Chapter 4

Boundary Layer Analysis

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This chapter will treat the physics of aerodynamic boundary layers flows. The objectives include iden-
tification of relevant boundary layer parameters, derivation of their governing equations, and formulation
of solution methods. Additional objectives are to obtain insight into boundary layer behavior and how it

py a.c
determines overall viscous losses and profile drag.

4.1 Boundary Layer Flow Features and Overview

co al
In general, a boundary layer flow is either laminar with smooth and nearly parallel streamlines, or turbulent
e h
with chaotic motion and significant fluid mixing. Most aerodynamic flows over streamline shapes, such as
pl hs
the airfoil flow shown in Figure 4.1, have laminar boundary layers on each side starting from the leading
edge stagnation point, which eventually undergo transition and become turbulent. The two boundary layers
then merge at the trailing edge into a wake which is almost invariably turbulent. The airfoil’s profile drag is
m at

related to the properties of the far-downstream wake, as derived in Appendix C.

Sa ep

Far Wake
Transition V
n
ue
at

Stagnation s
point Laminar flow Turbulent flow
.g

...
w

Transition
w

Figure 4.1: Boundary layer and wake development on a typical airfoil, shown by the u(n) velocity
profiles. The layer thicknesses are shown exaggerated.
w

The goals of this chapter are description and prediction of the important aspects and parameters of the bound-
ary layer flow shown in Figure 4.1. Examples are quantities such as the mass defect m(s) and displacement
thickness δ∗ (s) distributions, already identified in Chapter 3 as being required to model the boundary layer’s
effects on the overall potential flow. Both laminar and turbulent boundary layers as well as the transition
locations will be considered.
Other goals of this chapter include prediction of profile drag, and prediction of boundary layer behavior in
general, in particular its response to pressure gradients. A major motivation is the fact that much of aero-
dynamic design can be viewed as “boundary layer management,” in that boundary layers determine profile
drag, and their separation also determines the maximum attainable lift, as discussed in Chapter 3. Hence,
boundary layer behavior ultimately sets fundamental limits on most aspects of aerodynamic performance.
The focus here will be on 2D flows, which is sufficient to investigate the majority of the important features
of boundary layer behavior. Basic 3D effects will also be briefly considered.
58 Chapter 4

4.2 Defect Integrals and Thicknesses

As a first step, it’s useful to identify important overall properties of the boundary layer at any streamwise lo-
cation s. As in Chapter 3, u, v will denote the s, n axis velocity components, which for a turbulent boundary
layer represent the mean flow (e.g. time-averaged flow). The Equivalent Inviscid Flow (EIF) concept, first
introduced in Section 3.1, will also be invoked here. Here we will assume that the EIF exactly matches the
actual flow outside the boundary layer, and that it’s constant through the boundary layer thickness, so that

ui (s,n) = ue (s) , ρi (s,n) = ρe (s) (4.1)

at every streamwise station s. The assumption is equivalent to assuming that the boundary layer is very thin
compared to the streamwise radius of curvature. This curvature is accounted for in higher-order boundary
layer theory, as for example by Lock and Williams [9]. It will not be addressed here.

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4.2.1 Mass flow comparison

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Figure 4.2 shows the mass flow per unit span passing through the streamtube of height ne , for the real flow
and the corresponding EIF. These mass flows might be needed for a control-volume analysis for example.


ne
ne
ne

co al
ṁ = dṁ = ρu dn = ρe ue dn − (ρe ue − ρu) dn
0 0 0
e h or ṁ = ṁi − m (4.2)
pl hs

ne
ṁi ≡
m at

where ρe ue dn = ρe ue ne

0 ne
m ≡ (ρe ue − ρu) dn = ρe ue δ∗
Sa ep

(4.3)

ne
0 
∗ ρu
and δ ≡ 1− dn (4.4)
ρe ue
at

The EIF mass flow is greater than the actual mass flow, the difference being the mass defect m. This is seen
.g

to be the fictitious mass flow between the real and displacement bodies locally spaced a distance Δn = δ∗
apart. This result is closely related to the viscous displacement models shown in Figure 3.3. Those were
w

also based on mass conservation, and hence also depended on the m(s) and δ∗ (s) of the boundary layer.
w

Same Captured Area Same Captured Mass Flow

ue ue ue
w

ne ne ne
.
. . m
m mi Mass ui
ui Defect
u(n) δ∗
m

Figure 4.2: Comparison of actual and EIF mass flows.

4.2.2 Momentum and kinetic energy flow comparisons

Momentum flow is carried by mass flow, and was already treated in the momentum control volume flow
analysis in Section 1.3. Here it will be viewed as the force which acts on a hypothetical barrier which
captures the mass flow and brings the fluid’s velocity to zero. Similarly, the kinetic energy flow carried by
a mass flow will be viewed as the power obtained from an ideal turbine array which brings the fluid to rest
Boundary Layer Analysis 59

momentum kinetic energy

extractor extractor Same
(barrier) (turbine array) Captured Mass Flow
ue . ue .
ne E ne Ei
Fi
F

u(n) δ∗

Figure 4.3: Comparison of actual and EIF’s momentum flow and kinetic energy flow, for the same
mass flow. Momentum flow is equal to the force on a hypothetical barrier which brings the fluid
stream’s s-velocity to zero. Kinetic energy flow is equal to the power from an ideal turbine array

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which brings the fluid stream’s velocity to zero reversibly.

reversibly. Figure 4.3 compares the barriers and turbine arrays between the actual flow and the EIF. The

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comparison is done at the same mass flow for all cases, which requires the EIF’s barrier and turbine array to
be shorter by the displacement thickness height δ∗ .
The force and power are obtained by integrating the momentum and kinetic energy fluxes across the profile.

co al
The EIF flow case in Figure 4.3 on the right gives the following.
e h

ne
Fi = ui dṁi = ρi u2i dn = ρe u2e (ne −δ∗ ) (4.5)
pl hs
∗


ne
δ
∗
2 ρi ui dn = 2 ρe ue (ne −δ )
1 2 1 3 1 3
Ėi = 2 ui dṁi = (4.6)
m at

δ∗

For the real flow case shown in Figure 4.3 on the left we have
Sa ep

ne
ne
ne
ne
F = u dṁ = ρu2 dn = ρe u2e dn − ue (ρe ue −ρu) dn − (ue − u) ρu dn
at

0 0 0 0
= ρe u2e ne − ue (ρe ue δ∗ ) − ρe u2e θ
.g

F = Fi − P (4.7)
w

ne
ne ne ne 
1 2 1 3 1 3
dn − 1 2
(ρe ue −ρu) dn − 2 ue −u ρu
1 2 2
w

Ė = 2 u dṁ = 2 ρu dn = 2 ρe ue 2 ue dn
0 0 0 0
1 3
− 12 u2e (ρe ue δ∗ ) − 1 3 ∗
w

= 2 ρe ue ne 2 ρe ue θ

Ė = Ėi − K (4.8)

where the following new defect quantities and associated thicknesses have appeared.

ne
P ≡ (ue − u) ρu dn = ρe u2e θ (momentum defect) (4.9)

ne
0
 2  3 ∗
K ≡ 2 ue −u ρu dn = 2 ρe ue θ
1 2 1
(kinetic energy defect) (4.10)

ne
0

u ρu
θ ≡ 1− dn (momentum thickness) (4.11)
0 u e ρe ue

ne 
u2 ρu
θ∗ ≡ 1− 2 dn (kinetic energy thickness) (4.12)
0 ue ρe ue
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