Mechanical

Measurement
& Metrology
(Unit-1: Measurement)

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G K Marthande
Syllabus:

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Books

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Books:
NPTEL- Video Lectures:
(IIT-Madras)
1. Metrology by
Prof. Sadashivappa
2. Mechanical Measurement &
Metrology by
Prof. S.P. Venkateshan

Important Institutions:
1. National Physical Laboratory
(NPL)
2. National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST-USA)
3. International Organization of
Standards (ISO).
4. Indian Bureau of Standards
(IBS)
5. Indian Institute of Legal
Metrology (IILM)

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Measurement System: Functional Elements
Measurement System: Functional Elements
 Functional Elements: Transducer
Transducer Element:
Senses the i/p in one from and converts it to desired form

Some time i/p and o/p signals may be of the same nature

In some cases the transduction of i/p signal may take place in two
stages or three stages namely, Primary transduction, secondary
transduction and tertiary transduction

Ex: Bourdon tube acts as primary transducer (pressure-displacement).

LVDT act as secondary tranducer (displacement- Electrical voltage)
Functional Elements: Transducer
 Functional Elements : Transducer
Desirable Charactersticks
 Functional Elements: Signal Conditioning Element
O/p of the transducer is processed and modified to obtain the o/p in
desired from.

The o/p of transducer may be fed to signal conditioning element by

means of either mechanical (linkages, levers, gears etc..), electrical
cables, fluid transmission through liquid or through pneumatic
transmission through air.

For remote transmission purpose special devices like radio links or

telemetry systems may be employed
 Functional Elements: Signal Conditioning Element
Signal Conditioning operations
 Signal Amplification
Signal filtration
Signal Compensation/Signal Linearization
Differentiation/Integration
Analog to Digital Conversion
Signal Averaging /signal Sampling
 Functional Elements: Signal Conditioning Element
Signal Amplification
 Increasing the amplitude without affecting waveform of signal

 Reverse of amplification is Attenuation

 Suitable amplifying element has to be incorporated in signal conditioning element.

Mechanical Amplifying : levers, gears or combination of these

Hydraulic or Pneumatic: various types of valves or constrictions such as Venturi meter/orifice meter, to get
significant variation in pressure with small variation in input parameters

Optical Amplifying: Lenses or mirrors or combination of these or lamp and scale arrangement is are employed
to convert small i/p displacement to an o/p of sizable magnitude for convenient display of same

Electrical Amplification: Transistor circuits or integrated circuits to amplify voltage or current

 Functional Elements: Signal Filtration
Removal of unwanted noise signals that tend to obscure the transducer sign

Mechanical Filters: Consist of mechanical elements to protect the transducer

element from various interfering extraneous signal
Ex: reference junction of Thermocouple
Pneumatic Filters: consisting of small orifice or venture to filter out
fluctuations in a pressure signal

Electrical filters: are employed to get rid of stray pick-ups due to electrical
and magnetic fields. They may be simple R-C circuits or any other suitable
electrical circuits which is compatible with the transduced signal
Functional Elements: Data Presentation Element
Gathers the o/p of signal conditioning element and presents the same
to be read or seen by the experimenter
Visual display type, graphic recording type or magnetic tape.
This element should
a) have fast response
b) have very little inertia, friction etc..
Static Characteristics of Instruments:
 Instrument means a measuring device for determining
the present value of a quantity under observation.
 Instruments may be classified according to:

 The application
 Mode of operation
 Manner of energy conversion
 Nature of output signal

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 Static Characteristics of Instruments:
Classification of Instruments (commonly used in practice):

Deflection and Null types

Manually operated and Automatic types
Analog and Digital types
Self generating and Power-operated types
Contacting and Non-Contacting types
Dumb and Intelligent types
Microprocessor based instrumentation

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Static Characteristics
Static Characteristics
of Instruments:
of Instruments:
 The detailed specifications of the functional characteristics of any
instrument are termed as its performance characteristics.

To choose the instrument, most suited to a particular measurement

application, we have to know the performance characteristics.

 Instrument performance characteristics classified as:

 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics

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Static Characteristics
Static Characteristics
of Instruments:
of Instruments:
 Static characteristics refer to the comparison between
steady output and ideal output when the input is
constant.

 Dynamic characteristics refer to the comparison

between instrument output and ideal output when the
input changes.
 Static Characteristics of Instruments:

 Static performance parameters:

 Accuracy
 Precision
 Resolution
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Hysteresis
 Range and Span
 Dead Band
 Backlash
 Drift

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Static performance parameters: Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy of a measuring system is defined as the closeness of the instrument output to the
true value of the measured quantity (as per standards).
• Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings within
a given accuracy.

Reference : NIST-USA

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Static performance parameters:
 Accuracy in simple words is the difference between the measured and true values.
 Precision in simple words is the difference between the instrument’s reported values during
repeated measurements of the same quantity.
 Precision of an instrument dependent on the repeatability.
(Repeatability is defied as the ability of instrument to reproduce a group of measurements of the
same measured quantity made by the same observer, using the same instrument,under the same
conditions.)
Example :
X : result Centre circle : true value

XXX X X
XXX
XXX X
XXXX
XXX x
x

Low accuracy, low precision

High accuracy, high precision Low accuracy, high precision

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 Resolution:
 Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value
that can be detected with certainty by the instrument.

Resolution in simple words, the smallest increment of change in the

measured value that can be determined from the instrument’s readout
scale.

The least count of any instrument is taken as the resolution of the

instrument.

A high resolution instrument means it can detect smallest possible

variation in the input

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Resolution:

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Threshold as particular case of Resolution:
 Threshold is defined as the minimum value of input below which
no output can be detected.

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Sensitivity:
 The change of an instrument or transducer’s output per unit change in
the measured quantity.
 More Sensitive instrument means its reading changes significantly in
response to smaller changes in the measured quantity.
An instrument with higher sensitivity will also have finer resolution,
better precision and higher accuracy.
Change of output signal
Sensitivity ,
Change in 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
K=
Δ𝑞𝑜
K= Δ𝑞𝑖

 Sensitivity is represented by the slope

of the input-output curve
Linear Case Non-linear Case
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Linearity:
It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity being measured.
 In actual linearity is never completely achieved and deviation from ideal is
termed as linearity error.
 Maximum departure in instrument from linearity is specified by following:
• Independent of the input
• Proportional to input
• Combined independent and proportional to the input
See Figure No: 2.4 , page no 47 of Book ‘Instrumentation Measurement and Analysis by Nakra & Chaudhry, 3rd
Edition’

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Hysteresis:
It is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the output for a given value of input, when this
value is approached from opposite directions i.e. from ascending order and then descending
order.
In simple words
Hysteresis caused by backlash, elastic deformations, magnetic characteristics and mainly due to
frictional effects.

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Dead Band:
It is defined as the largest change of the measurand to which the instrument does not
respond.

Zero Stability:
A measure of the ability of instruments to restore to zero reading after measurand has
returned to zero and other varitions viz. temperature, pressure, humidity have been
removed.

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Range and Span:
The range of the instrument is specified by the lower and upper limits in which it is designed to
operate for measuring, indicating or recording the measured variable.
The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values is termed as the span of the
instrument
 The range of instrument can be:
Unidirectional 0-100 Degree Celsius
Bidirectional -10 to 100 Degree Celsius
Expanded 80-100 Degree Celsius

Zero suppressed 5-40 Degree Celsius

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Backlash:
It is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of the mechanical
system may be moved in one direction without causing motion of the next part.
Backlash error can be minimised if the components are made to very close tolerances.

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 Drift
Variation of output for a given input caused due to change in sensitivity
of the instrument due to certain interfering inputs like temperature
changes, instabilities etc.
The gradual shift in the indication or record of the instrument over an
extended period of time, during which the true value of the variable does
not change is referred to as drift.
Dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument
Dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument
The dynamic input to instruments may be of following types
1. Periodic Input: Varying cyclically with time or repeating itself after
constant interval. The input may be of harmonic type or non
harmonic type
2. Harmonic: refers to a type of periodic motion where there is a
restoring force which is proportional to the displacement
3. Transient Input: Varying non cyclically with time. The signal is of
definite duration and becomes zero after certain time period
4. Random Input: Varying randomly with time, with no definite period
and amplitude. This may be continuous but not cyclic
Dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument
Dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument

Overshoot: Because of mass and inertia of moving part,

i.e the pointer of the instrument does not immediately
come to rest in the final deflected position
Dynamic characteristics of measuring instrument
 Classification of Instruments

Deflection and Null types

Manually operated and Automatic types
Analog and Digital types
Self generating and Power-operated types
Contacting and Non-Contacting types
Dumb and Intelligent types
Microprocessor based instrumentation
Classification of Instruments : Deflection and Null Type
Deflection type instrument:
The physical effect generated by measuring
quantity produces an equivalent opposing
effect in some part of the instrument which
in turn closely related to some variables like
mechanical displacement or deflection in the
instrument
Ex: spring balance weight measuring
system, Bourdan tube pressure guage
Classification of Instruments : Deflection and Null Type
Null Type Instrument:
Is the one which is provided with either manually operated or automatic
balancing device that generates an equivalent opposing effect to nullify
the physical effect caused by quantity to be measured
The equivalent null causing effect in turn provides the measure of the
quantity
Classification of Instruments : Manually operated and Automatic types

• Any instrument which requires service of human operator is manual

type of instrument
• If the manual operation is replaced by auxiliary device then it becomes
automatic type
• Automatic type instruments are preferred because
a) Dynamic response is fast
b) Low operational cost
Ex: Null bridge Resistance thermometer manual instrument
Classification of Instruments : Analog and Digital types
Analog instruments are those that present the physical variables of
interest in the form of continuous or stepless variations with respect to
time
Ex: Deflection type of pressure gauge
As the input value changes the pointer moves with smooth continuous
motion, so the pointer can be at infinite no of positions within its given
range of movement
Digital instruments are those in which physical variables are
represented by digital quantities which are discrete and vary in steps

Ex: Digital revolution counter

Classification of Instruments : Self Generating and Power Operated
Self Generating (Passive): The energy
requirement of the instruments are met
entirely from the input signal
Ex: Simple Bourdon gauge, mercury in
glass thermometer, pitot tube.

Power Operated (Active): are those which

require some source of auxiliary power
such as compressed air, electricicty,
hydraulic supply etc.
Ex: Float type petrol tank level, flow
indicator
Classification of Instruments : Self Generating and Power Operated
Classification of Instruments : Contacting and Non contacting type
Contacting Type: is the one which is kept in the measuring medium
itself
Ex: Thermometer
Non-contacting or Proximity Switch: Instruments that measure desired
input even though they are not in close contact with the measuring
medium
Ex: Variable reluctance tachometer, Optical pyrometer
Classification of Instruments : Dumb and Intelligent type
 Dumb(Conventional): The input variable is measured and displayed,
but the data is processed by the observer
Ex : Bourdon pressure gauge.
Intelligent (Smart): Process the data in conjunction with micro
processor or online digital computer to provide assistance in noise
reduction, automatic calibration, drift correction.
 Methods of Measurement
1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method
3. Fundamental or absolute method
4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Null measurement method
10. Substitution method
11. Contact method
12. Contactless method
13. Composite method
Methods of Measurement
Methods of Measurement
Methods of Measurement
 Calibration
• The set of operations which establish under specific conditions, the
relationship between values indicated by measuring instrument or
measuring system or value represented by a material measure or a
reference material, and the corresponding value of a quantity realized
by a reference standard.
• Calibration is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a
known standard and the output of the measuring system measuring the
same quantity.
 Need of Calibration
The main objectives of calibration services are:
• To maintain quality control and quality assurance in production.
• To comply with requirements of global trade.
• To meet the requirement of ISO guides.
• To promote international recognition.
• For tracking back measurement results to national standards.
 Benefits of Calibration

• It fulfils the requirements of traceability to national / international standards like

ISO 9000, ISO 14000 etc.
• As a proof that the instrument is working.
• Confidence in using the instruments.
• Traceability to national measurement standard.
• Interchangeability.
• Reduced rejection, failure rate thus higher return.
• Improved product and service quality leading to satisfied customers.
• Power saving.
• Cost Saving.
• Safety.
 Basic Requirements for Calibration
• Reference / Calibration Standards & other instruments /equipments
• Controlled Environment Conditions.
• Competence of Calibration Lab personnel.
• Traceability of Reference / Calibration standards.
• Documentation.