in Tables 17 and 19 is probably due to two reasons. Firstly, the value
of [J seems very low. Since [J is taken from two piczometcrs only, the real average
might just as well be considerably higher (cf. Section 53). Secondly, the settle­
ment meter placed at a depth of 7.5 m in Area I/1.3 has been subjected to small
settlc-ments, and this indicates that it is placed at a small distance from firm
boltom or, possibly, from a large erratic block. Such erratic blocks are found
here and there on the visible part of the bed rock cropping up above the clay
plain. Likewise, at least at one point, an erratic block or, possibly, a rock peak has
undoubtedly been observed on the bed rock at a great clepth in connection with
electrical resistance sounding carried out in the test field (OS'l'EH:c\IA~, 105!\
Fig. 13). Naturally, in such a case, the real aYcragc compression of the clay
layer could be completely different from the observed compression.
It is cYen possible that the low value of U and the corresponding large com­
p1·ession of the layer in Arca 1/1.5 arc mutually related. An erratic block or rock
peak would act like a wedge which is continuously pressed from below into
the day la_yer when it settles. If, then, the block or rock is not covered ,Yith
a continuous layer of sand or silt1, new pore water pressures would be created
in the process of settling, and would add to the existing excess pressures.
The values obtained in Areas II and III arc slightly higher than those given
in Table 17. This might be due to the effect of remoulding, but also to under­
estimation of Vil or (\ or both. For example, if 011 is put equal to 5 and 10 cm,
then the final primary compression is 58 cm at Arca II and 70 cm at Area III,
=
respectively. If, on the other hand, b1 ;J cm at Area II (b 1 = 3 cm) and G cm
at Arca III (c\ =
2 cm), then we get bp =: :)8 and 78 cm, respcctivel;v. Neither
of lhcse applied Yalues of bf! and bi seems unreasonable.

Rate of Consolidation as Delennined by Rate of Compression

The rate of consolidation is currently determined from settlement measurements
=
by means of the relation V- 0/IJJJ' It '"m be shown here that this method,
though seemingly simple, is difficult, and requires knowledge of several im­
portant phenomena which are generally disregarded. Thus, if the time-consoli­
dation cm-Ye obtained b;v the aid of this method is not correctly adjusted, then
this cmTe may differ appreciably from that ,Yhich is obtained from pore pressure
measurements.
1
Thal this mighl be lhc case is obvious from lhe abo,·c-mcnlioncd cleclrical resistance sounding.
The erratic block (or rock peak) can be slluated al lhc sounding hole No. B. At this place, no
increase of clcclrical rcsislancc. which would indicate the existence of a continuous high-permeable
layer. has been obsern~d.

120
 Time of loading, in days
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
- - Rate ofjompression d1,;u!gardmg
legMd
s1dewar f.eutftow of clo/
- - - Role of ompressIon fafi.ng accourJ of
10 sc---+----t---,:rdeward.oufflow-of-c!oyt-----t-----,
=·\= Roles of !excess pore pre-~sure dissipation1 in lest
-· ·- areas N, .I,JlandDI, reSDli!cfivelyrcf. F19 68;

20

~
30
-G
~- 40
:,g
{l
"':;; 50
au
'0
~ 60
~

t 70

80

90

100
Fig. 83. Time-consolidation curves as determined, on the one hand, by the rate of com­
pression and, on the other hand, by the rate of pore water pressure dissipation.

The first, and perhaps main, difficulty has already been met with in de­
termining the final primary compression. As has just been shown, this com­
pression can be determined with accuracy only if the pore water pressures and
lateral outflow of soil are measured at the same time as vertical settlements,
and not until the observed excess pore vrater pressure tends to zero. As a matter
of fact, the primary compression is not known even then, as the settlement
occurring up to that moment involves a certain amount of secondary sett]c­
ment, whose magnitude cannot be determined on the basis of present knowledge.
It is therefore obvious that this method of determining the degree of consoli­
dation has serious shortcomings.
Secondly, a problem arises owing to the previously mentioned fact that the
load is gradually reduced by the part of the load sinking clown below the ground
water level. This reduction will be reflected in the slope of the time-settlement
curve, which is smaller than in the case where the load is constant throughout
the consolidation process.

130
 The difference in character between, on the one hand, the rate of compression
obtained "·ithout and with correction for the estimated lateral outflow and, on
the other hand, the rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation, appears from
J<'ig. 83.
In order to be comparable, the rate of compression is here reduced so as to
take account of Yertical drainage by means of Eq. (5: 8). In this case the effects
of vertical drainage have been assumed to be equal in all test areas, and this
is of course a rough approximation. HowcYcr, the resulting errors in U1i may be
regarded as negligible.
In determining U, the compression OP has as a rule been estimated at the
values given in Table 17 on the basis of the highest values of f2, obtained in
the drained areas and the lowest value of c2 observed in the undraincd area.
For Test Arca l/0.9, the value given in Table 17 undoubtedly i1n·olves a large
error. Ji'or this reason, we have chosen the final compression in this case on
the assumption that U11 given in ·Table 12 is correct.
The values of ff, ff, and ff1, thus obtained since a hypothetical date of com­
pletion of loading 1 arc given in Table 20.

Table 20.

Date _ _ , 2:uo.-57 I 18.12.-57

I ISA.-58 I 20.8.-58 I 8.12.-58 I SA.-50
~ Consoli-I
e _dalion /
Uv='1•% I Uv=6%
-
!Uv= 11 %'] iJ,:= 15 % I Uv= 18% I Vi-=22 %
No. ~ _, u I Utt I u I fr11 I u I u,, I u I Ur, I u I Ur, I u I Ur,
l/0.D.. ......... 53 6l 62 GO 78 75 86 84 91 89 94 92
l/1.3.. ......... 23 20 31 27 47 40 57 4H 6i GO H G7
I/2.2 .. ......... 12 8 18 13 28 19 3b 27 4! 32 G2 38
II .. ·········· 3G 33 44 40 58 55 70 65 79 76 84 80
III ........... 35 32 46 43 64 60 75 71 83 79 88 85

If, on the other hand, the effect of lateral displacements is taken into account,_
then we obtain the values given in Table 21. I-Ierc, the displacements have been
assumed to vary according to the same time function as the vertical settlements~
If we chose the same final compression as in the aboYe ( except for Test Area
I/0.D, see below), then the rnlues of V in Table 20 would have to be multiplied
1
Since the load is grndually applied, part of consolidation has already taken place at the lime of
actual completion of loading, cf. also p. 105. A fairly good approximation of the lime-consolidation
relationship may be obtained by introducing a hypothetical loading time. The lolal load is thus
supposed lo act from the dale indicated by extrapolation of the compression cun·es as shown in
Figs. 81 and 82.

131
in this case by a coefficient z, "·hose magnitude is determined by the estimated
effect of outflow. This coefficient is determined in our case on the basis of the
Yalucs of 011 giYcn on p. 128, and is

Area I/1.5 I/2.2 II III

z 0.DG O.!lH o.no

For Are<t I/0.D, the final compression was estimated at the Y.:duc gffen m
Table HJ by analogy with the aboYC (same as in Table 20). uh
Table .?I.

I 2:3.10.-57
'---· I Ur=5 % I Uv =8 % Iju1'_=11% I 8.12.-58 I 8.4-.-5!)
Dale 18.12.-57 18..1,.-58 20.8.-38
--· - ----
Consoli~ I Ui·=3%
I I lui:=13% ·1u,.=rn%
,\rca ---.. . . . . - ~alwn
I . iI
Ko. ------ .I u [ifi u
I I I U1i I u I U1t I I U1i I u I U1, I u I U11
I fj
i
l/0.9 ....... .... I
52 fit 61 09 77 75 85 83 90 89 93 fJ2
I/I.5 ...... .. , ! 22 :!O 30 2G 45 •10 ;),-) 49 C•l 5H 71 fii')
I/2.2 .... .......
i 11 s 17 13 26 20 36 27 41 32 48 38
II ... .... ...... ! 33 31 41 38 54 50 63 61 73 Gil 78 i•c!
I
III .......... I
32 30 41 38 08 5,1 GS G4: 7i) 71 7H 75
i
As was to be expected, the time-consolidation curYcs obtained from settlement
measurements differ quantitatiYely from those obtained from pore water pressure
measurements, but a more interesting fact is that there is also a qualitatiYc
difference between them. The possible causes of the discrepancies observed have
already been discussed in this subsection. In this case, too, the shape of these
curves agrees with the shape of the theoretical consolidation curves in the nc,v
theory Letter than in the classical theory. By using this method, we also find
that the rate of consolidation increases with increasing load, and this contradicts
the classical theory.

Stiffening Effect of Drain.s

The presence of a stiffening effect of the drains has already been obsen·ecl
previously in estimating the final compression of the 5 m layer, cf. p. 129. It
\Yas found that the compression in the sector of Area I having a drain spacing
of O.D m "·as smaller than expected. For drain spacings of 1.5 and 2.2 m, how­
ever, no such effect was observed.

132
 Gravel /JI/

Distance from centre of test area, in m

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1,0
0

100 5.8-57
,
---
:::----
~~i-- i--·-·--::{j
! '
I
·-·-
1----·-·

II I
I v·/
'

II _,,,,-
E 200 \_ -----,-i +,---
E
s
cS
Q 300
, I II
II / f1
V I
-§
13 ----- 1~,
"'
"'S
i~ 0

1.00
cu, 8.12-58,
1·1 I
E: 1)1 I
~ I~,
65 500

600
i]I~I
I" I
iii
/
V
legend 0 0,9m dra1 {I spacing
1.5 • , ,
'"-. l<l11
0
0 22, ,
'-,
700
'
' .
Fig. SJ,, Sl'ltkmcnl in sand drains compan,d with settlement in surrounding cla;y. CmTcs
represent, for the two measuring dales in question, from lop to bottom: 2.2, 1.5, and
0.9 m drain spacings. Test Arca No. I.

In order to study more closely the distribution of settlements in and around

the drains, each sector of Test Arca I vrns furnished with settlement 111eters at
different depths, also inside a drain, see Fig. 36. The results of these measure­
ments arc compared in Fig. 81:L ,,.,-ith those of the settlement measurements carried
out on surrounding clay.
In the case of 0.9 and 1.5 m drain spacings the results indicate that the rate
of settlement near the drains is higher than it is at a greater distance from
them, in accordance with the "free strain'' hypothesis. HoweYer, on the whole,
the results agree fairly well with the equal strain hypothesis. A column effect,
in the sense that the drains are less compressible than the surrounding clay, as
it is often assumed to exist, cannot be obserYed.

133
 Distance from centre of test area, in m
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
o,-----,---,----,,---,,----,---,-----i o

. I
68:§! I,
-·=---~ /
:rJ/1/ -</ - ! - - - - - 1 20
E
W---- -~--- ~1---~-
~
21 8-57 - - - 1 - I •
E I I. i

!~
I
' : .-1?
1712.~!.,_____:.!.--·' :.:7-;- / ..--- --+-- --+-----j 40

---..-i-··-'--··( / / : ';
10.72-58.I,
- - ·· 1
,
!
-/~-
/
- - ' - - - - i - - - - + - c - - ~ 60
legimd Heavy-Ii/le :Curves repreSenl set/le-
3
i / , meal a/a deplh o//.Sm;J•ghl-/;n,

~,
1/ , i curves reprfsenf comprdss,on of
\ the layer befween o\?plhsj o/ 15 and
8·4--2!!.--+- I ______ ,2:.11 m b&owj 9,aund sunyce _
400 80
I I
'
I
'

500 ~ - - ~ - - ~_ _ _i____ j___-'-+---~--~100

lfig. 85. Distribution of settlements in Test Area. No. II. Values obserycd at a depth of
1.5 m arc marked with short strokes.

Distribution of Scttlenwnts underneath Loaded Area

The distribution of settlements can be studied by means of the settlement mclcrs
placed at depths of 1.5 and 5 m at varying distances from the centres of Areas II
lo IV. The results of this part of the inYc.stigation are giYcn in Figs. 83 to 87.
In the first measurements, the distribution of settlements (compression) corre­
sponds fairly ,Yell to that in an elastic medium having PorssoN's ratio p ranging
from 0.3 to 0.5 (cf. TEHZAGHI, 1944,, Fig. 138 c).
In drained areas, the redistribution of internal stresses in the course of con­
solichttion causes a change in the distribution of settlements, which corresponds
to a decrease in J'. As a rule, the observed distribution of settlements does not
differ appreciably from that which corresponds to ,, =.: 0, but a further increase
in the curvature of the settlement surface seems to take place in the course of
time. The latter effect may be attributed to lateral outflow of clay.
In the undrained area, the change in the distribution of settlements has not
occurred in the manner just described above, but has rather taken place in the
opposite direction. This is no doubt due to the escape of pore water in a hori­
zontal radial ouhvard direction, and this escape has an appreciable influence
on the settlements in the present case (cf. HELENELUND, 1951).

134
 Distance from centre of test area,,n m

Fig. 86. Distribution of settlements in Test Area No. III. Values obser\'Cd at a depth of
1.5 m are marked with short s trokes.

I..::..::,:·.:-_.·,'Gra.V.ei.::':_i,11..· _: .-_:.<_.-·:.>:--,

Distance from centre of test area, t'n m

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
~
0
_J_-------- 1
24.8- 57 -;-,:::;
,.i:...--:.=.-==- _,,..,.....
~~-

~ 100 / /.o'
.s
r
iii
10.12-58
10.12-58
r--- -

~ -
i/
~
a"t-:S9 --::::...:-
200
. ..--.,/
l
~

legend• Heavy-line curve! represent SE 1//ement al

a depth of l.5i ltght-line curves represent
I
compression o the layer between depths
of 1.5 and 5.0 m below ground surface

500
Fig. 87. Distribution of settlements in Test Area No. I V. Values observed at a depth of
1.5 m arc marked with short strokes.
56. Effect of Driving of Drains and Consolidation
on Undrained Shear Strength of Clay

Investigations of the unclrained shear strength of clay were carried out al certain
time inter\'als after the driving of drains. In these investigations, just as in pore
pressure investigations, we meet with the difficulty of finding accurate aYcrage
values for drained areas. Thus, the distance from neighbouring drains will h~n-c
a great influence on the results (cf. Section 53). To get comparable values, it
has been attempted to test the clay halfway between the drains, but in some
investigations the vane borer has nevertheless touched a neighbouring drain. In
such a case, if no new tests have been made, the observed values were omitted.
However, it is to be expected that the obserYecl values will therefore exhibit
scattering.
Another cause of scattering in shear strength values is the hctcrogeneit;i, of
the soil. To reduce the influence of this factor, all the shear strength Yalucs
given in ,vhat follows arc the mean values obtained for the clay layer which was
originally situated between depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m. In determining these yalues,
the compression and the Yertical displacement of the layer were taken into
account.
The results of the shear strength tests are giYen in Figs. 88 to 92.
DriYing of drains undoubtedly causes a considerable decrease of shear strength,
ju our case 20 to 40 % of the original shear strength. The scattering of Yalucs
is too great to allow an exact statement concerning the disturbance, but, as was
to be expected, the disturbance seems to increase with decreasing drain spacing
and increasing lengths of drains.
Fig. 03 ·was obtained by plotting lhc undraincd shear strength yalues obscn·ed
in the field Yane test, Figs. 88 to 02, against the effective intcrgranular pressure.
The Yalues of the effective intergranular pressure used here arc based upon the
pore water pressures giYcn by the consolidation curves in Fig. 68. In calculating
0, account has been taken of the progressive reduction in surface load due to
settlements, cf. p. 125. Of course, this procedure has its limitations.
In spite of the scattering, whose probable causes haYe been stated aboYe, we
may detect a certain relationship between r 1 and a-uu·· For example, if we
assume a linear relation between TJ and a - uw, then we find by means of the
method of least squares that the closest agreement is obtained from the equation

r; = 0.26 + 0.19 (o - u.,) t/m" ................. (3: !J)

Of course it is to be realized that the large scattering of a fe,v values in Fig. 9:3
considerably influences the coefficients in Eq. (:): 9). This equation is therefore
only a rough approximation.
The shear strength cur-ves calculated for the different test areas from Eq. (.): 0)
arc plotted in Figs. 88 to 02. The agreement with observed Yalucs is reason­
ably close.
An increase in shear strength is likely to occur eYen after the end of the
period of primary consolidation (cf. OsTERilIAN, 1960).

136
 2 [Legend . F,"~I ""'
0 Fall- cone 1,,1
testl J I II I
" II (average value's for lhe layer mil,ally s,lualed
' dep/hi' of 25
between . -
'{,d 7::im b<!law I
graurti surface)
I .
•' 0
I

-
""' 1.5
-£
'5
~
I
~-025•0 19 rr1-u...,1t/m 2
I
. ..~._I___,'--·-
I
.~
·~
a I::__J.
__l.-:-
I
. .
,$-
~~ . I I I
l~
~-~
rmvv· -.
,,<'(
a
Cl/ 0.5
@11 ,.,
t;

0 Ml J JIA 1S10 NIOIJIF MIA MIJ JIA s10 NIDIJIFIMIA

1957 I 7958 I 1959

Fig. 88. Obsened shear strength values before and after driving of drains.
Test Arca No, I, drain spacing 0.9 m.

2
legend See A:1:· --
,§ " I
r..i

-£
1.5
•
-;,

r
,§
I
.
I
j _!-l-.- ,~-
,__ __ .J--·--r-
! ' i _
n
o: .--1--·-·---t-·--,- i iI I•
I~..'
l I
i
i
i

0
I I
Ml J J I A:gj S I O I N I O I J I F i MI A MIJ JIA SIOINIO i J ,FIM 1 A
7 57 I 1958 1959

fig. 89. Obscrn·d shear strength values before and aflcr driving of drains.
Test Arca No. I, drain spacing 1.5 m.

2
legend See Fig 88

'"
0
0

-;,
~
<
''
Q
__ 1__ . .
--- -- -;-
t.-- ~-;--
I
,--;,'-·- .

0 M/J JIA s10 MIO J IF MIA MIJ )IF M A

J IA s10 NtO
7957 1958 1959

Fig. 90. Observed shear strength valurs before and after driving of drains.
Test Area No. I, dr11in spacing 2.2 m.
 2
Legend. See Fig. 88

"'
.!,

"<
~
1.5
-"'"
0

~
.
~­ . . .--
-- -- ·
c§ -~ ·-
. .
g,
QJ
..'::
"'5
"' 0.5
.
-
i.-
:---:_....
• --- f--·-

. .
~

0 M IJ J I A S10 NI O J IF M IA M IJ JI A SIO N JD J IF M IA
1957 1958 1959

F ig. 91. Observed shear st rength values before a nd a fter driving of drains.
Test Area Xo. II.

2
Legend See F,g 88

T.5
""';;
i5

-'::
~-
c:,,
C:
~
.;

c§
g,
;:

.----
.
---
--- .- - ··- - ·-
.
·-
.
i--- ·

QJ
..'::
"'
'-
0
/./ ------ 0

QJ
-c: 0.5
V)

0 MIJ J I A s 10 N IO J IF M IA MIJ J IA s 10 N ID J IF M I A
1957 1958 1959

Fig. 92. Observed shear strength values before and after driving of drains.
Test Area No. III.

1.6
s
I.I,
s .. //
"'£ 1.2 -r, . a, ~ ·0.19 {r '1/mL ' \ _,,,z".
I,,

-~ 1.0
•a " V
:S- •./4 i Fig. 93. Relation between undrained
/o•o " shear strength and effective verti­
~ 0.8 X .
~
" cal pressure obtained from shear
-b
.,. V ••
"''- 0.6 //
strength and pore pressure investi­
t:, gations in Tes t Areas Nos. I to III.
~ 0.4
/ /
.,. Legend •
•
Q
.
Area No.I 09 m ' drain SF ~"9-
, I,l.~m
, I,2.2m . ,
Values obser ved after driving of
drains.
, , II
02 "t ' ID

0
o 2 3 4 5 6
Effective vertical pressure,in t/m2
 6. Summary

The present paper deals with the special problems of consolidation which are
met with when vertical sand drains are used in order to accelerate the rate of
settlement of clay. Furthermore, certain particular phenomena connected with
the consolidation problem as a whole are also treated.
Chapter 1 contains a review of some important theories of consolidation.
Chapter 2 gives some results of research on pore water pressures and "friction",
or rather, "bond", between the ring and the clay in the oedometer test. Chapt er 3
deals with the permeability of clay. The results of permeability tests are pre­
sented and a new theory of permeability is suggested. A new equation of con­
solidation is advanced in Chapter 4. Finally, in the light of the new findings,
Chapter 5 gives the results obtained in connection with full-scale investigations
in a test field, est ablished in 1957 at Ska-Edeby, 25 km west of Stockholm.

1.-aboratory Research
The investigat ions dealt with in Chapters 2 and 3 were made on saturated clay
samples from the test field at Ska-Edeby. Their results arc stated in what follows.
(1) During the oedometer test the distribution of pore water pressure o,·er
the impermeable base of the clay specimen (in a conventional oedometer with
drainage at top and bottom corresponding to the "midplane" of the specimen)
was fairly uniform when the preconsolidation load had been exceeded . In this
case the oedometer test can therefore be considered representative of the theo­
retical case of an infinitely extended, uniformly loaded clay layer submitted
to consolidation. However, when the load was below the preconsolidation load,
the pore water pressure in the vicinity of the cylindrical boundary of the speci­
men was about zero. Accordingly, this case did not fulfil the conditions stated
in the above theoretical case.
The pore water pressure caused in the loading operation corresponded fairly
well with the magnitude of the load increment. However, a rapid decrease of
pore water pressure occurred, which did not seem to be due to escape of pore
water and which, consequently, did not obey TERZAGHI's consolidation theory.
Thus it seemed as if some of the pore water released by the application of the
load were bound again to the soil in the course of t ime (thixotropy). The
observed decrease of pressure was of varying order of magnitude, and seemed
to bear a certain relationship to the magnitude of the compression increment
due to consolidation.
(2) The "friction" between the clay specimen and the oedometer ring was
reduced when the preconsolidation load was exceeded. An immediate fall of
friction took place after the application of a new load increment. This indi­
cates that the loading operation involved a decrease of effective intergranular
pressure.
The coefficient of friction during unloading of a sample was considerably
higher tha n that during loading.
A Yariation of friction was obsen·cd.

139
 (3) The permeability tests were made in order to find out whether or not
DARCY's law of permeability could be applied to clays subjected to small
hydraulic gradients. li'or the iffvestigatcd clays, the flow of water was then
found to follow a revised law of permeability, given by Eqs. (3: I) and (:l: 2),
with the exponent n varying from 1.0 to l.;3. For sufficiently small hydraulic
gradients, which corresponded to those occurring in practice in the field, the
permeability obeyed Eq. (:l: 1).
During a permeability test the pores in the clay appeared sometimes to be
partly clogged and sometimes to be partly widened. This may indicate lhe
('Xistcnce of particles that were free, or were bound loosely enough lo be mo,Td
c\'cn Ly extremely small hydraulic gradients.
The observed deviation from DAn.cy's law was assumed lo depend on the
eharacter of the clay. Thus, for example, for a clay which obeyed DARCY's law,
the titre curve obtained by pH-metric titration was different from those ob­
tained for the clays which deviated from DAHCY's la,v of permeability.
On the basis of the new theory of permeability the Author advanced an equation
of consolidation in the cttse of Yertical sand drains on the simplified assumption
of "equal strains''. The time of consolidation thus obtained is defined by Eq.
(4: 8), and differs from that determined by the classical equation of consoli­
dation, e.g. in being dependent on the initial excess pore water pressure. From
the expressions for the pore pressure gradient, Eq. (4: 11), and the permeability,
Eqs. (3: I) and (:l: 2), it was found that a consolidometcr test with central drain
cannot be made so as lo be represcntatiYe of field conditions.

Field Investigations
In planning the field inYestigations, it was originally intended to study, among
other things, lhc influence exerted on consolidation by varying drain spacing
and Yarying load, and to examine the disturbance of clay caused by clriYing of
drains. For this purpose, four test areas \\·ere estaLlishecl. Three of these areas
were furnished with Yerlical sand drains, about 18 cm in diameter. One of these
nrcas, 70 m in diameter, was diYidcd into three equal sectors with the respediYe
drain spacings 0.9, 1.5 and 2.2 m. In the other two, ;35 m in diameter each, a
drain spacing of 1.5 m was used throughout. The fourth nret1, ;33 111 in diamclcr,
was left "undrained'' in order that the effect of sand drains alone might he
~egregatcd in the results obtained from drained areas. All the areas were cquall~·
loaded, except one of the smaller, drained areas, which was more heavily loaded
than the others (2.7 and 3.9 t/m\ rcspectiYely). The areas were proYidcd with
an cxtensiYc measuring equipment.
The clay properties were subjected to a thorough inYestigation of conYentional
type. The clay was found to be saturated. It \\·as fairly soft cYen for S\\·eclish
conditions (shear strength varying from about 0.03 kg/cm 2 below the dry erust
lo 0.1 or 0.2 kg/cm 2 near firm bottom), and had normal sensitiYity (in general
varying from 5 to 15).
The depth to firm bottom varied in the four test areas, and was 11 111 on
an aYcragc. The ground water table was located just below the dry crust. Layers

140
of silt or sand were generally found near firm bottom. In lhc consolidation
studies it has been attempted to avoid the influence of these layers or of the dry
crust near the ground surface. Therefore, a special study was made of that clay
layer which had originally been situated beb,·ccn the depths of 2.5 and 7.5 m
below the ground surface. The compressibility of this layer, defined by the
deformation caused by doubling the load, varied from 13 to 18 %- The coefficient
of consolidation, as found from the conventional oeclometer test, varied from
0.4 · 10~·1 to 0.7 · 10...---.--t cm2 /sec. However, Lhe consolidometer tesls which allowed
pore water escape in a direction parallel to the clay strata gave considerably
higher values of the coefficient of consolidation.
In the other investigations made in the test field, the following phenomena
were mainly considered:
(I) Disturbance due to driving of drains.
(2) Distribution of excess pore water pressure under loaded area.
(:3) Distribution of settlement under loaded area.
( -1<) Hates of consolidation obtained from observed excess pore water pressures
and settlement.
(5) Stiffening effect produced on clay by sand drains.
((i) Increase in shear strength clue to consolidation.
The following observations were made.
(1) Driving of drains caused a considerable disturbance of the clay inside and
juunediatcly outside the drained areas. This disturbance was directly visible
both in pore water pressure measurements and in shear strength observations.
The resulting excess pore water pressure increased "·ith decreasing drain
spacing and also with increasing average drain length. I'he maxinnnn "dis­
turbance pressures'' obtained inside the areas after completion of drainage varied
from about 0.2 kg/cm:! at 2.2 m drain spacing to about 0.4 kg/cm2 at 0.9 m
spacing. The observed average disturbance pressures amounted to about half
the above values. The disturbance tended to increase towards the centres of
the areas.
Furthermore, driving of drains caused a decrease of about 20 to 40 % in the
original shear strength values. In this case, too, the disturbance tended to in­
crease with decreasing spacing and increasing length of drains.
The above disturbance was also visible indirectly, e.g. in observations of hori­
zontal displacements of the ground surface at the peripheries of the areas. It
was found that driving of drains also appreciably reduced the i-igidity of the
clay outside the areas.
Furthermore, the displaced soil caused a heave of the ground surface.
(2) The distribution of excess pore ,vater pressure due to loading was studied
in the unclrained area at a depth of 5 m below ground surface. The results were
compared with the theoretical stress distribution under a circular load on an
elastic isotropic semi-infinite body. By inserting these stresses (PornsoN's ratio==
== 0.5) into SKE~IPTON's pore pressure equation (assuming that the pore pressure
coefficient B == I), a good agreement was obtained with the observed excess pore
pressures inside the area, provided that the pore pressure coefficient A was equal

141
 to 0.77. The pore water pressures observed at the periphery of the area may
have been influenced by creep of the clay. Thus the theoretical sh earing stresses
at the periphery equalled or even exceeded the observed shear strength of
the clay.
In the drained areas the momentary increase of excess pore water pressures
during loading corresponded fairly well with the load increments.
The loading operation also caused an excess pore water pressure that ,ms
observed in the piezometers placed as far as 35 m outside the periphery of that
loaded area which is 70 m in diameter.
The pore water pressures seemed to be influenced by thixotropic effects.
(3) The distribution of settlement observed just after the application of the
load corresponded fairly well with that in an elastic medium having Po1ssm(s
ratio v of 0.3 to 0.5. In the drained areas the gradual redistribution of inter­
granular pressure in the process of consolidation changed the settlemen t distri­
bution in a way corresponding to a decrease in J'. The settlement distribution
was also influenced by sidcward outflow of clay.
In the undrained area the distribution of settlement was influenced by escape
of pore water in an outward radial direction.
(4) The rates of consolidat ion obtained from Lhe pore water pressure and
settlement observations were compared with one another and with those com­
puted from the classical and new consolidation equations. The average pore
pressure dissipation obsen ·ed inside the drained areas were in close agreement
with the new consolidation equat ion, sec Eq. (4: 8), and gave a probable value
of the cxponenl n of 1.5 to 1.6. The agreement with the classical consolidation
equation, see Eq. (1: 29), was not equally good . The main argument in favour of
the new equation is the fact that the rate of pore pressure dissipation increased
with increasing magnitude of consolidation load.
The coefficient of consolidation had to be reduced in view of t he disturbance
caused by driving of drains. Thus, for example, the value of the coefficient of
consolidalion to be used in the theory for 0.9 m drain spacing was only half
the value corresponding to 1.5 m spacing.
T he rate of settlement differed appreciably from th e rate of pore pressure
dissipation. In this case, too, the new equation of consolidation was in closer
agreement with the results.
The conventional method of determining the degree of consolidation by settle­
ment observation was shown to be difficult. Thus, the settlement was influen ced
by lateral outflow of clay, whose magn itude was d ifficult to find with the types
of measuring equipment available at that time. Furthermore, the final settlement
value to be used in this method will not be known with certainty until the settle­
ment is completed or, at least, nearly completed.
A certain seasonal influence was exerted on the rate of settlemen t and on the
excess pore water pressures.
(5) A stiffening effect of the sand drains on the clay was observed only in
the case of 0.9 m drain spacing. It is often assumed that, during consolidation,
the drains act like columns, which are less compressible than the surroundin g

142
 clay, and which therefore carry part of the load. This assumption was not
confirmed in practice. On the contrary, for drain spacings of 0.9 and 1.5 m, the
settlement was more adYanced in the vicinity of a drain, and this is in agree­
ment with BARRO:N's ''free strain" hypothesis.
(6) The average increase of undrained shear strength due to consolidation
was found to follow approximately Eq. (5: 9). Great scattering in shear strength
values was obtained. This ,vas probably due to varying distance from the in­
vestigated clay to neighbouring sand drains.

7. Appendix

70. Equations of Stress Distribution under Circular Loaded Arca

Basecl on Assuinption of Elastic Body

The problem of stress distribution in a semi-infinite elastic body submitted to

a concentrated external load was originally solved by BoussINESQ (1885). His
solution is general, and can formally be applied to any law of distribution of
pressure over an area having a boundary of any form.
In the case of uniform pressure q over a circular area with radius a on a semi­
infinite body having a constant value of modulus of elasticity, E, a solution was
given by LovE (1929). The following stress equations arc obtained from his
solution, cf. Fig. 94.

Fig. o.;.

:rr:
If Q < a, 0 < cp <
2
, we lrn ve

o, = _ _<l_[:rr-K'E(rp) + (K'-E')F(rp)- z
n r2
(rt- r;+,·;-:;- •a') E'] .. (7: 1)
2rj
4
_

(jl! = q 12v [ n:-l\.7 ,E1 (")

--
JC
( , E') F1 (")
'f' + K - ' 'f' - [ \ . ~
7 , z] +--
1'::i_ 2 -
z r., E , +
1-2 ,, ,~r r : -. -
.-.-
!;(

+ z (2 '.'' ;
1;!(}
z') JC- a' +, I!'
(2
(K' E (rp) - (K'- E') F (cf>l)] +

(1 + le') K'] ) (7: 2)

143
 a,,,= - ~ j2,,[,r-K'E(q'.,)+(K'-E')F(\D)] +
1 21
-; ' [,,-+~/ E'­

- z(2a'+ 2t+z') K'+ a'-:;Q' (rCE(q'.,)-(K'-E')F(q'.,))-1-

rz rr rr -
- zr:, [(1+k')K'-2E'-i/l ................ (7:3)
2g· -

where r
le = -1.
r:!
= sin a

''h
E' =} V-1--k-,,-s-in-,-\D-, d 9) 1
0

(/)

F(\D)= j-. cl<)), ...

o V l-k'!.sin 2 c/> 1
<p

E (\D) = J1i 1-k' sin' 9) 1 cl<)),

0

I(' and E' arc complete elliptic integrals of first and second order, rcspcclivcly,
whereas F and E are incomplete elliptic integrals of first and second order.
If n > a, 0
-
<6
-
~ _7!_ , we havc
- 2

oa= _(l_,-K'E(E!)-(K'-E')F(E!)- z_
n_ 12
(K'- r;+,;--:- 4"') E'] ..
.... r1 -
(7:4)

G,,= - -q- / 2v ,-.n.

7~, E') F (c.)
. E ( 6) - ( l\.-'
,, K'z]
CJ - - +1-2
- -,,,---., zr., 'E' ·r,
,ra' - ~
' n J - 'l'z _ 2 _ sr rr
+ z (2 r.,a' o·-1,- z') K' + a'+, Q' (rcE (0)- (IC-E')F(e))'I
o·
+
- ..... i.:.; -

+ z [(r;+ri,-4,a' _2:,)E'-.2..rc+ r,"(l+k')IC]-/1. .... (7:5)

2 Ti r:! (F }'~ rr
q / 2,, ,-_K'E(G)-(K'-E')F(G)_·1 + 1-2"
o,,=--;;:- 1-JC a' z/r.,E ' -
1 2 - _[!' +
- z(2a"+2f+z') J('_a' .,r/ (K'E(G)-(K'-E')F(GJ)]
1'z rr g· -

- : ; ; [(1+k')K'-2E']) ................. (7:6)

144
 "
I~ "'
:/ !

,
D
"' le:
- D

I V
- '> D
.._-
"b

~
D
..ei
-g E'•o
-~

.s
._g
I / !"I-)
-:-g "5
V>
-:2 .2<

-
I
V '-- ~
D 0
I " ' V>
00
~
'"-'E
I ~ '--
~
3
,.
~

I
/ -"' s
c'
00
~

0 D .!2
~ -i!o
,.•
~

<
s
"
"\
";\
C
a
0
~

<"
~-
-
c:, '--
§!
"'V>
.Q
D
~

.El
C

I
I \ C7? 15
o~ ---c,
' l"----- -S Sil
a
\
!

~ I g_
!

Q:,_g C

"-.! c:,
---
' 1""--
N
D

I~ ,I
I~
""'-1'l
c:,
lDe: ~
~
~

.::
~
~

~r-- "" D
Q
"'~ .]
.D

~ 'I,
~

I
j c:, "'
-b
iii
0
~
•
" -,,j
·~
" : "'c:, E'-' ,o

~ ""sn
I .g
I"- ~
: "c:, "''-'
! .§
-------- ! I
: ~~
r-------._ 1,
~
' : "'--E
r-------._,- ,S
" ' ~-t:::! "'
D
<" c:, '--
I !
' :£
-
•

c:,
I
CO')
~ ~
Coe--..
~
I
C
<.ol..t)
~ C ~ o
'sf
Q c::,
<21"'
i
-I.C
c:,

DaJD papDO/ JO SnjpDJ JO SWJ8/ Uj'aJDJJ/1S punoJ6 MOJaq UO!JDMasqo JO /U/Od JO tj/daa

145
10
 ~
I I I

0.9
Normal stress component
in vertical direction
~ \ I
~ \
k•sinJ0°
~ \ k•sm50°

0.6
~\
0.5 V i-------.
k•sin/5°

-..._
i\\
I ~ I"-. \I\
I .,.,.----
k•sin/0°

--- t--..
'-
~ \
'/ ~
~\

,~
k•sin 5°

1; 0.1 /
/ --- _j\
8.
0
0 0.1 02 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Theoretical stress,in terms of load per unit area

Fig. 96. Relation between zla and a/ q for yarious values of elliptic integrals.

Finally, we have

Toe= -
'
_'J_
1i:
~
2 1\d!
[(1 + _!,,) E'-2 J('] .............
kW
(7: 7)

If g = 0, we have
60
-
= q [- l : ~="==
Ya' + z' -
a' z
(a'+ z')"f,
]

<5q= Ow= q [~\~(-1 +

"e, = o
146
 t,

~
-i::,
1. o~-~-- ~-------~--~----~--~-~
-§
C,
t.,,gend, ormal ress component in
~
"-o
0.9 l--1f-\-l\-++---+-- - + - -- --+-- -+---+--- ,....,..,._--I
----frc"'-a=dia,,,__l-=d.;;.,ire;:..:c=tio"'.r,'-
oisson's ratio •Q2r
- - ormat stress comronent in
~ taf>genfia/1direction.
'O 0.8 l-+--\r-\l.-- ---1------1------l------l------1--~Poisson's ralio•0.25
e
13
~ 0.7 l-+-------l.+\L----1------1-----l------l---- --1-----l------l---- -+-----I
~

0.1 Q2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Theoretical stress,,n terms of load per unit area

Fig. 97. Relation between zla and a/q, and z/a and aJq for various values of elliptic
integrals.
PorssoN's ratio 11 =_.!._,
4

To give LoVE's solution a more practical form for our purpose, it has been
represented in diagrams, Figs. 95 to 98.
The maximum error due to the assumption of a semi-infinite body can be
estimated by comparing a given stress at a certain definite depth under the
centre of a loaded area with that calculated on the assumption of firm bottom
at this depth (CUMMINGS, 1941). As the actual depth to firm bottom in the
present cases varies from 9 m to more than 15 m, and is approximately 11 m
on an average, the difference in stress between these two cases is considerably
greater than in reality. By using this method (assuming PoISSON's ratio v 0.5), =
the maximum error is found to be, for example, about 10 % at a depth of 10 m,
7 % at a depth of 7.5 m, and 1 % at a depth of 5 m below ground surface. The
real error can obviously be neglected (cf. also GRAJ.'l"HOLM, 1956).

10 *
 legend· - - ~~eo,mg
- ·-
coiponeat
ormat stress comDonenf
lslcess
in radio! directio~1
PoissonS rafio •0.
-- Wormaf 5 tress component;.
tangential direction
Poisson's rafio•0.5
k-, n50"

!;
e~ o.6 _c.--
7k• in 30"

-2
~
" 0.5
// ~
§
~ J
/
).,;, 15°
lt 0.4 '

-2
"'
,Q
C 0.J
J /,1 /
/' v\
-~--- ,_
"·-'7":_
2
~ !/)///
.'
k•sin 10°
I'--
inlO"

-I --
r--,

~
0
'f//
Q2

/ c.--;:::: c,;.-;;'nS"
"- C--.

----
'-.._
. 'is-. ''
rp ------
-,
'·-..: r--t--~.---~-
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 7.0
Theoretical stress,,n terms of toad per unit area

Fig. 98. Relation between zla and -c11 /q, zla and 0 11 /q, and zla and awlq for various
values~ of elliptic intcirais.
ag and
.
Orn determined on the assumption that POISSON's ratio 1, = _!__.
2

The assumption that the modulus of elasticity is constant throughout the soil
is justifiable in our case, where the soil consists of clay of high plasticity (cf.
FROHLICH, 1934, p. 89).

148
 Notations

A SKEl\IPTON's first pore pressure coefficient.

A, Filter area of piczometer.
a Coefficient of total compressibility. TAYLOR.
Also root of equation. Also radius of circular load area.
Final compressibility. BroT.
Instantaneous compressibility. BroT.
Coefficient of primary compressibility. TERZAGHI.
B SKEl\IPTON's second pore pressure coefficient.
B. Firm bottom.
b Coefficient.
C Constant of integration.
Compression index.
Coefficient of consolidation for varying permeability in two-dimen­
sional consolidation by the use of drain ,vclls. SCHIFFMAN.
Final coefficient of consolidation for varying permeability in hro­
dimensional consolidation by the use of drain wells. ScHIFFlVIAN.
Coefficient of consolidation in two-dimensional consolidation by the
use of drain wells.
Coefficient of consolidation for varying permeability in one-di­
mensional vertical consolidation. ScnIFFl\IAN.
Coefficient of consolidation in one-dimensional vertical consolida­
tion. TERZAGHI.
c'v Coefficient of consolidation in one-dimensional vertical consolida­
tion. BIOT.
Coefficient of consolidation in one-dimensional vertical consolida­
tion taking account of secondary consolidation. TAYLOR.
D Diameter of zone of influence of a drain well (sand drain).
D, Diameter of zone of influence of a drain well (sand drain) under
field conditions.

149
De Diameter of zone of influence of a drain well (sand drain) under
laboratory conditions.
d Diameter of drain well (sand drain).
d1 Diameter of drain well under field conditions.
de Diameter of drain well under laboratory conditions.
E Modulus of elasticity.
E' Complete elliptic integral of second order.
E( <p), E(fJ) Incomplete elliptic integrals of second order.
e Void ratio (ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids) .
e0 Initial void ra tio before application of a pressure increment.
e1 , e2 Void ratios at beginning and end of a pressure increment. TAYLOR.
e\, e'2 Void ratios at beginning and end of primary compression. TAYLOR.
erfc Complementary error function.
exp exp x = e"'.
F( <p), F(fJ) Incomplete elliptic integrals of first order.
F, f Functions.
G Modulus of shear .
G. Ground surface.
g Function of Poisson's ratio. TAN.
FI Depth from ground surface to firm bottom.
h Thickness of clay layer.
hs That part of thickness h which corresponds to solid substance.
I Influence value.
i Hydraulic gradient.
i0, i1 Characteristic values of hydraulic gradient.
J Variable used by TAYLOR.
J O, J 1 Bessel functions of first kind of zero and first order.
K 1, K2, K3 Functions.
JC Complete elliptic integral of first order.
k Coefficient of permeability. Also modulus of elliptic integral.
k Average coefficient of permeability .
k' Complementary modulus of elliptic integral.
k0 Initial value of coefficient of permeability .

150
1c, Final value of coefficient of permeability.
L Drain spacing.
In Natural logarithm.
log BRIGG's logarithm.
m Positive integer 0, 1, 2, ..., oo.
Coefficient of volume compressibility. TERZAGHI.

N n: 3n5n (2m+I)n
2'2'2'···, 2
' •••, ()C).

n Exponent in new permeability equation.

n Porosity (ratio of volume of voids to total volume).
n 0 Initial porosity.
P Piezometer.
PI: 2.5, etc. Piezometer No. I placed at a depth of 2.5 m below ground surface,
etc.
p J/Jt, HEAVISIDE's operator. TAN.
Q Coefficient determined by the degree of saturation of a clay.
BIOT.

q Load per unit area.

R Radius of zone of influence of a drain well (sand drain).
RA Radius of loaded area.
R,, Rate of imposed excess pore water pressure. SCHIFFMAN.
r Radius of drain well (sand drain).
r0 Equivalent radius of filter area of piezometer.
r1 / r 2 Modulus of elliptic integral.
rv Ratio of primary compression to total compression (primary com-­
pression ratio). TAYLOR.
r'P Primary compression ratio on previous secondary compression
basis. TAYLOR.
T Time lag of piezometer.
T1 Final time factor for varying permeability in two-dimensional
consolidation. SCHIFFMAN.
T" Time factor in two-dimensional consolidation by the use of drain
wells.
Tk Time factor in one-dimensional vertical consolidation. TAYLOR.

151
 Time factor for varying permeability in one-dimensional vertical
consolidation. ScHIFF.1rIAN.
Tv Time factor in one-dimensional vertical consolidation. TERZAGI-II.

t Metric ton ( = 1000 kg).

t Time.
The time when the rates of settlement for primary and secondary
consolidation are equal. ZEEVAERT.
u Consolidation ratio (general expression).
u Average of U.
Excess pore pressure dissipation ratio. TAYLOR.

"Aggregate" consolidation ratio. TAYLOR and l\·lERCHAi"'iT.

Consolidation ratio in two-dimensional consolidation by the use

of drain wells.
Consolidation ratio in one-dimensional vertical consolidation.
u Excess pore water pressure.
u Averagc of u.
Initial value of u.
u, Characteristic value of u. ScIIIFFlVIAN.

Excess pore water pressure caused by disturbance.

Excess pore \vater pressure at impermeable base of a single­
drained clay layer.
uw Total pore ,vater pressure.
V Vertical settlement meter.
Vl: 1.5, etc. Vertical settlement meter No. 1 placed at a depth of 1.5 m below
ground surface, etc.
v Rate of flow (flow per unit area per unit time).
w Natural water content. Also displacement in z-direction.
W Average water content.
w0 Initial water content.
wL Liquid limit.
wp Plastic limit.
x Variable.
Y 0 , Y1 Bessel functions of second kind of zero and first order.
z Vertical coordinate. Also depth below ground surface.

152
a Function. Also angle.
a, Coefficient determined by the degree of saturation of a clay.
Bro,·.
Constant. ScrrIFF~IAN.
Coefficient. SuKLJE.
Constants. BUISl\fAN,

fJ Constant. ScJIMID-Scr-nFFMfil'l'.

r' Unit volume weight of submerged soil.

y, Specific gravity of solids.
Yw Unit volume ,veight of water.
LI Increment.
Llh Compression of a clay layer of thickness h.
Liq Pressure (load) increment under which consolidation takes place.
Lia Normal pressure increment.
Lia Effective intergranular pressure incre1nent.
0 Settlement (compression) at the time t due to consolidation.
o, Characteristic part of settlement.
o, Final settlement (compression). TAYLOR and MERCHANT.
o" Settlement (compression) dne to lateral outflow of soil.
Ou Settlement of ground surface.
011,tl Horizontal displacement due to lateral outflow.
o, Instantaneous settle1nent.
o, Primary settlement (compression).
o, Secondary settlement (compression).
o', Undeveloped part of secondary settlement (compression).
TAYLOR and MERCHANT.
Settlement (compression) taking account of primary and second­
ary effects. BUISMA.,.'1.
Otot Total settlement.
Strain.
' Compression index often used in S,veden. ODENSTAD.

'7 Shear viscosity of soil skeleton. TAN.

1/ Viscosity constant. TAYLOR.

153
e Constant. TAN. Also angle.
" Coefficient of permeability.
). Coefficient of consolidation.
i., Coefficient. TAI!.
µ Coefficient. SKEMPTON and BJERRU1r.
/1, Constant. TAYLOR and MERCHANT.
/1, Coefficient. TAN.
y POISSON's ratio.
1'c Constant. SCHIFFMAN.

e Radius vector from the central axis (cylindrical coordinates).

a Normal pressure.
a Effective intergranular pressure.
00 Effective preconsolidation pressure.
ab Bond resistance. TAYLOR.
Ov Viscous structural resistance. TAYLOR.

oz Normal stress component in vertical direction.

6(! Normal stress component in radial direction.
Ow Normal stress component in tangential direction.
r1 Shear strength.
'Cf!z Shearing stress component.
<1) 1 , P2 , <]) 3 Functions. TAYLOR.

rp Angle.
z Coefficient of lateral outflow.
1p Function. TAN.
w Function. TAN. Also vectorial angle.

154
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159
 Author's Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to the Swedish Geotechnical Institute for its kind per­
mission to publish this doctor's thesis' in the Proceedings of the Institute.
Furthermore, I wish to express my deep gratitude to Mr. Justus Osterman for
his active interest in my work. I-Iis vast experience and his constant encourage­
ment were of invaluable help in the preparation of this thesis. In addition,
I wish to express my heart-felt thanks to Mr. Alf Wallg1·cn and Mr. Jan Gold­
schmidt for their devoted cooperation in the design of the laboratory equipment
and in the performance of the laboratory tests. Credit is also due to Mr. Ilya
Cyon for his valuable linguistic collaboration. The clarifying discussions witl1
Dr. Erik Forslind and the generous assistance of Professor I-Ijalmar Granholm
have been most helpful in my work.
lVIoreover, I wish to express my sincere appreciation of the help given by all
those who have contributed to this work. In particular, I wish to thank lVIr.
Torsten l(allstenius, who made many useful suggestions in connection with
piezometer measurements, l\!Ir. Egon Noren, who carried out the main part of
the field investigations, Mr. Nils Flodin, who assisted in editing work, Mr. Oleg
Wager, who helped in translating Russian quotations, Mr. Rolf Soderblom, who.
made the pH-metric titration tests, Mrs. Ingegcrd Olofsson and Mrs. Nelly
Bengtsson, who typed the manuscript, Mrs. Dagny Alm-Sjoberg, who prepared
the drawings for reproduction, and the staff of the Consulting Laboratory of
the Institute, who made the routine laboratory investigations.
Stockholm, March, 1960.
Sven Hansbo

1
Doklorsavhandlingar Yid Chalmers tekniska hOgskola, Gothenburg, No. 25. Stockholm 1960.

160
 LIST OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SWEDISH GEOTECJ-INICAL
INSTITUTE
Price
Sw. Crs.
No. I. Soil Sampler with .:Metal Foils. Dr.vice for Taking Undis­
turbed Samples of Very Great Length. W. Kjellman, T.
Kallstenius and 0. Wager .............................. 1950 4:-
2. The Vane Borer. An Apparatus for Determining the Shear
Strength of Clay Soils Directly in the Ground. Lyman Cad-
ling and Sten Odenstad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950 4:-
3. Device and Procedure for Loading Tests on Piles. TV. Kjell-
man and Y. Liljedahl ................................. 1951 3:-
4. The Landslide at SkOttorp on the Li<lan River, February 2,
19•!6. Sten Odenstad .................................. 1951 •l:-
5. The Landslide at Surte on the GOta River, September 29,
1950. Bemt Jalwbson ................................. 1952 8:-
6. A New Geotechnical Classification System. ll'. Kjellman,
L. Cadling and N. Flodin .............................. 1953 4:-
7. Some Side-Intake Soil Samplers for Sand and Gravel.
Torsten Kallsteniw; .................................. 1953 4:-
8. Influence of Sampler Type and Testing i\1ethod on Shear
Strength of Clay Samples. Bernt Jakobson ............... 1954 4:-
9. Some Relations bet\veen Stress and Strain in Coarse-Grained
Cohesionless J\1aterials. lV. Kjellman and B. Jakobson .... 1955 4:-
10. Accurate i\foasurement of Settlements. TV. Kjellman, '1'.
Kallstenius and Y. Liljedahl ........................... 1955 4:-
11. Influence of Organic i\1atter on Differential Thermal Ana-
lysis ol Clays. Lennart Silfverberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1955 4:-
12. Investigations of Soil Pressure i\:Ieasuring by l\foans of Cells.
Torsten Kallsteniu.s and Werner Bergau ................. 1956 4:-
13. Pore ,vater Pressure i\ieasurement in Field Investigations.
Torsten Kallstenius and Alf Wallgren ................... 1956 4:-
14. A New Approach to the Determination of the Shear
Strength of Clay by the Fall-Cone Test. Sven H ansbo . . . . 1957 4:-
15. Chemical Determination of Soil Organic i\iatter. A Critical
Review of Existing i\1ethods. Lennart Silfverberg . . . . . . . . 1957 4:-
16. 1\Iechanical Disturbances in Clay Samples Taken with
Piston Samplers. Torsten K.allstenius ................... 1958 6:-
17. :Wleasurements of the Pressures of Filling :i\'Iateria1s against
Walls.
Earth Pressure from Friction Soils. A Report on Half Scale
Tests. Arne Rinkert.
i\foasurements in Grain Silos during Filling and Emptying.
Werner Bergan ....................................... 1959 6:-
18. Consolidation of Clay, with Special Reference to Influence of
Vertical Sand Drains. A Study i\fade in Connection with
Full-Scale Investigations at SkU-Edeby. Sven Hansbo ..... 1960 12: -
 FORTECKNING OVER ll!EDDELANDEN FRJ\N
STATENS GEOTEKNISKA INSTITUT

No. 1. Kortfattat kompendium i geoteknik 19-1,6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1:6 utgiinget

2. RedogOrelse for Statens geotekniska institutets verksamhet
under Uren 1944---19·!8 ................................ 104,9 2:-
3. »Bra borrat - bii.ttre byggt». l\foddelande utgivet till insti-
tutets deltagande i utstiillningen »Bygg biittre», Nordisk
Byggnadsdag V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950
4. Anvisningar for geotekniska institutets faltundersOkningar.
Del 1. UndersOkningarnas planlaggning och omfattning.
Sondcringsmetoder. Vingborrning. Provtagniug. UppgOrandc
av borrningsritningar. Nils Flodin ...................... 1959 8:-
D:o med plastpiirmar for faltbruk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10: -
5. Kornpendium i gcoteknik 1959 ......................... 1059 19· -