Calvinism

Calvinism (also called the Reformed tradition,

Reformed Christianity, Reformed Protestantism,
or the Reformed faith) is a major branch of
Protestantism that follows the theological tradition
and forms of Christian practice set down by John
Calvin and other Reformation-era theologians.

Calvinists broke from the Roman Catholic Church in

the 16th century. Calvinists differ from Lutherans on
the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, theories
of worship, and the use of God's law for believers,
among other things.[1][2] The term Calvinism can be
Statues of William Farel, John Calvin, Theodore
misleading, because the religious tradition which it
Beza, and John Knox at the centre of the
denotes has always been diverse, with a wide range International Monument to the Reformation in
of influences rather than a single founder; however Geneva, Switzerland. They were among the most
almost all of them drew heavily from the writings of influential theologians that helped develop the
[3]
Augustine of Hippo a millennium prior. In the Reformed tradition.
context of the Reformation, Huldrych Zwingli began
the Reformed tradition in 1519 in the city of Zürich.
His followers were instantly labeled Zwinglians, consistent with the Catholic practice of naming heresy
after its founder. Very soon, Zwingli was joined by Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, William Farel,
Johannes Oecolampadius and other early Reformed thinkers.

The namesake of the movement, French reformer John Calvin, renounced Roman Catholicism and
embraced Protestant views in the late 1520s or early 1530s, as the earliest notions of later Reformed
tradition were already espoused by Huldrych Zwingli. The movement was first called Calvinism,
referring to John Calvin, by Lutherans who opposed it. Many within the tradition find it either an
indescriptive or an inappropriate term and would prefer the word Reformed to be used instead.[4][5] The
most important Reformed theologians include Calvin, Zwingli, Martin Bucer, William Farel, Heinrich
Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. In the twentieth century, Abraham
Kuyper, Herman Bavinck, B. B. Warfield, J. Gresham Machen, Karl Barth, Martyn Lloyd-Jones,
Cornelius Van Til, Gordon Clark, and R. C. Sproul were influential. Contemporary Reformed theologians
include J. I. Packer, John MacArthur, Timothy J. Keller, David Wells, and Michael Horton.

Reformed churches may exercise several forms of ecclesiastical polity; most are presbyterian or
congregationalist, though some are episcopalian. Calvinism is largely represented by Continental
Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist traditions. The biggest Reformed association is the World
Communion of Reformed Churches with more than 100 million members in 211 member denominations
around the world.[6][7] There are more conservative Reformed federations such as the World Reformed
Fellowship and the International Conference of Reformed Churches, as well as independent churches.

Contents
 Etymology
History
Spread
Theology
Revelation and scripture
Covenant
God
Christ and atonement
Sin
Salvation
Predestination
Five points of Calvinism
Comparison among Protestants
Church
Worship
Regulative principle of worship
Sacraments
Logical order of God's decree
Variants
Amyraldism
Hyper-Calvinism
Neo-Calvinism
Christian Reconstructionism
New Calvinism
Social and economic influences
Politics and society
See also
Doctrine
Related
Similar groups in other traditions
Opposing views
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Etymology
Calvinism is named after John Calvin. It was first used by a Lutheran theologian in 1552. It was a
common practice of the Roman Catholic Church to name what it viewed as heresy after its founder.
Nevertheless, the term first came out of Lutheran circles. Calvin denounced the designation himself:
 They could attach us no greater insult than this word, Calvinism. It is not hard to guess
where such a deadly hatred comes from that they hold against me.

— John Calvin, Leçons ou commentaires et expositions sur les Revelations du prophete

Jeremie, 1565[8]

Despite its negative connotation, this designation became increasingly popular in order to distinguish
Calvinists from Lutherans and from newer Protestant branches that emerged later. The vast majority of
churches that trace their history back to Calvin (including Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and a row of
other Calvinist churches) do not use it themselves, since the designation "Reformed" is more generally
accepted and preferred, especially in the English-speaking world. Moreover, these churches claim to be
—in accordance with John Calvin's own words—"renewed accordingly with the true order of gospel".

Since the Arminian controversy, the Reformed tradition—as a branch of Protestantism distinguished
from Lutheranism—divided into two separate groups: Arminians and Calvinists.[9][10] However, it is
now rare to call Arminians a part of the Reformed tradition. While the Reformed theological tradition
addresses all of the traditional topics of Christian theology, the word Calvinism is sometimes used to
refer to particular Calvinist views on soteriology and predestination, which are summarized in part by the
Five Points of Calvinism. Some have also argued that Calvinism as a whole stresses the sovereignty or
rule of God in all things including salvation.

History
First-generation Reformed theologians
include Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531),
Martin Bucer (1491–1551), Wolfgang
Capito (1478–1541), John
Oecolampadius (1482–1531), and
Guillaume Farel (1489–1565). These
reformers came from diverse academic
backgrounds, but later distinctions within
Reformed theology can already be
detected in their thought, especially the
priority of scripture as a source of
authority. Scripture was also viewed as a
Calvin preached at St.
Pierre Cathedral, the main unified whole, which led to a covenantal
church in Geneva. theology of the sacraments of baptism
Calvin's magnum opus:
and the Lord's Supper as visible signs of Institutio Christianae
the covenant of grace. Another Reformed religionis
distinctive present in these theologians was their denial of the bodily
presence of Christ in the Lord's supper. Each of these theologians also
understood salvation to be by grace alone, and affirmed a doctrine of particular election (the teaching that
some people are chosen by God for salvation). Martin Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon
were undoubtedly significant influences on these theologians, and to a larger extent later Reformed
theologians. The doctrine of justification by faith alone was a direct inheritance from Luther.[11]
John Calvin (1509–64), Heinrich Bullinger (1504–75), Wolfgang Musculus (1497–1563), Peter Martyr
Vermigli (1500–62), and Andreas Hyperius (1511–64) belong to the second generation of Reformed
theologians. Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536–59) was one of the most influential
theologies of the era.[12] Toward the middle of the 16th century, the Reformed began to commit their
beliefs to confessions of faith, which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith. The 1549
Consensus Tigurinus brought together those who followed Zwingli and Bullinger's memorialist theology
of the Lord's supper, which taught that the supper simply serves as a reminder of Christ's death, and
Calvin's view that the supper serves as a means of grace with Christ actually present, though spiritually
rather than bodily. The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology.
The remainder of the 16th century saw an explosion of confessional activity. The stability and breadth of
Reformed theology during this period stand in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by
Lutherans prior to the 1579 Formula of Concord.[13]

Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-
speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under
Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563, and in Navarre by
Jeanne d'Albret. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod
of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to
Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and Jan Łaski) and Scotland (John Knox).
During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which
became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established
itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world, including North America,
South Africa, and Korea.[14]

Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death
allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish
their own distinct character.[15]

Spread
Although much of Calvin's work was in Geneva, his publications
spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of
Europe. In Switzerland, some cantons are still Reformed, and
some are Catholic. Calvinism became the theological system of
the majority in Scotland (see John Knox), the Netherlands (see
William Ames, T. J. Frelinghuysen and Wilhelmus à Brakel),
some communities in Flanders, and parts of Germany (especially
these adjacent to the Netherlands) in the Palatinate, Kassel and
Lippe with the likes of Olevianus and his colleague Zacharias
Ursinus. In Hungary and the then-independent Transylvania, Calvinism has been known at times
Calvinism was a significant religion. In the 16th century, the for its simple, unadorned churches
Reformation gained many supporters in Eastern Hungary and and lifestyles, as depicted in this
Hungarian-populated regions in Transylvania. In these parts, the painting of the interior of the Oude
kerk in Amsterdam by Emanuel de
Reformed nobles protected the faith. Almost all Transylvanian
Witte c. 1661.
dukes were Reformed. Today there are about 3.5 million
Hungarian Reformed people worldwide.[16] It was influential in
France, Lithuania and Poland before being mostly erased due to the counter-reformational activities taken
up by the monarch in each country. Calvinism gained some popularity in Scandinavia, especially
Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the Synod of Uppsala in 1593.[17]

Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and New England were Calvinists, including the English
Puritans, the French Huguenots and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York), and the Scotch-Irish
Presbyterians of the Appalachian back country. Nonconforming Protestants, Puritans, Separatists,
Independents, English religious groups coming out of the English Civil War, and other English dissenters
not satisfied with the degree to which the Church of England had been reformed, held overwhelmingly
Reformed views. They are often cited among the primary founders of the United States of America.
Dutch and French Huguenot Calvinist settlers were also the first European colonizers of South Africa,
beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners.

Sierra Leone was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia, who were largely Black
Loyalists, blacks who had fought for the British during the American War of Independence. John Marrant
had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the Huntingdon Connection. Some of the
largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th- and 20th-century missionaries. Especially large are
those in Indonesia, Korea and Nigeria. In South Korea there are 20,000 Presbyterian congregations with
about 9–10 million church members, scattered in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations. In South
Korea, Presbyterianism is the largest Christian denomination.[18]

A 2011 report of the Pew Forum on Religious and Public Life

estimated that members of Presbyterian or Reformed churches
make up 7% of the estimated 801 million Protestants globally, or
approximately 56 million people.[20] Though the broadly defined
Reformed faith is much larger, as it constitutes Congregationalist
(0.5%), most of the United and uniting churches (unions of
different denominations) (7.2%) and most likely some of the
other Protestant denominations (38.2%). All three are distinct A Calvinist church in Semarang,
Indonesia. Protestantism in
categories from Presbyterian or Reformed (7%) in this report.
Indonesia is largely a result of
Calvinist and Lutheran missionary
The Reformed family of churches is one of the largest Christian
efforts during the colonial period.[19]
denominations. According to adherents.com the
Reformed/Presbyterian/Congregational/United churches
represent 75 million believers worldwide.[21]

The World Communion of Reformed Churches, which includes some United Churches (most of these are
primarily Reformed; see Uniting and united churches for details), has 80 million believers.[22] WCRC is
the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern
Orthodox Churches.[21]

Many conservative Reformed churches which are strongly Calvinistic formed the World Reformed
Fellowship which has about 70 member denominations. Most are not part of the World Communion of
Reformed Churches because of its ecumenical attire. The International Conference of Reformed
Churches is another conservative association.

Church of Tuvalu is the only officially established state church in the Calvinist tradition in the world.
Theology

Revelation and scripture

Reformed theologians believe that God communicates knowledge of himself to people through the Word
of God. People are not able to know anything about God except through this self-revelation. Speculation
about anything which God has not revealed through his Word is not warranted. The knowledge people
have of God is different from that which they have of anything else because God is infinite, and finite
people are incapable of comprehending an infinite being. While the knowledge revealed by God to
people is never incorrect, it is also never comprehensive.[23]

According to Reformed theologians, God's self-revelation is

always through his son Jesus Christ, because Christ is the only
mediator between God and people. Revelation of God through
Christ comes through two basic channels. The first is creation and
providence, which is God's creating and continuing to work in the
world. This action of God gives everyone knowledge about God,
but this knowledge is only sufficient to make people culpable for
their sin; it does not include knowledge of the gospel. The second
channel through which God reveals himself is redemption, which
is the gospel of salvation from condemnation which is
punishment for sin.[24]
The seal of the Presbyterian Church
in the United States of America, an In Reformed theology, the Word of God takes several forms.
early American Presbyterian church Jesus Christ himself is the Word Incarnate. The prophecies about
him said to be found in the Old Testament and the ministry of the
apostles who saw him and communicated his message are also
the Word of God. Further, the preaching of ministers about God is the very Word of God because God is
considered to be speaking through them. God also speaks through human writers in the Bible, which is
composed of texts set apart by God for self-revelation.[25] Reformed theologians emphasize the Bible as
a uniquely important means by which God communicates with people. People gain knowledge of God
from the Bible which cannot be gained in any other way.[26]

Reformed theologians affirm that the Bible is true, but differences emerge among them over the meaning
and extent of its truthfulness.[27] Conservative followers of the Princeton theologians take the view that
the Bible is true and inerrant, or incapable of error or falsehood, in every place.[28] This view is very
similar to that of Catholic orthodoxy as well as modern Evangelicalism.[29] Another view, influenced by
the teaching of Karl Barth and neo-orthodoxy, is found in the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)'s Confession
of 1967. Those who take this view believe the Bible to be the primary source of our knowledge of God,
but also that some parts of the Bible may be false, not witnesses to Christ, and not normative for today's
church.[28] In this view, Christ is the revelation of God, and the scriptures witness to this revelation rather
than being the revelation itself.[30]

Covenant
Reformed theologians use the concept of covenant to describe the way God enters fellowship with people
in history.[31] The concept of covenant is so prominent in Reformed theology that Reformed theology as
a whole is sometimes called "covenant theology".[32] However, sixteenth and seventeenth-century
theologians developed a particular theological system called
"covenant theology" or "federal theology" which many
conservative Reformed churches continue to affirm today.[31]
This framework orders God's life with people primarily in two
covenants: the covenant of works and the covenant of grace.[33]
The covenant of works is made with Adam and Eve in the
Garden of Eden. The terms of the covenant are that God provides
a blessed life in the garden on condition that Adam and Eve obey
God's law perfectly. Because Adam and Eve broke the covenant
by eating the forbidden fruit, they became subject to death and
Fall of Man by Jacob Jordaens
were banished from the garden. This sin was passed down to all
mankind because all people are said to be in Adam as a
covenantal or "federal" head. Federal theologians usually infer that Adam and Eve would have gained
immortality had they obeyed perfectly.[34]

A second covenant, called the covenant of grace, is said to have been made immediately following Adam
and Eve's sin. In it, God graciously offers salvation from death on condition of faith in God. This
covenant is administered in different ways throughout the Old and New Testaments, but retains the
substance of being free of a requirement of perfect obedience.[35]

Through the influence of Karl Barth, many contemporary Reformed theologians have discarded the
covenant of works, along with other concepts of federal theology. Barth saw the covenant of works as
disconnected from Christ and the gospel, and rejected the idea that God works with people in this way.
Instead, Barth argued that God always interacts with people under the covenant of grace, and that the
covenant of grace is free of all conditions whatsoever. Barth's theology and that which follows him has
been called "monocovenantal" as opposed to the "bi-covenantal" scheme of classical federal theology.[36]
Conservative contemporary Reformed theologians, such as John Murray, have also rejected the idea of
covenants based on law rather than grace. Michael Horton, however, has defended the covenant of works
as combining principles of law and love.[37]

God
For the most part, the Reformed tradition did not modify the medieval consensus on the doctrine of
God.[38] God's character is described primarily using three adjectives: eternal, infinite, and
unchangeable.[39] Reformed theologians such as Shirley Guthrie have proposed that rather than
conceiving of God in terms of his attributes and freedom to do as he pleases, the doctrine of God is to be
based on God's work in history and his freedom to live with and empower people.[40]

Traditionally, Reformed theologians have also followed the medieval tradition going back to before the
early church councils of Nicaea and Chalcedon on the doctrine of the Trinity. God is affirmed to be one
God in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Son (Christ) is held to be eternally begotten by
the Father and the Holy Spirit eternally proceeding from the Father and Son.[41] However, contemporary
theologians have been critical of aspects of Western views here as well. Drawing on the Eastern tradition,
these Reformed theologians have proposed a "social trinitarianism" where the persons of the Trinity only
exist in their life together as persons-in-relationship.[41] Contemporary Reformed confessions such as the
Barmen Confession and Brief Statement of Faith of the Presbyterian Church (USA) have avoided
language about the attributes of God and have emphasized his work of reconciliation and empowerment
of people.[42] Feminist theologian Letty Russell used the image of partnership for the persons of the
Trinity. According to Russell, thinking this way encourages
Christians to interact in terms of fellowship rather than
reciprocity.[43] Conservative Reformed theologian Michael
Horton, however, has argued that social trinitarianism is
untenable because it abandons the essential unity of God in favor
of a community of separate beings.[44]

Christ and atonement

Reformed theologians affirm the historic Christian belief that
Christ is eternally one person with a divine and a human nature. The "Shield of the Trinity" diagrams
Reformed Christians have especially emphasized that Christ truly the classic doctrine of the Trinity
became human so that people could be saved. [45] Christ's human
nature has been a point of contention between Reformed and
Lutheran Christology. In accord with the belief that finite humans cannot comprehend infinite divinity,
Reformed theologians hold that Christ's human body cannot be in multiple locations at the same time.
Because Lutherans believe that Christ is bodily present in the Eucharist, they hold that Christ is bodily
present in many locations simultaneously. For Reformed Christians, such a belief denies that Christ
actually became human.[46] Some contemporary Reformed theologians have moved away from the
traditional language of one person in two natures, viewing it as unintelligible to contemporary people.
Instead, theologians tend to emphasize Jesus' context and particularity as a first-century Jew.[47]

John Calvin and many Reformed theologians who followed him

describe Christ's work of redemption in terms of three offices:
prophet, priest, and king. Christ is said to be a prophet in that he
teaches perfect doctrine, a priest in that he intercedes to the
Father on believers' behalf and offered himself as a sacrifice for
sin, and a king in that he rules the church and fights on believers'
behalf. The threefold office links the work of Christ to God's
work in ancient Israel.[48] Many, but not all, Reformed
theologians continue to make use of the threefold office as a
framework because of its emphasis on the connection of Christ's
work to Israel. They have, however, often reinterpreted the
meaning of each of the offices.[49] For example, Karl Barth
interpreted Christ's prophetic office in terms of political
engagement on behalf of the poor.[50] This Dutch stained glass allegory
shows Christ ascending the cross
Christians believe Jesus' death and resurrection makes it possible with Satan and several dead people
for believers to attain forgiveness for sin and reconciliation with on his back. Faith is personified as a
God through the atonement. Reformed Protestants generally woman to the right of a naked man
subscribe to a particular view of the atonement called penal on the ground asking Christ the way
substitutionary atonement, which explains Christ's death as a of salvation.

sacrificial payment for sin. Christ is believed to have died in

place of the believer, who is accounted righteous as a result of
this sacrificial payment.[51]

Sin
In Christian theology, people are created good and in the image of God but have become corrupted by
sin, which causes them to be imperfect and overly self-interested.[52] Reformed Christians, following the
tradition of Augustine of Hippo, believe that this corruption of human nature was brought on by Adam
and Eve's first sin, a doctrine called original sin. Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of
physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first
Christian to add the concept of inherited guilt (reatus) from Adam whereby every infant is born eternally
damned and humans lack any residual ability to respond to God.[53] Reformed theologians emphasize
that this sinfulness affects all of a person's nature, including their will. This view, that sin so dominates
people that they are unable to avoid sin, has been called total depravity.[54] In colloquial English, the
term "total depravity" can be easily misunderstood to mean that people are absent of any goodness or
unable to do any good. However the Reformed teaching is actually that while people continue to bear
God's image and may do things that appear outwardly good, their sinful intentions affect all of their
nature and actions so that they are not pleasing to God.[55]

Some contemporary theologians in the Reformed tradition, such as those associated with the PC(USA)'s
Confession of 1967, have emphasized the social character of human sinfulness. These theologians have
sought to bring attention to issues of environmental, economic, and political justice as areas of human
life that have been affected by sin.[56]

Salvation
Reformed theologians, along with other Protestants, believe
salvation from punishment for sin is to be given to all those who
have faith in Christ.[57] Faith is not purely intellectual, but
involves trust in God's promise to save.[58] Protestants do not
hold there to be any other requirement for salvation, but that faith
alone is sufficient.[57]

Justification is the part of salvation where God pardons the sin of

those who believe in Christ. It is historically held by Protestants
to be the most important article of Christian faith, though more
recently it is sometimes given less importance out of ecumenical
concerns.[59] People are not on their own able even to fully repent
of their sin or prepare themselves to repent because of their
sinfulness. Therefore, justification is held to arise solely from
God's free and gracious act.[60] The Return of the Prodigal Son by
Rembrandt, based on the Parable of
Sanctification is the part of salvation in which God makes the the Prodigal Son illustrating
believer holy, by enabling them to exercise greater love for God forgiveness
and for other people.[61] The good works accomplished by
believers as they are sanctified are considered to be the necessary
outworking of the believer's salvation, though they do not cause the believer to be saved.[58]
Sanctification, like justification, is by faith, because doing good works is simply living as the son of God
one has become.[62]

Predestination
Reformed theologians teach that sin so affects human nature that they are unable even to exercise faith in
Christ by their own will. While people are said to retain will, in that they willfully sin, they are unable
not to sin because of the corruption of their nature due to original sin. Reformed Christians believe that
God predestined some people to be saved and others were predestined to eternal damnation.[63] This
choice by God to save some is held to be unconditional and not based on any characteristic or action on
the part of the person chosen. This view is opposed to the Arminian view that God's choice of whom to
save is conditional or based on his foreknowledge of who would respond positively to God.[64]

Karl Barth reinterpreted the Reformed doctrine of predestination to apply only to Christ. Individual
people are only said to be elected through their being in Christ.[65] Reformed theologians who followed
Barth, including Jürgen Moltmann, David Migliore, and Shirley Guthrie, have argued that the traditional
Reformed concept of predestination is speculative and have proposed alternative models. These
theologians claim that a properly trinitarian doctrine emphasizes God's freedom to love all people, rather
than choosing some for salvation and others for damnation. God's justice towards and condemnation of
sinful people is spoken of by these theologians as out of his love for them and a desire to reconcile them
to himself.[66]

Five points of Calvinism

Most objections to and attacks on Calvinism focus on the "five points of Calvinism", also called the
doctrines of grace, and remembered by the mnemonic "TULIP".[67] The five points are popularly said to
summarize the Canons of Dort;[68] however, there is no historical relationship between them, and some
scholars argue that their language distorts the meaning of the Canons, Calvin's theology, and the theology
of 17th-century Calvinistic orthodoxy, particularly in the language of total depravity and limited
atonement.[69] The five points were more recently popularized in the 1963 booklet The Five Points of
Calvinism Defined, Defended, Documented by David N. Steele and Curtis C. Thomas. The origins of the
five points and the acronym are uncertain, but they appear to be outlined in the Counter Remonstrance of
1611, a less known Reformed reply to the Arminians that occurred prior to the Canons of Dort.[70] The
acronym was used by Cleland Boyd McAfee as early as circa 1905.[71] An early printed appearance of
the T-U-L-I-P acronym is in Loraine Boettner's 1932 book, The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination.[72]
The acronym was very cautiously if ever used by Calvinist apologists and theologians before the booklet
by Steele and Thomas.[73]

The central assertion of these points is that God saves every person upon whom he has mercy, and that
his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or inability of humans.

"Total depravity", also called "total inability", asserts that as a consequence of the fall of
man into sin, every person is enslaved to sin. People are not by nature inclined to love God,
but rather to serve their own interests and to reject the rule of God. Thus, all people by their
own faculties are morally unable to choose to trust God for their salvation and be saved (the
term "total" in this context refers to sin affecting every part of a person, not that every
person is as evil as they could be).[74] This doctrine is derived from Augustine's explanation
of Original Sin.[75] While the phrases "totally depraved" and "utterly perverse" were used by
Calvin, what was meant was the inability to save oneself from sin rather than being absent
of goodness. Phrases like "total depravity" cannot be found in the Canons of Dort, and the
Canons as well as later Reformed orthodox theologians arguably offer a more moderate
view of the nature of fallen humanity than Calvin.[76]
"Unconditional election" asserts that God has chosen from eternity those whom he will bring
to himself not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people; rather, his choice is
unconditionally grounded in his mercy alone. God has chosen from eternity to extend mercy
 to those he has chosen and to withhold mercy from those not chosen. Those chosen
receive salvation through Christ alone. Those not chosen receive the just wrath that is
warranted for their sins against God.[77]
"Limited atonement", also called "particular redemption" or "definite atonement", asserts that
Jesus's substitutionary atonement was definite and certain in its purpose and in what it
accomplished. This implies that only the sins of the elect were atoned for by Jesus's death.
Calvinists do not believe, however, that the atonement is limited in its value or power, but
rather that the atonement is limited in the sense that it is intended for some and not all.
Some Calvinists have summarized this as "The atonement is sufficient for all and efficient
for the elect."[78]
"Irresistible grace", also called "efficacious grace", asserts that the saving grace of God is
effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (that is, the elect) and
overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith.
This means that when God sovereignly purposes to save someone, that individual certainly
will be saved. The doctrine holds that this purposeful influence of God's Holy Spirit cannot
be resisted, but that the Holy Spirit, "graciously causes the elect sinner to cooperate, to
believe, to repent, to come freely and willingly to Christ." This is not to deny the fact that the
Spirit's outward call (through the proclamation of the Gospel) can be, and often is, rejected
by sinners; rather, it is that inward call which cannot be rejected.
"Perseverance of the saints" (also known as "perseverance of God with the saints" and
"preservation of the believing") (the word "saints" is used to refer to all who are set apart by
God, and not of those who are exceptionally holy, canonized, or in heaven) asserts that
since God is sovereign and his will cannot be frustrated by humans or anything else, those
whom God has called into communion with himself will continue in faith until the end. Those
who apparently fall away either never had true faith to begin with (1 John 2:19), or, if they
are saved but not presently walking in the Spirit, they will be divinely chastened (Hebrews
12:5–11) and will repent (1 John 3:6–9).[79]
More recently, a broad range of theologians have sought to reformulate the TULIP terminology to reflect
more accurately the Canons of Dort; one recent effort has been PROOF, standing for Planned Grace,
Resurrecting Grace, Outrageous Grace, Overcoming Grace, and Forever Grace.[80]

Comparison among Protestants

Church
Reformed Christians see the Christian Church as the community with which God has made the covenant
of grace, a promise of eternal life and relationship with God. This covenant extends to those under the
"old covenant" whom God chose, beginning with Abraham and Sarah.[110] The church is conceived of as
both invisible and visible. The invisible church is the body of all believers, known only to God. The
visible church is the institutional body which contains both members of the invisible church as well as
those who appear to have faith in Christ, but are not truly part of God's elect.[111]

In order to identify the visible church, Reformed theologians have spoken of certain marks of the Church.
For some, the only mark is the pure preaching of the gospel of Christ. Others, including John Calvin, also
include the right administration of the sacraments. Others, such as those following the Scots Confession,
include a third mark of rightly administered church discipline, or exercise of censure against unrepentant
sinners. These marks allowed the Reformed to identify the church based on its conformity to the Bible
rather than the Magisterium or church tradition.[111]
 Protestant beliefs about salvation

This table summarizes the classical views of three Protestant beliefs about salvation.[81]
Topic Calvinism Lutheranism Arminianism

Total depravity:[82] Original Sin:[82] Humanity Total depravity: Humanity

Humanity possesses
Human will "free will",[83] but it is in
bondage to sin,[84] until
it is "transformed".[85]
Election Unconditional election.
possesses free will in regard to
"goods and possessions", but is
sinful by nature and unable to
contribute to its own
salvation.[86][87][88]
Unconditional election.[82][90]
possesses freedom from
necessity, but not "freedom
from sin” unless enabled by
"prevenient grace".[89]
Conditional election in view
of foreseen faith or
unbelief.[91]

Justification by faith Justification for all men,[93] Justification made possible

Justification
alone. Various views completed at Christ's death and for all through Christ's death,
and
regarding the extent of effective through faith but only completed upon
atonement
the atonement.[92] alone.[94][95][96][97] choosing faith in Jesus.[98]

Synergistic, resistible due to

Monergistic,[99] through
Monergistic,[100][101] through the the common grace of free
Conversion the means of grace,
means of grace, resistible.[102] will.[103] However, irresistible
irresistible.
conversion is possible.[104]
Perseverance of the
Preservation is conditional
saints: the eternally Falling away is possible,[106] but upon continued faith in
Perseverance
elect in Christ will God gives gospel
and apostasy Christ; with the possibility of
certainly persevere in assurance.[107][108] a final apostasy.[109]
faith.[105]

Worship

Regulative principle of worship

The regulative principle of worship is a teaching shared by some
Calvinists and Anabaptists on how the Bible orders public
worship. The substance of the doctrine regarding worship is that
God institutes in the Scriptures everything he requires for
worship in the Church and that everything else is prohibited. As
the regulative principle is reflected in Calvin's own thought, it is
driven by his evident antipathy toward the Roman Catholic John Calvin on his deathbed with
church members
Church and its worship practices, and it associates musical
instruments with icons, which he considered violations of the Ten
Commandments' prohibition of graven images.[112]

On this basis, many early Calvinists also eschewed musical instruments and advocated a cappella
exclusive psalmody in worship,[113] though Calvin himself allowed other scriptural songs as well as
psalms,[112] and this practice typified presbyterian worship and the worship of other Reformed churches
for some time. The original Lord's Day service designed by John Calvin was a highly liturgical service
with the Creed, Alms, Confession and Absolution, the Lord's supper, Doxologies, prayers, Psalms being
sung, the Lords prayer being sung, Benedictions.[114]

Since the 19th century, however, some of the Reformed churches have modified their understanding of
the regulative principle and make use of musical instruments, believing that Calvin and his early
followers went beyond the biblical requirements[112] and that such things are circumstances of worship
requiring biblically rooted wisdom, rather than an explicit command.
Despite the protestations of those who hold to a strict view of the
regulative principle, today hymns and musical instruments are in
common use, as are contemporary worship music styles with
elements such as worship bands.[115]

Sacraments
The Westminster Confession of Faith limits the sacraments to
baptism and the Lord's Supper. Sacraments are denoted "signs and
seals of the covenant of grace."[116] Westminster speaks of "a
sacramental relation, or a sacramental union, between the sign and
the thing signified; whence it comes to pass that the names and
effects of the one are attributed to the other."[117] Baptism is for
infant children of believers as well as believers, as it is for all the
Reformed except Baptists and some Congregationalists. Baptism
admits the baptized into the visible church, and in it all the benefits The Bay Psalm Book was used
of Christ are offered to the baptized. [117] On the Lord's supper, by the Pilgrims.
Westminster takes a position between Lutheran sacramental union
and Zwinglian memorialism: "the Lord's supper really and indeed,
yet not carnally and corporally, but spiritually, receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of
his death: the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or carnally in, with, or under the bread
and wine; yet, as really, but spiritually, present to the faith of believers in that ordinance as the elements
themselves are to their outward senses."[116]

The 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith does not use the term sacrament, but describes baptism and
the Lord's supper as ordinances, as do most Baptists Calvinist or otherwise. Baptism is only for those
who "actually profess repentance towards God", and not for the children of believers.[118] Baptists also
insist on immersion or dipping, in contradistinction to other Reformed Christians.[119] The Baptist
Confession describes the Lord's supper as "the body and blood of Christ being then not corporally or
carnally, but spiritually present to the faith of believers in that ordinance", similarly to the Westminster
Confession.[120] There is significant latitude in Baptist congregations regarding the Lord's supper, and
many hold the Zwinglian view.

Logical order of God's decree

There are two schools of thought regarding the logical order of God's decree to ordain the fall of man:
supralapsarianism (from the Latin: supra, "above", here meaning "before" + lapsus, "fall") and
infralapsarianism (from the Latin: infra, "beneath", here meaning "after" + lapsus, "fall"). The former
view, sometimes called "high Calvinism", argues that the Fall occurred partly to facilitate God's purpose
to choose some individuals for salvation and some for damnation. Infralapsarianism, sometimes called
"low Calvinism", is the position that, while the Fall was indeed planned, it was not planned with
reference to who would be saved.

Supralapsarians believe that God chose which individuals to save logically prior to the decision to allow
the race to fall and that the Fall serves as the means of realization of that prior decision to send some
individuals to hell and others to heaven (that is, it provides the grounds of condemnation in the reprobate
and the need for salvation in the elect). In contrast, infralapsarians hold that God planned the race to fall
logically prior to the decision to save or damn any individuals because, it is argued, in order to be
"saved", one must first need to be saved from something and therefore the decree of the Fall must
precede predestination to salvation or damnation.

These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort, an international body representing Calvinist
Christian churches from around Europe, and the judgments that came out of that council sided with
infralapsarianism (Canons of Dort, First Point of Doctrine, Article 7). The Westminster Confession of
Faith also teaches (in Hodge's words "clearly impl[ies]") the infralapsarian[121] view, but is sensitive to
those holding to supralapsarianism.[122] The Lapsarian controversy has a few vocal proponents on each
side today, but overall it does not receive much attention among modern Calvinists.

Variants

Amyraldism
Amyraldism (or sometimes Amyraldianism, also known as the
School of Saumur, hypothetical universalism,[125] post
redemptionism,[126] moderate Calvinism,[127] or four-point
Calvinism) is the belief that God, prior to his decree of election,
decreed Christ's atonement for all alike if they believe, but seeing
that none would believe on their own, he then elected those
whom he will bring to faith in Christ, thereby preserving the
Calvinist doctrine of unconditional election. The efficacy of the
atonement remains limited to those who believe.

Named after its formulator Moses Amyraut, this doctrine is still

viewed as a variety of Calvinism in that it maintains the
particularity of sovereign grace in the application of the
atonement. However, detractors like B. B. Warfield have termed
it "an inconsistent and therefore unstable form of Calvinism."[128]
Moïse Amyraut formulated
Amyraldism, a modified Calvinist
Hyper-Calvinism theology regarding the nature of
Christ's atonement.[123][124]
Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a view that appeared among the
early English Particular Baptists in the 18th century. Their system
denied that the call of the gospel to "repent and believe" is directed to every single person and that it is
the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation. The term also occasionally appears in both
theological and secular controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some
variety of theological determinism, predestination, or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism
that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.

The Westminster Confession of Faith says that the gospel is to be freely offered to sinners, and the Larger
Catechism makes clear that the gospel is offered to the non-elect.[129][130]

Neo-Calvinism
Neo-Calvinism, a form of Dutch Calvinism, is the movement
initiated by the theologian and former Dutch prime minister
Abraham Kuyper. James Bratt has identified a number of different
types of Dutch Calvinism: The Seceders—split into the Reformed
Church "West" and the Confessionalists; and the Neo-Calvinists—
the Positives and the Antithetical Calvinists. The Seceders were
largely infralapsarian and the Neo-Calvinists usually
supralapsarian. [131]

Kuyper wanted to awaken the church from what he viewed as its

pietistic slumber. He declared:

No single piece of our mental world is to be sealed off

from the rest and there is not a square inch in the whole
domain of human existence over which Christ, who is
Dutch prime minister Abraham
sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!'[132] Kuyper initiated neo-Calvinism

This refrain has become something of a rallying call for Neo-

Calvinists.

Christian Reconstructionism
Christian Reconstructionism is a fundamentalist[133] Calvinist theonomic movement that has remained
rather obscure.[134] Founded by R. J. Rushdoony, the movement has had an important influence on the
Christian Right in the United States.[135][136] The movement declined in the 1990s and was declared
dead in a 2008 Church History journal article.[137] However, it lives on in small denominations such as
the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States and as a minority position in other
denominations. Christian Reconstructionists are usually postmillennialists and followers of the
presuppositional apologetics of Cornelius Van Til. They tend to support a decentralized political order
resulting in laissez-faire capitalism.[138]

New Calvinism
New Calvinism is a growing perspective within conservative Evangelicalism that embraces the
fundamentals of 16th century Calvinism while also trying to be relevant in the present day world.[139] In
March 2009, Time magazine described the New Calvinism as one of the "10 ideas changing the
world".[140] Some of the major figures in this area are John Piper, Mark Driscoll, Al Mohler,[140] Mark
Dever,[141] C. J. Mahaney, Joshua Harris,[139] and Tim Keller.[142] New Calvinists have been criticized
for blending Calvinist soteriology with popular Evangelical positions on the sacraments and
continuationism.[143]

Social and economic influences

Calvin expressed himself on usury in a 1545 letter to a friend, Claude de Sachin, in which he criticized
the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He
reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by
changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of Aristotle) that it is
wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of
a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same
way, money can be made fruitful.[144]

He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope
of interest, while a modest interest rate of 5% should be permitted in relation to other borrowers.[145]

Politics and society

Calvin's concepts of God and man led to ideas were gradually put
into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics
and society. After the fight for independence from Spain (1579),
the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, granted asylum to
religious minorities, e.g. French Huguenots, English
Independents (Congregationalists), and Jews from Spain and
Portugal. The ancestors of philosopher Baruch Spinoza were
Portuguese Jews. Aware of the trial against Galileo, René Stephen Bocskay, leader of
Descartes lived in the Netherlands, out of reach of the Hungarian Calvinists in anti-
Inquisition.[146] Pierre Bayle, a Reformed Frenchman, also felt Habsburg rebellion and first Calvinist
safer in the Netherlands than in his home country. He was the prince of Transylvania
first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists.
Hugo Grotius was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of
the Bible and his ideas about natural law.[147][148] Moreover, the
Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that
could not be published elsewhere, e.g. Galileo's Discorsi.[149]

Alongside the liberal

development of the
Netherlands was the rise of
modern democracy in
England and North America. Reformed church in Koudekerk aan
In the Middle Ages state and den Rijn (Netherlands), 19th century

church had been closely

connected. Martin Luther's
doctrine of the two kingdoms separated state and church in
The burning of the Guernsey principle.[150] His doctrine of the priesthood of all believers raised
Martyrs during the Marian the laity to the same level as the clergy.[151] Going one step further,
persecutions in 1556 Calvin included elected laymen (church elders, presbyters) in his
concept of church government. The Huguenots added synods whose
members were also elected by the congregations. The other
Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government which was essentially a
representative democracy.[152] Baptists, Quakers, and Methodists are organized in a similar way. These
denominations and the Anglican Church were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees.[153]

Another precondition for the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world was the fact that Calvin
favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government (mixed government). He
appreciated the advantages of democracy.[154] The aim of his political thought was to safeguard the rights
and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he
suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances (separation of
powers). Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this
way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political absolutism and furthered the
cause of democracy.[155] The Congregationalists who founded Plymouth Colony (1620) and
Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will
of God.[156][157] Enjoying self-rule they practiced separation of powers.[158][159] Rhode Island,
Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, founded by Roger Williams, Thomas Hooker, and William Penn,
respectively, combined democratic government with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe
havens for persecuted religious minorities, including Jews.[160][161][162]

In England, Baptists Thomas Helwys and John Smyth influenced

the liberal political thought of Presbyterian poet and politician
John Milton and philosopher John Locke, who in turn had both a
strong impact on the political development in their home country
(English Civil War, Glorious Revolution) as well as in North
America.[163][164] The ideological basis of the American
Revolution was largely provided by the radical Whigs, who had
been inspired by Milton, Locke, James Harrington, Algernon
Sidney, and other thinkers. The Whigs' "perceptions of politics The Grote Kerk in Haarlem, Dutch
attracted widespread support in America because they revived the Republic, c. 1665
traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged on
Puritanism."[165] The United States Declaration of Independence,
the United States Constitution and (American) Bill of Rights initiated a tradition of human and civil
rights that was continued in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the
constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e. g. Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and
other European countries. It is also echoed in the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights.[166]

In the nineteenth century, the churches that were based on Calvin's theology or influenced by it were
deeply involved in social reforms, e.g. the abolition of slavery (William Wilberforce, Harriet Beecher
Stowe, Abraham Lincoln, and others), women suffrage, and prison reforms.[167][168] Members of these
churches formed co-operatives to help the impoverished masses.[169] Henry Dunant, a Reformed pietist,
founded the Red Cross and initiated the Geneva Conventions.[170][171]

Some sources would view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive. The Boers and
Afrikaner Calvinists combined ideas from Calvinism and Kuyperian theology to justify apartheid in
South Africa.[172] As late as 1974, the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was
convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify
apartheid.[173] In 1990, the Dutch Reformed Church document Church and Society maintained that
although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under
God's sovereign guidance, "...everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom
of God."[174] These views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South
Africa. It was pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church which helped
reverse apartheid in South Africa.

Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly
people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists founded
Harvard (1636), Yale (1701), and about a dozen other colleges.[175]
See also
List of Calvinist educational institutions in North America
List of Reformed denominations
Synod of Jerusalem (1672): Eastern Orthodox council rejecting Calvinist beliefs
Criticism of Protestantism
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) – Max Weber's analysis of
Calvinism's influence on society and economics

Doctrine
Common grace
Reformed confessions of faith

Related
Boer Calvinists: Boere-Afrikaners that hold to Reformed theology
Huguenots: followers of Calvinism in France, originating in the 16th and 17th century
Pilgrims: English Separatists who left Europe for America in search of religious toleration,
eventually settling in New England
Presbyterians: Calvinists in Scotland, Ireland and England
Puritans: English Protestants who wanted to purify the Church of England
Continental Reformed church: Calvinist churches originating in continental Europe
Waldensians: Italian Protestants, preceded Calvinism but today identify with Reformed
theology

Similar groups in other traditions

Crypto-Calvinism: German Protestants accused of Calvinist leanings within the Lutheran
church in the late-16th century
Jansenism: a radical, Roman Catholic Augustinian school with some doctrinal distinctives
similar to those of Calvinism
Calvinistic Methodists
Molinism

Opposing views
Amyraldism
Arminianism
Catholicism
Augustinianism
Christian universalism
Eastern Orthodoxy
Palamism
Free Grace theology
 Open theism
Lutheranism
Molinism
Socinianism

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81. Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A
Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
82. "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073128/htt
p://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094). WELS
Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094) on 7 February
2009. Retrieved 26 January 2015. "Both (Lutherans and Calvinists) agree on the
devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his
conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for
election is Gnadenwahl, election by grace--there is no other kind."
83. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
84. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
85. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
86. WELS Topical Q&A: WELS vs Assembly of God (https://web.archive.org/web/20140714213
942/http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid257cuitem_itemid7092.htm): "[P]eople
by nature are dead in their tranbsgressions (sic) and sin and therefore have no ability to
decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John
15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion."
87. Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will (http://bookofconcord.org/augsburgconfe
ssion.php#article18.1), saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness,
and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work
the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth
not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the
heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."
88. Henry Cole, trans., Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66.
The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest
Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation
(Westminister, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
89. Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of
Grace. New York: OUP USA. pp. 157–158.
90. The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church, XI. Election.
"Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".
91. Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove:
InterVarsity Press. p. 63. "“Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is
conditional.""
92. The Westminster Confession, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified,
adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Baker,
2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted
Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin
as teaching "unlimited atonement".
93. "Justification / Salvation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073134/http://www.wels.ne
t/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2954). WELS Topical Q&A.
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original (http://www.wels.net/cgi-
bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2954) on 27 September 2009.
Retrieved 29 January 2015. "Romans 3:23-24 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?se
arch=rm3:23-24&version=NIV), 5:9 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=rm5:9
&version=NIV), 18 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=rm5:18&version=NIV)
are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that
universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world
whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All
this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ."
94. "IV. Justification by Grace through Faith" (http://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/statements-b
eliefs/this-we-believe/justification). This We Believe. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran
Synod. Retrieved 5 February 2015. "We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he
has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture
upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of
all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was
condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=
rm5:18&version=NIV)). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims
that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that
brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=rm5:
18&version=NIV)). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the
basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9 (https://www.biblegateway.
com/passage/?search=eph2:8-9&version=NIV)). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died
for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16 (http
s://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mk16:16&version=NIV)). Unbelievers forfeit
the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passag
e/?search=jn8:24&version=NIV))."
95. Becker, Siegbert W. "Objective Justification" (http://www.wlsessays.net/files/BeckerJustificat
ion.pdf) (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
96. "Universal Justification" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090927133257/https://www.wels.ne
t/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=16624). WELS Topical Q&A.
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original (https://www.wels.net/cgi
-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=16624) on 27 September 2009.
Retrieved 5 February 2015. "Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore
forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I
deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it.
Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it.
We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God
which the Holy Spirit works in us."
97. Augsburg Confession, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by
their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith,
when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for
Christ's sake. ..."
98. Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of
Grace. New York: OUP USA. p. 136. "Faith is a condition of justification"
99. Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from
Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter
Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine’s "monergistic view".
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pic_topicID=58&cuItem_itemID=11345). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Retrieved
10 February 2015. "In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism.
"In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration,
renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human
powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most
inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy
Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25 (http://bookofconcord.org/sd-
freewill.php#para25))."
101. Monergism (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Monergism); thefreedictionary.com
102. "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090927073128/htt
p://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=15094). WELS
Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original (http://ww
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103. Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove:
InterVarsity Press. p. 18. "Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which
affirms the prevenience of grace."
104. Olson, Roger E. (2010). "One more quick sidebar about clarifying Arminianism" (https://ww
w.patheos.com/blogs/rogereolson/2010/08/a-quick-sidebar-comment-on-civility/). My
evangelical, Arminian theological musings. Retrieved 27 August 2019. "Classical
Arminianism does NOT say God never interferes with free will. It says God NEVER
foreordains or renders certain evil. [...] An Arminian COULD believe in divine dictation of
Scripture and not do violence to his or her Arminian beliefs. [...] Arminianism is not in love
with libertarian free will –as if that were central in and of itself. Classical Arminians have
gone out of our way (beginning with Arminius himself) to make clear that our sole reasons
for believe in free will AS ARMINIANS [...] are 1) to avoid making God the author of sin and
evil, and 2) to make clear human responsibility for sin and evil."
105. The Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".
106. "Once saved always saved" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090927165641/https://www.wel
s.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=9372). WELS Topical Q&A.
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original (https://www.wels.net/cgi
-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=9372) on 27 September 2009.
Retrieved 7 February 2015. "People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you
are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the
Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned
them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have
fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower,
Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear
it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke
8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they
believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's
gracious gift."
107. "Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)" (https://web.archive.org/web/200
90927073121/http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID
=17945). WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the
original (http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=10&cuItem_itemID=1794
5) on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. "We cannot contribute one speck to
our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore,
Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 (https://www.bible
gateway.com/passage/?search=eph6&version=NIV) and 2 Timothy 4 (https://www.biblegate
way.com/passage/?search=2tim4&version=NIV) for example). My sins threaten and weaken
my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and
preserves my faith. That’s why Lutherans typically speak of God’s preservation of faith and
not the perseverance of the saints. The key is not our perseverance but the Spirit’s
preservation."
108. Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway
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109. Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway
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Council. Escondido, CA: Westminster Seminary California.
Parker, T. H. L. (2006), John Calvin: A Biography, Oxford: Lion Hudson plc, ISBN 978-0-
7459-5228-4.
Pettegree, Andrew (2004), "The spread of Calvin's thought", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.), The
Cambridge Companion to John Calvin, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-
0-521-01672-8
Stephens, W. P. (1986), The Theology of Huldrych Zwingli, Oxford: Clarendon Press,
ISBN 0-19-826677-4.
Stroup, George W. (1996). Reformed Reader. 2. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox.
Stroup, George W. (2003). "Reformed Identity in an Ecumenical World". In Alston, Wallace
M. Jr.; Welker, Michael (eds.). Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity (https://www.q
uestia.com/read/123348648/reformed-theology-identity-and-ecumenicity). Grand Rapids,
MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 257–270. – via Questia (subscription
required)
Weisse, Wolfram; Anthonissen, Carel Aaron (2004). Maintaining Apartheid Or Promoting
Change?: The Role of the Dutch Reformed Church in a Phase of Increasing Conflict in
South Africa. Waxmann Verlag.
Westminster Confession of Faith. 1646 – via Wikisource.

Further reading
Alston, Wallace M. Jr.; Welker, Michael, eds. (2003). Reformed Theology: Identity and
Ecumenicity. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-
0802847768.
Balserak, Jon (2017). Calvinism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0198753711.
Benedict, Philip (2002). Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism.
New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300105070.
Bratt, James D. (1984) Dutch Calvinism in Modern America: A History of a Conservative
Subculture excerpt and text search (https://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Calvinism-Modern-Am
erica-Conservative/dp/0802800092/)
Eire, Carlos (2017). Reformations: The Early Modern World, 1450–1650. New Haven: Yale
University Press. ISBN 978-0300111927.
Hart, D.G. (2013). Calvinism: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, excerpt and
text search (https://www.amazon.com/Calvinism-Darryl-Hart-ebook/dp/B00D6II2JO/)
McNeill, John Thomas (1967) [1954]. The History and Character of Calvinism. New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195007435.
Leith, John H. (1980). An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition: A Way of Being the
Christian Community. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0804204798.
Muller, Richard A. (2001). The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a
Theological Tradition. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195151688.
 ———————— (2003). After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological
Tradition. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0195157017.
Picken, Stuart D.B. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Calvinism. ISBN 978-0810872240.
Small, Joseph D., ed. (2005). Conversations with the Confessions: Dialogue in the
Reformed Tradition. Geneva Press. ISBN 978-0664502485.

External links
Calvinism (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00qvqpz) on In Our Time at the BBC
"Five Points of Calvinism" (https://reformed.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/RLDabney5Poi
ntsofCalvinism.pdf) by Robert Lewis Dabney.

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