RESEARCH

1. For metals, two fracture modes are possible, namely ductile and brittle. Ductile metals exhibit
substantial plastic deformation and is capable of stretching or deforming (otherwise known as
necking) before fracture, while brittle metals have little to no plastic deformation and will easily
reach breaking point or fracture.
According to Callister, the characteristics of the mechanism of crack propagation for a ductile
mode of fracture are as follows:
 Extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack
 Fracture process proceeds slowly as the crack length is extended unless there is an increase
in the applied stress otherwise known as a stable crack
 There will ordinarily be evidence of appreciable gross deformation at the fracture surfaces
(twisting and tearing)
On the other hand, the characteristics of the mechanism of crack propagation for a brittle mode
of fracture are as follows:
 Cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little plastic deformation, otherwise known
as unstable cracks
 The crack propagation once started, will continue spontaneously without an increase in
magnitude of the applied stress.
Furthermore, for brittle mode of fracture, the direction of crack motion is closely perpendicular
relative to the direction of the applied tensile stress and resulting in a relatively flat fracture surface.
According to Callister, “Crack propagation for most brittle crystalline materials corresponds to the
successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes, and it is
termed as cleavage”, and a transgranular fracture is formed. However, in some alloys, the crack
propagation happens along the grain boundaries, and the resulting fracture is called an
intergranular fracture.
PICS

2. The fracture toughness Kc, otherwise known as the critical stress intensity (a more specific value
of stress intensity factor fracture toughness K when the crack becomes critical) is a property that
is a measure of a material’s resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present. It is more
understood in the expression:
Kc = Yσc√( πa)
Where σc is the critical stress for crack propagation, a is the crack length and Y is a dimensionless
parameter or function that depends on both crack and specimen sizes and geometries as well as the
manner of load application. Y has usually the value of unity or one. Kc has the unit of MPa√m or
psi√in. the fracture toughness depends on the specimen’s thickness.
On the other hand, the plane strain fracture toughness, KIc, is independent of the specimen’s
thickness, which is opposite to what fracture toughness K is. The Roman numeral number one in
the subscript denotes that the plane strain fracture toughness is for mode I crack displacement, or
in tensile mode. A plane strain exists when specimen thickness is much greater than the crack
dimensions.

3. The two impact fracture testing techniques are the Charpy and Izod Tests, wherein the former
is most commonly used in the United States. These tests determine the energy required to break a
specimen. For both of these tests, the material to be tested must be a bar having a square cross
section, and a V-notch must be machined into it, upon which the stress is concentrated when an
impact blow is applied. The way the tests work is that the bar is held either as a beam, for the
Charpy Test, or as a cantilever, for the Izod Test, and the load is applied to the notch using a
weighted pendulum hammer that is released from a cocked position at a fixed height h. Upon
release, a knife edge mounted on the pendulum strikes and fractures the specimen at the notch.
One of the main functions of these tests is to determine if a material experiences a ductile-to-brittle
transition with decreasing temperature, and the range of which it occurs. Furthermore, for these
two tests, there are variables that may affect the results, such as the specimen size and shape, as
well as the notch configuration and depth.
4. According to Callister, “Creep is defined as the time-dependent and permanent deformation of
materials when subjected to a constant load or stress, and is an undesirable phenomenon and is
often the limiting factor in the lifetime of a part.” Conditions such as elevated temperatures, and
mechanical stresses affecting the material, such as centrifugal stresses and high pressures may
cause creep. In connection with this, the susceptibility of the material to creep may also be
dependent on the type of material mentioned. For example, amorphous polymers, which include
plastics and rubbers, are especially sensitive and prone to creep deformation.

5. In a literal sense, in order to determine whether a metal alloy is suitable to use as material for
an automobile valve spring, its properties must first be assessed. The material should be strong to
withstand pressures, but still being able to compress. They must also be able to withstand high
temperatures.
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/machine-design/38107-valve-spring-design-guide-how-
to-design-a-compression-valve-spring/

analytically,
1. Get value of shear stress
2. compare with shear yield strength, must be less than sys
1. First assessing the properties of the material, it must be able to withstand harsh environments
and cyclic stresses. The cost of the material must be taken into consideration as well
2. Stress analysis
- fatigue properties of materials can be determined from laboratory simulation tests
This fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating
stress that will not cause failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles. For
many steels, fatigue limits range between 35% and 60% of the tensile strength.

3. redesigning for adjustment

Engineering Materials Msc. Shaymaa Mahmood

5. In order to determine whether a metal alloy is suitable to use as material for an automobile valve
spring, first, its properties must be assessed. The function of a valve spring in the simplest sense
is to alternately open and close the valves during engine operation. Therefore, one of the most
important considerations in selecting the material for a valve spring is its survivability in harsh
environments. It must be able to withstand high temperatures, must be fairly stiff and strong to
handle strong pressures, but must also be able to compress.
After taking these into consideration, the materials must be subjected to stress analysis. In an
automobile engine, the valve springs experience cyclic stresses for they undergo a repetitive
pattern of compression and tension. Therefore, rather than focusing on comparing the actual shear
stresses experienced by the spring to the yield shear stress for one operation, the spring’s resistance
to failure by fatigue is more closely examined. For selecting the best metal alloy to use for the
valve spring, its fatigue limit, which corresponds to the largest value of cyclic stress that will not
cause failure in an infinite number of cycles, must be greater than the maximum value of stress
(actual stress amplitude) that the spring is going to experience in the engine.
If the material showed a large difference between the actual stress amplitude and the fatigue limit,
where the former is greater than the latter, then the metal alloy tested may not be the best choice
for the valve spring, and a new metal alloy with higher fatigue limits must be examined. If
however, there is only a slight difference between the two, then the best thing to do is to redesign
the spring in order to increase the fatigue limit. The process is called shot-peening.
In order to validate the newly redesigned valve spring, it must undergo experimental testing which
includes a series of fatigue tests. The results of the tests will determine its survival probability
when mass-produced. If there is a high survival probability, then it dictates that the metal alloy
examined is one of the best materials to use for the valve spring.

RESEARCH
1. For metals, two fracture modes are possible, namely ductile and brittle. Ductile metals exhibit
substantial plastic deformation and is capable of stretching or deforming (otherwise known as
necking) before fracture, while brittle metals have little to no plastic deformation and will easily
reach breaking point or fracture.
According to Callister, the characteristics of the mechanism of crack propagation for a ductile
mode of fracture are as follows:
 Extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack
 Fracture process proceeds slowly as the crack length is extended unless there is an increase
in the applied stress otherwise known as a stable crack
 There will ordinarily be evidence of appreciable gross deformation at the fracture surfaces
(twisting and tearing)
On the other hand, the characteristics of the mechanism of crack propagation for a brittle mode
of fracture are as follows:
 Cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little plastic deformation, otherwise known
as unstable cracks
 The crack propagation once started, will continue spontaneously without an increase in
magnitude of the applied stress.
Furthermore, for brittle mode of fracture, the direction of crack motion is closely perpendicular
relative to the direction of the applied tensile stress and resulting in a relatively flat fracture surface.
According to Callister, “Crack propagation for most brittle crystalline materials corresponds to the
successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes, and it is
termed as cleavage”, and a transgranular fracture is formed. However, in some alloys, the crack
propagation happens along the grain boundaries, and the resulting fracture is called an
intergranular fracture.