Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Drilling Fluids
Handbook
Version 2-09
November 2009
©2009 by Chevron Energy Technology Company
All rights reserved. This document is company confidential.
No part of this handbook shall be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted by any means – electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without
written permission from Chevron.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Introduction ................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1
Organic phase fluid is the terminology used to describe non-
aqueous drilling fluids in the North Sea/OSPAR regulated areas.
Funnel Viscosity
The funnel viscosity of a drilling fluid is measured with a
MARSH™ Viscosity Funnel. The MARSH Funnel is designed
so that the outflow time of one quart of freshwater (946
cm3) at a temperature of 70° F ±5° F (21° ±3° C), is 26 ±
0.5 seconds.
With all drilling fluids, especially NAF’s, the viscosity of
the base fluid is temperature dependent and the fluid will
thin as the temperature increases, in turn reducing the
funnel viscosity. The limitation of the MARSH Funnel is
that the viscosity is measured at only one rate of shear
and the sample is not at a constant temperature and
therefore does not give an accurate representation of
the flow properties of a drilling fluid. However, it is a
quick, simple test and provides a tool for spotting
changes/trends in a circulating drilling fluid, particularly
with water base muds.
Rheology
Rheology is defined as “the study of the deformation and
flow of matter”. Rheological measurements of a drilling
fluid include plastic viscosity (PV), yield point (YP) and
gel strengths. The information from these
measurements can be used to determine hole cleaning
efficiency, system pressure losses, equivalent circulating
density, surge and swab pressures and bit hydraulics.
Water base and non-aqueous fluids charts containing
typical PV and YP values for various densities are
located in Figures 2-1 and 2-2, respectively. It should be
noted that these charts do not consider the effects of
lost circulation material or bridging agents.
Figure 2-1: Plastic viscosity and yield point range for water base
mud
Figure 2-2: Plastic viscosity and yield point range for non-aqueous
fluids
Gel Strengths
Gel strength measurements show both the rate and the
degree with which reactive particles in a drilling fluid
interact in a static fluid to form a gel structure. Gel
strengths are important for maintaining the suspension
of barite and drill cuttings when circulation is stopped.
Measurements are made on a rheometer using the 3 rpm
speed and readings are taken after stirring the mud at
600 rpm to break all the gels. A first reading is taken
after the mud has been static for 10 seconds, a second
after 10 minutes. It is also highly recommended to take a
30 minute reading to be sure the mud is not likely to gel
excessively during long static periods like a bit trip.
Water base drilling fluids should develop a low, rapid
initial gel strength (10 second), usually just above the 3
rpm value and should remain relatively flat with time.
For NAF’s, typical gel strength readings might be 8 (10
second) and 12 (10 minute), represented as 8/12,
respectively. Gel strength readings similar to 3 / 30 or
9 / 55 would be considered progressive and undesirable
in a normal drilling fluid.
Highly progressive gel strengths can lead to high pump
initiation pressures being required to break circulation
after mud in the hole has remained static for a period of
time, such as after a trip. A progressive 30 minute gel
strength reading is indicative of a buildup of fine and
ultrafine reactive solids in the mud and indicates that the
mud requires dilution and/or treatment.
High gel strengths in water base muds can be the result
of chemical contaminants such as cement, lime,
anhydrite, gypsum, acid gases such as carbon dioxide
Rheological Models
Rheological models are used to predict the behavior of
drilling fluids under flowing conditions. Examples of the
fluid’s behavior in drilling applications include the
pressure drop, equivalent circulating density and hole
cleaning performance.
The flow behavior of drilling fluids is governed by two
flow regimes, namely laminar flow which prevails at low
velocities, and turbulent flow that occurs at high
velocities. The critical velocity where the flow changes
from laminar to turbulent is dependent on pipe diameter,
density, and viscosity. It is expressed by a dimensionless
number, the Reynolds number, which lies between 2000
and 3000 for most drilling fluids. In the turbulent flow
regime, flow is disorderly and flow equations are
determined empirically.
Laminar flow is orderly and the pressure-velocity
relationship is a function of the viscous properties of the
Newtonian
Fluids containing particles no larger than a molecule (e.g.
water, salt solution, light oil) can be described by the
Newtonian model. These fluids are those in which the
Bingham Plastic
The Bingham Plastic model is the most common model
used to describe the rheological properties of non-
Newtonian drilling fluids. This model assumes that the
shear stress is a linear function of shear rate once a
specific shear stress has been exceeded (the threshold
shear stress or yield point). The shear stress divided by
the shear rate, at any given rate of shear, is known as
the effective or apparent viscosity.
The plastic viscosity and yield point are calculated from
conventional viscometer data taken at 600 and 300
rpm. After the PV and YP values have been determined,
the model can be used to determine the shear stress at
any given shear rate.
Power Law
The Power Law model describes a non-Newtonian fluid in
which the consistency curve passes through the origin
and can be described by the following exponential
equation:
Shear stress = K (shear rate)
Where K = the fluid consistency index and = the power
law exponent. The parameter K is the shear strength at a
shear rate of 1 sec-1 and corresponds approximately to
Filter Cake
Solids in a drilling fluid are deposited against permeable
formations by differential pressure forming a filter cake.
The most desirable filter cake in both the API and HTHP
Solids Content
The solids content, measured by retorting (boiling off the
liquid portion), is the total solids fraction present in the
mud. This includes both soluble and insoluble drilled
solids and soluble and insoluble mud additives; those
which are necessary and those which are undesirable.
pH
pH is a numerical value of the concentration of hydrogen
ions in a solution and is a direct measurement of the
acidity or alkalinity of the solution. The pH scale (0 to 14)
is an inverse measurement of the hydrogen ion
concentration. Therefore, the more hydrogen ions
present, the more acidic the substance and the greater
the decrease in pH. A pH of 7 is considered to be neutral.
Fluids with a pH below 7 are acidic and those above 7 are
referred to as basic or alkaline.
Alkalinity is defined as the concentration of both water-
soluble and insoluble ions that neutralize acid.
Essentially there are three groups of ions that may
perform this function. They are the hydroxyl ions (OH-),
carbonate ions (CO3-2) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
Hydroxyl ions are useful and ideally the pH of the mud
should be primarily controlled with the presence of
hydroxyl ions. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions may be
Pm
The “phenolphthalein end point of the mud” or Pm
provides an indication of the amount of caustic soda,
KOH, lime, cement, etc in a water base mud and not just
the filtrate. Phenolphthalein will indicate the alkaline end
point at a pH of 8.3. The Pm value includes both
dissolved and non-dissolved alkalinity in the mud. It is
mainly used in lime muds to determine the ratio of
Pf / Mf
The “phenolphthalein end point” (Pf) and “methyl orange
end point” (Mf) are measurements that are made on the
mud filtrate which help determine ions that are
responsible for pH.
If the Pf and Mf are nearly equal, hydroxyl ions
(OH-) are mainly contributing to the alkalinity
If the Pf and Mf are both high, then carbonate
ions (CO3-2) are present
If the Pf is low and the Mf is high, bicarbonate
ions (HCO3-) are present
There will always be some carbonate and bicarbonate
ions. These ions are more detrimental in high clay
content muds than in low clay content muds. If the Mf is
more than 10 times the Pf, carbonate alkalinity may be a
problem, especially if the LGS clay content is high.
Elevated funnel viscosities, yield points and gel strengths
may also be present with a carbonate alkalinity. The
definitive test for measuring soluble carbonates in mud
filtrate is done with a Garrett Gas Train. Carbonates are
usually treated out with additions of lime and/or
gypsum.
Total Hardness
Total hardness is a measurement of the total soluble
calcium (Ca+2) and magnesium (Mg+2) ions present in a
water base mud filtrate. Excessive hardness may cause:
flocculation of clays in the mud
inhibition of clay hydration
inhibition of polymer effectiveness
inhibition of treatment chemical effectiveness
high filtration rates
thick/mushy filter cakes
Additionally, calcium and magnesium ions will compete
with potassium (K+) ions in reacting and stabilizing
formation clays. As both are higher on the reaction
series, they will prevent the K+ ion from making the
desired clay basal exchange in potassium chloride (KCl)
muds and should be precipitated out of the system. This
can be done with additions of soda ash or by increasing
the pH with caustic soda. If the pH is to be maintained
less than 9.5, then bicarbonate of soda (bicarb) can be
used instead of soda ash or caustic soda.
Total hardness should be maintained below 300 mg/L in
most water base drilling fluids, except for lime muds,
where it is usually run slightly higher (~400 mg/L).
Chloride Content
The chloride content of water base muds is measured by
titration of the mud filtrate. Chlorides should be
monitored and any significant change in the trend should
be noted. Changes in the chloride trend could indicate an
influx of water (fresh or salt) or penetration of a salt
bearing formation.
WP 100 (VW )
VO VW
OP = 100 - WP
The oil:water ratio is: OP:WP
The volume % brine in the oil + brine portion of the mud
is:
100 (VB )
BP VO VB
The volume % oil in the oil + brine portion of the mud is:
OP = 100 – Bp
Anhydrite, CaSO4, Formation, Ca+2 titration High yield point Treat with Sodium carbonate (soda ash):
Gypsum CaSO4 · 2H2O / Commercial High fluid loss Ca+2 (mg/L) x 0.00093 = Na2CO3 (lbm/bbl)
Ca+2, SO4-2 gypsum High gels Break over to a gypsum fluid
Thick filter cake
Ca+2 increase
MgCl2 MgCl2 / Mg+2, Formation, Total hardness, High yield point Treat with caustic soda, NaOH
Cl- Sea water Cl- titration High fluid loss (pH ≥ 10.0) for moderate contamination, e.g. sea water
High gels Mg+2 (mg/L) x 0.00116 = NaOH (lbm/bbl)
Thick filter cake Treat with additional thinner and fluid loss chemicals
Total hardness Convert to MgCl2 fluid if contamination is severe
increase NOTE: for severe contamination, continued additions of NaOH or Ca(OH)2 will
pH decrease result in unacceptable viscosity increase.
Pf decrease
Cl- increase
Cement, Ca(OH)2 / Ca+2, Cement, Titration for High yield point Treat with sodium bicarbonate
Lime OH- Commercial lime, Ca+2, High fluid loss Ca+2 (mg/L) x 0.00074 = NaHCO3 (lbm/bbl)
Contaminated Pm Thick filter cake
barite pH increase Treat with SAPP
Pm increase Ca+2 (mg/L) x 0.00097 = Na2H2P2O7 (lbm/bbl)
Ca+2 increase
Treat with lignite, 7 to 8 lbm/bbl precipitates
1 lbm/bbl Ca(OH)2 to form Ca+2 salt of humic acid
Dilution
Allow Ca(OH)2 to remain in convert lime fluid or allow Ca(OH)2 to deplete over time
Appendix 2-1: Troubleshooting guideline for common fluid contaminants and treatment
Cement, Lime Treat with soda ash if light contamination Ca+2 (mg/L) x 0.00093 = Na2CO3
(cont’d.) (lbm/bbl)
Since effects of pH are often more detrimental to fluid order, chemical treatment
should be:
1. Sodium bicarbonate
2. Lignite
3. SAPP
4. Soda ash
Sodium bicarbonate is treatment of choice
Salt NaCl / Na+, Formation, Cl- titration High yield point Dilution with fresher water
Cl- i.e., salt dome, High fluid loss Addition of thinner/fluid-loss chemicals reasonably tolerant of NaCl
stringers, High gels Convert salt fluid using chemicals designed for salt
salt water, Thick filter cake Presolubilize chemicals where possible
make-up water Cl- increase Dump if flocculation is too severe for economical recovery
Carbonate, CO3-2, Formation gas, Garrett Gas High yield point Treat with lime:
Bicarbonate HCO3- CO2 gas, thermal Train, pH/Pf High 10-min gels HCO3- (mg/L) x 0.00021 = Ca(OH)2 lbm/bbl and CO3-2 (mg/L) x 0.00043 = Ca(OH)2
degradation method, High HTHP fluid lbm/bbl
of organics Pf/Mf titration loss
contaminated Ca++ decrease Treat with gypsum:
barite, Mf increase CO3-2 (mg/L) x0.001 = CaSO4 · 2H2O lbm/bbl and caustic soda: HCO3- X 0.0025 =
overtreatment pH decrease NaOH lbm/bbl
with soda ash or
bicarbonate
Hydrogen H2S / H+, H2S from Garrett Gas High yield point Course of action to be in compliance with all safety requirements
Sulfide S-2 formation gas, Train High fluid loss Pretreatment/treatment with basic zinc carbonate
thermal (quantitative). Thick filter cake Increase pH ≥ 11.0 with Ca(OH)2 or NaOH
degradation of Automatic rig pH decrease Condition fluid to lower gels for minimum retention of H2S
organics, H2S monitor Pm decrease Operate degasser, possibly with flare
bacterial action (quantitative). Ca+2 increase Displace with oil-base fluid. Add excess Ca(OH)2 to precipitate S-2 and neutralize
Lead acetate acid
test.
Appendix 2-1: Troubleshooting guideline for common fluid contaminants and treatment (continued)
Onshore Impacts
Onshore environmental issues focus primarily on
toxicity, the usability of land, and the potential for
contamination of ground water. Onshore treatment
methods include bioremediation,
solidification/stabilization and thermal desorption.
Disposal methods for drill cuttings include reserve
pits/burial, landfill and drill cuttings injection. These
methods vary in acceptable cuttings characteristics,
treatment/disposal rate and cost. Refer to local
regulations, the Chevron EPS and ETC Drilling Waste
Management Handbook for further guidance.
The primary considerations involved in onshore drilling
fluid/cuttings treatment and disposal are the
concentrations of heavy metals, salts and hydrocarbons.
Most countries and states have regulations regarding
treatment and disposal of fluids and cuttings that place
limits on these concentrations.
Hazardous metals such as mercury, cadmium, chromium
and lead may be present in many of the formations
drilled and may also be found in some drilling fluid
additives such as chrome lignosulfonate. Heavy metals
do not biodegrade and can bioaccumulate in the food
chain that may lead to health problems. The most
commonly encountered heavy metal is barium (in the
form of barium sulphate) from barite weighting agent.
However, barium sulphate is highly insoluble in water
and has a low mobility in soils preventing ground water
leaching. Of more concern are heavy metals such as
cadmium and mercury associated with impurities in
some sources of barite. Most regions and operators now
Offshore Impacts
The effects of mud and cuttings discharges on the
offshore environment depend on the type and amount of
fluid on the cuttings, the cuttings settling rate and the
local conditions. The location and shape of the cuttings
pile depends on the speed and direction of the current
and the water depth. For example, environments with
high currents tend to erode piles and speed up seabed
recovery. Deep water also tends to increase dispersion
and limit the heights of piles.
WBM
Most WBM’s have low acute aquatic toxicity and any
heavy metals associated with the WBM’s are not
bioavailable. Rapid dispersion of the WBM at the point of
discharge means they tend to have a low impact on the
local environment.
NAF
Whole NAF should not be discharged to the ocean. In
some locations, NAF drill cuttings may be treated (e.g.
using cuttings dryers) to remove the excess fluid and
discharged to the ocean, particularly if the base fluid is
synthetic.
Impacts to the water column from discharging NAF
cuttings are considered to be negligible because the
cuttings settle quickly (i.e. exposure times in the water
column are low) and the water solubility of the base fluid
is low. Because of their rapid settling and non-aqueous
nature, NAF cuttings disperse less readily in the water
column than WBM cuttings and do not increase water
column turbidity. The NAF fluid and cuttings can affect
Spud Muds
Spud muds are used to initiate drilling operations. These
fluids have good hole cleaning characteristics and are
capable of being built quickly and cheaply. They are
often required to support unconsolidated formations.
Table 4-1 shows some typical spud fluid formulations.
Concentration
Fluid Type Product
(lb/bbl)
Maintenance
Build fresh volume as hole is drilled.
Add bentonite or alternative viscosifier, e.g. salt
water gel, as required for viscosity.
Use water to reduce viscosity. Due to their cost,
thinners are not normally used with spud fluids.
Small amounts of lime may be added, along with
salt water gel, to increase the yield of the clay in
sea and salt water muds.
Contaminants
Usually contaminants are not a problem, but to obtain
maximum yield of the bentonite, the hardness should be
reduced to less than 150 mg/L. Additionally, as chlorides
Product Concentration
Bentonite 8 – 14 lb/bbl
Bentonite Extender
0.5 – 0.1 lb/bbl
( e.g. BEN-EX™)
Property Value
Maintenance
This system is maintained in the following manner:
For maximum penetration rates, the fluid density
should be maintained at 8.8 lb/gal (≤3% solids).
Fluid density should not exceed 9.0 lb/gal (6%
solids by volume).
The typical amount of bentonite extender
required per foot of hole drilled to flocculate
drilled solids is as follows (always add the
appropriate amount of extender when adding
bentonite or barite to the system):
o 2 lb extender for every 500 lb bentonite
o 2 lb extender for every 4000 lb barite
Use available solids control equipment, or dilute
with water to control the drilled solids to
bentonite ratio at 2:1 or less.
Treat new volume (from water addition) with the
extender and chemicals daily.
With weighted fluids, as weight increases,
maintain lower bentonite concentration.
Contaminants
Low solids non-dispersed fluids are quite sensitive to
chemical contaminants such as Ca+2, Mg+2, Cl– and HCO3–.
In addition, improperly treated drilled solids, and even
bentonite and barite, can act as contaminants. The most
common problem relating to fluid viscosity is inadequate
treatment with an extender.
Specific chemical contaminant levels are as follows:
[Ca+2] maximum, 100 mg/L: treat with soda ash
or bicarbonate of soda
Low-
Problem Weight Viscosity MBT Density Calcium Treatment
Solids
Low-
Problem Weight Viscosity MBT Density Calcium Treatment
Solids
Low-
Problem Weight Viscosity MBT Density Calcium Treatment
Solids
Fresh Sea
NaCl KCl
Water Water
Electrolyte
NaOH/KOH * * * *
NaCl, % by wt ~ ~ Up to 20% ~
KCl, % by wt ~ ~ ~ Up to 15%
Viscosifier
Bentonite, lb/bbl 10-20 10-20** 10-20** 10-20**
XCD POLYMER™, lb/bbl ~ 0.1-0.5 0.1-1.0 0.1-1.0
Rheology (lb/bbl)
Sodium Polyacrylate (SPA) 0.25-2.0 0.25-2.0 0.25-2.0 0.25-2.0
DESCO™ 0.25-5.0 0.25-5.0 0.25-5.0 0.25-5.0
Shale-Control Additives
PHPA, lb/bbl 0.25-1.5 0.25-1.5 0.25-2.0 0.25-2.0
Secondary
Shale-Control Additives 2.0-8.0 2.0-8.0 2.0-8.0 2.0-8.0
SOLTEX™, lb/bbl
* To pH = 10.0
**Pre-hydrated in fresh water
***Pre-hydrated in pre-mix
Gel Strengths
It is common for 10 minute gels to reach 35 lb/100 ft2.
Drilling conditions and economics should determine the
need to reduce gel strengths. Report initial, 10 minute,
and 30 minute gels on all low pH/PHPA systems.
Filtrate pH
Fresh Water System
A filtrate pH of 8.0 to 9.0 is optimum for fresh water
systems. Caustic soda or caustic potash additions should
be made slowly to avoid a high pH. Carefully add caustic
materials to the system through the chemical barrel.
Fluid Loss
The filter cake quality of the PHPA system makes fluid
loss values of 10 to 20 mL/30 minutes sufficient in most
situations. To determine cake compressibility, fluid loss
values should be measured and reported at 100, 200, or
500 psi, and at 7½ and 30 minute intervals. This test will
have to be performed in a HTHP fluid loss cell.
Dispersant Additions
Dispersant (e.g. DESCO) may be used in PHPA systems
when excess solids cannot be mechanically removed or
diluted. Dispersants will deflocculate the reactive clays,
resulting in a reduction in funnel viscosity, yield point
and gel strengths. Excessive use should be avoided to
ensure effective hole cleaning and to prevent mechanical
erosion of the wellbore. Small amounts of lignosulfonate
can be used in place of DESCO, but care should be taken
to not let the pH rise above 10.0. It is best to pre-
solubilize the lignosulfonate to protect against
increasing the pH above the recommended range.
Mixing Procedures
Fresh Water System
Add the following to the fresh water system:
1. Caustic soda
2. Bentonite (pre-hydrated in fresh water)
3. PHPA
4. Fluid loss additives, deflocculants, and
supplemental shale control additives
5. Barite
6. Adjust yield point with xanthan polymer (e.g.
XCD POLYMER)
3. Lignite
4. PHPA
5. Starch
6. Supplemental shale control additives (e.g.
SOLTEX)
7. Adjust yield point with xanthan polymer (e.g.
XCD POLYMER)
8. Sodium or potassium chloride to adjust salinity
as needed
9. Barite
KCl/Polymer Fluids
The use of potassium (K+) as a base exchange ion to
stabilize shales is an accepted practice in many
geographic areas worldwide. Its use in the Gulf of Mexico
has been greatly restricted due to the toxic effect of
potassium on the test species, Mysidopsis bahia shrimp.
Potassium is widely used internationally, and comes
from many sources, including potassium chloride,
potassium carbonate, potassium acetate, and potassium
hydroxide.
Major Applications
Drilling soft gumbo (high water content reactive
clay structure with elevated cation exchange
capacity) formations to prevent bit balling, clay
swelling, clay hydration and tight hole problems
that are commonly associated with drilling
reactive formations.
Drilling hard shale, such as that found in the
foothills of Canada and West Texas where
Potassium Sources
KCl is most often used to supply the major source of
potassium. In most drilling applications, a 3% to 5%
concentration (10.7 to 18.1 lb/bbl) is sufficient to provide
inhibition of clay swelling and hydration, though there
are many areas of the world which require 7% to 10%
concentration.
A secondary source of potassium is potassium hydroxide
which is sometimes used as an alkalinity agent.
Generally, KOH is used in such low concentrations that
the K+ ion contribution is insignificant. The primary
benefit in using KOH instead of NaOH is that potassium
Viscosifiers
Materials used as viscosifiers in potassium-based
systems include:
Pre-hydrated bentonite
1. Fill pit with fresh water
2. Add 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl soda ash
3. Add 0.25 to 0.5 lb/bbl caustic soda
4. Add 30 to 35 lb/bbl bentonite
5. Add 4 to 6 lb/bbl lignosulfonate
6. Allow to hydrate 4 to 24 hours
7. Agitate if possible with shear pump
Xanthan gum (e.g. XCD POLYMER)
Guar gum (modified)
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC)
The combination of 5 to 10 lb/bbl pre-hydrated bentonite
plus 0.25 to 1.5 lb/bbl XCD POLYMER has been a
commonly used viscosifying treatment. In some cases,
because of shortages or economic constraints, guar gum
and HEC have been used as viscosifiers. Although these
products will increase viscosity, they do not increase
carrying capacity. Therefore they are considered
unsatisfactory substitutes and will require elevated
Amines
Glycols
Asphalts
Polymers
Table 4-7 indicates a typical KCl/polymer formulation.
Pre-hydrated Bentonite 5 - 10
Starch 2–8
Biocide 0.5
Barite As Needed
Limitations
There are many areas in the world where successful
potassium applications have been documented; however,
there are other areas, such as in the highly kaolinitic
shales of northern South America and West Africa,
where failures are also well documented.
The use of potassium for inhibition when drilling
kaolinitic shales is strongly discouraged due to the
destabilizing effect of the potassium ion on kaolinite.
Chloride Concentration
Classification
(Cl-), mg/L
Brackish <10,000
Constituent mg/L
Sodium 10,400
Potassium 375
Magnesium 1,270
Calcium 410
Chloride 18,970
Sulfate 2,720
Carbon dioxide 90
Maintenance
As drilling progresses, it is usually necessary to disperse
or deflocculate solids and lower fluid loss. The addition
of 3 to 6 lb/bbl of lignosulfonate, 1.5 to 3 lb/bbl of lignite,
0.25 to 1.0 lb/bbl of PAC and caustic soda are added as
required for a 1.0 to 1.5 Pf (pH 10.0 to 10.5). These
concentrations should provide good rheology and a fluid
loss value in the 4 to 8 mL range.
To aid filtration control and cake quality, bentonite
should be maintained (by methylene blue test) in the 15
to 25 lb/bbl range. Sea water fluids require substantially
greater additions of caustic soda for alkalinity control.
This is due in part to the loss of hydroxyl ion by reaction
with magnesium. PAC Regular, PAC LV, lignosulfonate
and lignite are normally used for filtration control.
Characteristics
A saturated or near-saturated NaCl (or KCl)
brine base is normally utilized.
Good mixing conditions (high shear) or
circulating times are required to develop good
suspension properties.
Exhibits high gel strengths and yield point.
Starch begins to degrade at temperatures above
225°F (107°C). PAC Regular PAC LV may be used
as a supplemental filtration control agent in
these higher temperature applications.
NaCl 110
Pre-hydrated bentonite 10 - 15
PAC 0.5 - 2.0
PAC LV 0.5 - 2.0
Starch 1.5 - 3.0
PHPA 0.25 - 4.0
Defoamer As required for foam
Lignosulfonate 2.0 - 6.0
Caustic soda pH = 7.0-8.0
Pre-hydrated lignite 2.0 - 8.0
Maintenance
Add sacked salt to maintain saturation
Utilize pre-hydrated bentonite for viscosity/
filtration control. Pre-hydrated bentonite
procedure:
1. Fill pit with fresh water
2. Add 0.5 to 1.0 lb/bbl soda ash
3. Add 0.25 to 0.5 lb/bbl caustic soda
4. Add 30 to 35 lb/bbl bentonite
5. Add 4 to 6 lb/bbl lignosulfonate
6. Allow to hydrate 4 to 24 hours
7. Agitate if possible with shear pump
PAC and/or starch for filtration control
Lignite/Lignosulfonate
Freshwater lignite/lignosulfonate fluids are commonly
employed for drilling in areas where formations contain
high concentrations of bentonite that are easily
dispersed, causing elevated viscosities and rheological
properties. They provide rheological control and afford a
degree of inhibition to drilled solids. These systems are
relatively inexpensive and not difficult to maintain. Table
4-12 represents a typical freshwater/sea water
lignosulfonate fluid formulation. The typical properties
are shown in Table 4-13.
Limitations
Lignite/lignosulfonate fluids do not provide good shale
stability and exhibit poor contaminant tolerance. A high
Applications
Lignite/lignosulfonate fluids are used to drill a variety of
formations. They can be weighted up to 18 to 19 lb/gal,
provided low gravity solids are in a minimal range. As
mud weight is increased, the bentonite concentration
should be decreased.
The pH range for proper control of these systems is 9.5
to 10.5 and the calcium ion (Ca+2) concentration should
be maintained below 300 mg/L. Salinity below 10,000
mg/L is tolerated well, but salinity above 25,000 mg/L
may require dilution with fresh water for optimal system
control.
These systems are stable to temperatures of ~350°F.
Generally, chrome lignosulfonates and chrome modified
lignites tolerate higher temperatures. A typical
lignite/lignosulfonate formulation system and resulting
properties are outlined in Table 4-12 and Table 4-13,
respectively.
Bentonite 12 - 20
Lignosulfonate 2-8
Caustic soda (for pH of 9.5 - 10.5)
Lignite As needed
High Temperature Polymer Thinner As needed
High Temperature Fluid Loss As needed
Table 4-12: Fresh water/sea water lignite/lignosulfonate fluid
formulation
Gel
Yield API
Plastic Strengths,
Density, Point, Filtrate,
Viscosity, lb/100 ft 2
lb/gal lb/100 mL/30
cp 10sec
ft2 min
10 min
9 8-12 6-10 2-4 4-10 8-12
12 15-20 10-14 2-4 4-10 4-8
Maintenance
Add lignosulfonate daily or per tour to control
yield point and gel strengths. Treatment ranges
between 0.5 and 1.0 lb/bbl will be sufficient for
average penetration rates if a good solids
removal program is utilized. Discontinue
lignosulfonate additions as the temperature
approaches 350 F.
Bentonite should be added as necessary to
maintain desired filtration rates and give the
necessary suspension properties. Bentonite
should be pre-hydrated, if possible, prior to
adding to the active system. Water additions are
required to maintain the plastic viscosity in the
desired range. Depending on the fluid density,
both lignosulfonate and water are usually
required.
Drilled solids may cause excessive problems with
fluid rheology and should be kept as low as
possible with mechanical control devices and
water. Decrease the low gravity solids
concentration of the fluid as the density is
increased.
Advantages Disadvantages
Shale stability and inhibition High initial cost per barrel
High penetration rate Reduced kick detection/gas
Temperature stability solubility issues
Lubricity Fluid compressibility
Resistance to chemical Pollution control/environmental
contamination issues/disposal problems
Gauge hole in evaporative Rig cleanliness
formations (salt) Hazardous vapors/special skin care
Solids tolerance for personnel required
Reduced tendency for Effect on rubber parts
stuck pipe Fire hazard
Reduced fluid density drilling Special logging tools required
Reduced cement cost
Flexibility
Reduced stress fatigue
Corrosion control
Reuse
Hydrate prevention
Base Fluids
Base fluids (the continuous phase) are hydrocarbon oils
and are typically the largest component by volume of an
invert emulsion system. The continuous oil phase is the
phase into which everything else is mixed. Base fluids
are nonpolar, low-surface-energy/tension liquids that
interact with mineral solids. This characteristic is the
basis for the use of NAF’s as non-reactive, inert drilling
fluids. Hydrocarbon base fluids will not solvate or swell
clays, which makes them ideal for drilling hydratable
shale.
Diesel Oil
Historically, the most widely used and least expensive
base fluid has been diesel, but due to environmental
concerns its use has diminished in recent years. Diesel
contains aromatics, sulfur and nitrogen compounds
which have enough toxicity to adversely affect many
Mineral Oil
Mineral oils are petroleum-derived hydrotreated refinery
streams that contain lower concentrations of aromatics,
sulfur and nitrogen compounds than diesel. The most
highly treated mineral oils are called enhanced mineral
oils (EMO’s) and they are very low in troublesome
compounds. Mineral oils are composed primarily of a
complex mixture of straight-chain paraffins, branched
paraffins and cycloparaffins. Good mineral oils have low
toxicity and good drilling performance, but they all tend
to be fairly slow to biodegrade due to the branched and
cyclic materials.
Synthetics
Synthetics are produced by the reaction of specific
purified chemicals, as opposed to mineral oils and diesel,
which are produced by purification of petroleum through
distillation. Drilling fluids made with synthetic oils
perform comparably to, and in some cases may exceed
the performance of mineral oil and diesel oil systems.
Although the purchase costs of synthetic base fluids
(SBF) exceed those for diesel and mineral oils, the cost
disadvantage is overcome if drill cuttings from wells
drilled with SBF can be discharged onsite, thus saving
transportation and disposal costs.
Due to their purified molecular structure, synthetic fluids
can resolve many environmental problems associated
with diesel and mineral oils. Trends show that synthetic
base drilling fluids are usually much less toxic and more
biodegradable under aerobic (with air) and anaerobic
(without air) conditions, and produce fewer hazards in
handling than diesel and mineral oil base fluids. However,
how less toxic and biodegradable depends on the
structure and composition of the SBF.
The various synthetic base drilling fluids currently used
in the field are classified according to the chemical
composition of their base fluids and routinely identified
by the generic chemical name. These various types of
synthetic base fluids have a wide range of chemical
properties and drilling performance. Examples of
commercial synthetic base fluids and their key
properties are shown in Table 5-2. The four types of
synthetic base fluids most widely used today are esters,
linear alpha olefins, internal olefins, and linear paraffins.
TM
PETROFREE LV Ester Cognis 0.86 297 3.2
TM
FINAGREEN Ester Fina 0.85 -30 300 5
Ineos
AMODRILL 1000TM Internal Olefin 0.79 -24 279 3.09
Oligomers
TM
BIOBASE 130 Internal Olefin Shrieve 0.79 -15 250 2.9
SARALINE 185VTM Linear Paraffin Shell MDS 0.78 -27 192 2.6
TM
MOSSPAR H Linear Paraffin PetroSA 0.79 205 2.8
SARAPAR 103TM Linear Paraffin Shell MDS 0.73 -18 167 1.6
Esters
Fatty acid esters used in drilling muds are derived from
fatty acids and alcohols and are commonly known as
esters. In one manufacturer’s product, the fatty acid
component of the ester-based material used for NAF’s is
derived from vegetable oils. The key to the performance
characteristics is the proper selection of the
hydrocarbon chain length on either side of the ester
functional group. These side groups are selected to
minimize fluid viscosity, maximize hydrolytic stability,
and minimize toxicity.
Internal Olefins
IO’s are synthesized by isomerizing LAO’s (isomerization
changes a molecule’s structure but not its atomic
composition). IO molecular structures are less uniform
than those of LAO’s. This lack of uniformity results in
lower pour points than LAO’s having the same number of
carbon atoms. The inherently lower pour points of the IO
molecular structure allows for the use of higher
molecular weight molecules, which results in lower acute
toxicities, lower bioaccumulation potential and lower
volatility than LAO’s. The internal double bond of the IO
gives rise to additional structural isomers (cis and trans),
which do not allow the molecules of the IO to pack
together as uniformly on cooling; therefore, the pour
point of the IO is lower than that of the LAO.
Linear Paraffins
Linear paraffins are similar in structure to olefins with
two exceptions; they lack the double bond that is
characteristic of the olefin, and their carbon chain length
distribution is broader than the distribution of olefins.
Linear paraffins can be manufactured by either a purely
synthetic route or by a multi-step refinery process that
includes hydrocracking and the use of a molecular sieve.
The latter linear paraffins are classified as mineral oils
according to the generally-accepted EPA definition.
Synthetic linear paraffins are made from methane gas in
Internal Phase
The most commonly used internal phase in NAF drilling
muds is brine water. Calcium chloride is the most
predominantly used salt although sodium chloride, sea
water and other brines are occasionally used. The
concentration of salt is selected to minimize reactivity
with drilled formations. Recently, other components such
Viscosifiers
Organophilic Clays
Organophilic clays are excellent gelling agents in oil and
excellent at suspending weighting materials. They are
relatively inexpensive but have only moderately good
thermal stability. While organophilic bentonite is the
most common, hectorite, attapulgite and sepiolite are
also used. Bentonite and hectorite are platelet clays that
will increase viscosity, yield point and build a thin filter
cake to aid in reducing the fluid loss. In contrast,
sepiolite and attapulgite are rod-like clays that increase
the gel structure of the fluid but will have very little
effect on the viscosity or fluid loss characteristics of the
fluid.
When choosing the appropriate organophilic clay, a
decision must be made as to whether temperature
stability or clay efficiency (maximum viscosity under low
shear mixing conditions) is the most important criteria.
When drilling in a high temperature environment, clay
that exhibits a high tolerance to thermal degradation is
required. When mixing a new fluid at a liquid mud plant,
a more efficient clay may be desirable. As clay efficiency
increases, the concentration required to achieve the
desired properties is reduced.
Polymers
A number of polymers are available for use in NAF’s.
These polymers increase fluid carrying capacity and
Emulsifiers
To formulate stable water in oil mixtures, the use of
surfactants is required. Surfactants lower surface
tension and emulsify the internal water phase and “oil
wet” solids. The most common example of a surfactant is
soap. Surfactants orient at the oil/water interfaces,
lowering surface tension. Surfactants also form a barrier
around the emulsified dispersed droplet (Figure 5-1) and
in essence, mechanically stabilize the interface,
preventing droplets from coalescing or breaking.
EMULSIFIED WATER
DROPLET IN OIL
SURFACTANT
HYDROPHILIC
HEAD ORGANOPHILIC
TAIL
Primary Emulsifiers
Primary emulsifiers are identified by the following
characteristics:
Generally very powerful, fatty acid based
Requires lime to activate and build a stable
emulsion
Builds tight emulsion
Very tolerant to high temperature and
contaminants
Emulsified water is colloidal in size
Overtreatment may increase kinematic viscosity
of base fluid
Relatively inexpensive compared to other
emulsifiers
When using primary emulsifiers, there are several
considerations that must be taken into account. It is
important to know the activity of the product and the
carrier fluid/solvent should be environmentally
acceptable for the area in which it is being used. The
product activity is the amount on a percentage basis of
active available product or it can also be viewed as the
amount the product has been “watered down”. Typically,
Secondary Emulsifiers
Secondary emulsifiers are identified by the following
characteristics:
Typically not fatty acid based, e.g. imidazoline,
amides
Does not require lime to activate
Provides a “relaxed” filtrate, e.g. HTHP filtrate
values of 12-15 mL/30 minutes
Overtreatment usually does not increase
kinematic viscosity of base fluid
Relatively expensive compared to primary
emulsifiers
Caution should be exercised when selecting an emulsifier
for a particular application. In general the following
guidelines should be used:
When possible, use only a “classic” secondary
emulsifier. These emulsifiers contain very little
or no fatty acid that require lime for activation.
Primary emulsifiers that require lime build very
tight emulsions (i.e. high ES readings), reduce
the HTHP fluid loss, and increase the kinematic
viscosity of the base fluid. Any one of these
effects or a combination of them could be
detrimental to penetration rates.
Use the secondary emulsifier until bottom-hole
temperatures dictate the addition of a primary
emulsifier. When this occurs, use the primary
emulsifier as a supplement to the secondary.
Do not over treat with the secondary emulsifier.
Asphalt
Powdered, air-blown asphalt is used as a primary fluid
loss additive for drilling at elevated temperatures. The
asphalt particles swell and deform, effectively plugging
pores in the filter cake. Caution should be exercised
when using asphalt, as excessive solubility of the
material will lead to extremely viscous fluids at low
temperatures. Treatments can range up to 15 lb/bbl
(42.8 kg/m3).
Gilsonite
Gilsonite is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon solid.
Being naturally oil-wet, it easily disperses into NAF’s.
Gilsonite exhibits different softening points when heated.
When heated, the particles soften and deform, plugging
pores in the filter cake. High softening point gilsonite
provides HTHP filtrate control up to the 400 oF (204 oC)
range. Caution should be exercised when using gilsonite,
as it behaves like a fine solid in the fluid and can lead to
extremely viscous fluids at low temperatures.
Treatments will range up to 15 lb/bbl (43.1 kg/m3).
Polymers
Oil insoluble polymers are used for extreme high
temperature filtration control. The most common is a
methylstyrene/acrylate copolymer, commonly referred
to as PLIOLITE™. Other products will use maleic anhydride
and rosin blends and others will use blends of styrene
butadiene.
Weighting Agents
There are several methods of increasing the density of
NAF’s. Usually, barite (barium sulfate) is used to increase
the density of drilling fluids. Other weighting agents are
hematite (iron oxide), manganese tetraoxide (e.g.
Gas Solubility
Detection of gas kicks while drilling with a NAF is more
difficult because of the solubility of gas in the base fluid.
The degree of solubility is dependent on:
Composition of the formation gas
Composition of the base fluid used
Pressure
Temperature
Even a low volume influx that goes undetected will
rapidly expand when it reaches the surface and cause
unloading of fluid from the hole. This reduces bottom-
hole pressure, allowing additional gas to enter the
wellbore, and potentially resulting in an uncontrollable
situation (blowout). The key to well control in NAF is
quick detection and handling of the influx. The problem
lies in that the normal surface responses to gas kicks are
dampened because of the solubility of the gas in the
base fluid. The rig crews must be aware of the
differences in responses to gas kicks in NAF’s and be
prepared to detect small changes in pit levels, flow rates,
and flow checks.
Displacement Procedures
Displacement can occur either in cased or open hole, but
cased hole displacements are preferred. Before
displacement, all pits and lines should be as clean as
possible. The trap doors on the pits can be packed with
barite to help prevent leaking.
The water base fluid to be displaced must be thinned to
reduce yield point and gel strengths. This reduction
helps achieve a good displacement and prevent
contamination of the NAF.
A water spacer of sufficient volume to occupy 500 to
1000 feet of annular space should be used to chase the
water base fluid up the hole.
Logging
The use of a NAF drilling fluid can impact and complicate
logging operations. The first impact is that invasion of
NAF into the formation will distort resistivity log
interpretation, especially in oil reservoir zones. This
makes good quality filter cake even more important and
efforts should be made to minimize the amount of time
that the formation is exposed to the NAF fluid. The
continuous NAF phase also affects logging as the fluid
has different fundamental properties than water; the
biggest differences being an extremely high resistivity
and different sonic impedance.
NAF’s do not conduct electricity like water base muds,
and as a result, spontaneous potential (SP) logs do not
work. Laterolog logs (such as FMI) will only work where
tools have direct contact with the formation, which in
practice means where the pads touch the wellbore,
leading to less borehole coverage. Typically, induction
logs are used in a NAF, and care must be taken when
comparing these measurements to those from other
Troubleshooting
Table 5-3 contains a guide for troubleshooting NAF’s,
including typical indicators of problems encountered and
suggested treatments.
1. Maximize shear.
1. Inadequate shear 2. Lengthen mixing time.
2. Cold temperatures 3. Add barite. Add
Poor emulsion (low 3. Poor wetting of barite emulsifier. If severe,
ES) stability. 4. Too high electrolyte add small amounts of
Barite settling. content. Usually wetting agent.
Mixing fluid 4. Dilute back with fresh
greater than 350,000
at the Dull grainy water. After emulsion
ppm
mixing appearance of fluid. is formed, can add
5. Surfactant
plant more CaCl2 to obtain
Fluid very thin with contamination
inadequate yield or possible if CaCl2 brine desired activity.
gel strength. has been previously 5. Pilot test with known
used as a completion CaCl2 brine to
or workover fluid determine if problem
does exist.
Agglomeration of
barite on sand-
content test. 1. Inadequate 1. Add emulsifier.
Sticky cuttings. emulsification.
2. Add emulsifier and
Blinding of shaker 2. Water or water base lime, if needed. If
Water fluid contamination. severe, add wetting
screens.
wetting of agent.
solids Barite settling. 3. Supersaturated CaCl2
3. Dilute with fresh H2O
Dull, grainy as evidenced by free
and add emulsifier.
appearance of fluid. salt crystals in the
mud.
Low elec. stab. (ES).
Free H2O in filtrate.
Solubility
It is well known that things like sugar and salt dissolve in
water, but what exactly happens as the material
disappears? Salt is made up of sodium (Na+) and chloride
(Cl-) ions held together by ionic bonds. When sodium
chloride dissolves, these ionic bonds are broken. As the
sodium and chloride ions move between the water
molecules, the hydrogen bonds holding the water
molecules together are also broken. Because water
molecules are polar, by definition they have a positive
end and a negative end. In this example (depicted in
Figure 6-1), the negatively charged ends of water
molecules are strongly attracted to the positively
charged Na+ atoms and they cluster on all sides until the
Na+ is solvated and floating free in solution. Likewise, the
same reaction occurs as the partially positively charged
hydrogen ends of the water molecules associate with the
negatively charged chloride ions.
Saturation/Free Water
Materials such as methanol are miscible with water in all
proportions, but most drilling fluid related chemicals
reach a saturation point, or maximum solubility limit.
When a chemical reaches its saturation point, the soluble
solid stops dissolving in the solution and remains as a
precipitate. For example, at room temperature sodium
chloride (NaCl) will dissolve in water up to a little over 26
wt%, whereas potassium chloride (KCl) will only reach a
little over 24 wt%. Solutions of calcium chloride (CaCl2)
become saturated at just over 40 wt%. The most soluble
of the salts are the formates, with potassium formate
Effect of Temperature
Normally, as the temperature of water increases,
additional amounts of a given material can be dissolved.
For example, a saturated salt drilling fluid can dissolve
additional formation salt at elevated downhole
temperatures, which then comes back out of solution on
shaker screens or in the pits when the mud cools down.
There is one exception to this trend. Some non-ionic
surfactants exhibit a “cloud point” or upper temperature
solubility limit. An example of this would be glycol, which
is sometimes used as a shale inhibitor.
Effect of Salt
Everything hydrates more poorly in solutions containing
salt. This is favorable when the goal is to limit cuttings
dispersion and hole washout when drilling clay-rich
shales. The downside is the difficulty in getting full yield
out of mud chemicals when they are added to a salty
water base fluid. When building new mud, it is preferable
to hydrate all of the clays and polymers in fresh water,
prior to adding any salts.
Common Salts
NaCl Sodium chloride
KCl Potassium chloride
CaCl2 Calcium chloride
BaSO4 Barium sulfate, barite
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate, limestone, marble, calcite
Fe2O3 Iron oxide, hematite
FeO.TiO2 Iron titanium oxide, ilmenite
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide, lime,
NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate, bicarb
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate, soda ash
Na2H2P2O7 Sodium acid pyrophosphate, SAPP
NaOH Sodium hydroxide, caustic, caustic soda
KOH Potassium hydroxide, caustic potash
Ca2SO4 Calcium sulfate, anhydrite, gyp/gypsum (water in crystal)
NaBr Sodium bromide
CaBr2 Calcium bromide
ZnBr2 Zinc bromide
HCOOK Potassium formate, potassium salt of formic acid
HCOONa Sodium formate, sodium salt of formic acid
HCOOCs Cesium formate, cesium salt of formic acid
pH
pH is a mathematical function which expresses how
acidic or alkaline a solution is on a simple 0 to 14 scale
(Figure 6-2).
Polymers
Polymers are long chain molecules formed by chemically
joining one or more small monomers together over and
over (see Figure 6-5). Besides straight chains, polymers
can be branched and/or crosslinked, which modifies their
properties.
Starch 225
CMC 275
PAC 275
Lignosulfonate 325-350
Polyacrylates 400
Surfactants
Surfactants are used for a very wide range of
applications in drilling fluids, including reducing bit-
balling, emulsifying brine into a NAF, shale inhibition,
casing cleaning spacers before cementing, and oil-
wetting solids in a NAF. This section will cover a few
illustrations.
Surfactants are molecules that have two distinct parts; a
water soluble “head” and an oil soluble “tail” (see Figure
6-6).
Oil
soluble Water
“tail” soluble
“head”
Figure 6-6 : Simple surfactant molecule diagram
Solvency
One of the main roles of surfactants is solvency, or
cleaning oily material off of surfaces. For example, how
does a surfactant spacer clean NAF off of a casing string
so cement can form a good bond? Since surfactants
have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and lipophilic (oil-
loving) portions they tend to migrate to interfaces like
an oil-water interface where each half of the molecule
can be in its preferred environment. In this case, the
surfactants in the water base spacer readily partition
their lipophilic tails into the oil on the casing, leaving
their water soluble heads in the water phase. When a
great many surfactant molecules gather in the oil
droplet the large number of water-soluble “heads”
sticking out of the droplet makes it water-dispersible
(see Figure 6-7) so it can be floated off of the steel and
carried away by the rest of the spacer.
Water
Water
Water
Water
Emulsifiers
Forming emulsions is another important function of
surfactants. The most familiar application is emulsifying
calcium chloride brine into a non-aqueous drilling fluid to
help with fluid loss control, rheology and shale control.
The emulsifying surfactants form a very tight skin on the
tiny brine droplets (5 to 10 microns) and keep them
stabilized and dispersed in the continuous oil phase.
Thinning
Thinners are usually short-chain polymers which have
numerous negatively charged groups that are attracted
to the charges on clay edges. However, surfactants also
frequently carry negative charges (or at least partially
negative charges for non-ionic surfactants) and can
substantially thin dirty, non-dispersed muds. Even
moderately surface active materials like sulfonated
asphalts can cause unexpected thinning. As always it is
recommended to pilot test major additions to a drilling
fluid system.
Osmosis
Osmosis relates to the movement of water through a
semi-permeable membrane. In this application a
membrane is called semi-permeable if its openings are
so small that only water molecules can move through it
and not larger materials like salt ions, alcohols,
polymers, etc. If two bodies of water with different
salinities are separated by a semi-permeable membrane
Oxidation
Familiar forms of oxidation include iron rusting and
things like a freshly cut apple or potato turning brown. In
a drilling fluid, dissolved or entrained oxygen reacts with
organic additives like polymers, lignite or surfactants,
changing their properties. In extreme cases like high
temperature high pressure (HTHP) wells some of the
oxidation will be carried all the way to the production of
CO2. CO2 dissolved in a drilling fluid will lower its pH
potentially leading to problems with viscosity if the CO2
is not treated out with lime or some other source of
calcium. In addition to the effects on pH, signs of
oxidation could include a drop in polymer viscosity and
difficulty controlling fluid loss.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis means “to cleave with water”, and it is a
common chemical degradation pathway in water base
drilling fluids. A simple example is shown in Figure 6-8.
The molecule is cut into two parts with part of the water
molecule (OH) going with one half and the remaining
hydrogen going with the other half.
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H H OH H O H H H O H H H OH
H Heat,
OH H
High pH +
O O OH H O OH H OH H
H2 O OH HO
H OH H OH H OH H OH
C C
O C O C
heat, high pH
C17 - C - O - C - C – C4 C17 - C - O-1 + H - O - C - C - C4
Typical Ester Base Fluid Fatty 2-Ethylhexyl Alcohol
Acid
Annular Velocity
The term annular velocity refers to the mean velocity
bulk flow, that is, the average speed of the drilling fluid
in the space between the drillstring and wellbore wall. In
general, changing annular velocity has the single
strongest effect on hole cleaning. Without circulation
towards the surface, it is not possible to remove drill
cuttings. If annular velocity is lower than the slip velocity
of particles, they will not be transported out of the hole.
In deviated and horizontal environments, the flow
transports cuttings and erodes cuttings beds. Thus, in
most wells, the first response to poor hole cleaning may
be to increase the pump rate, assuming that the
resulting standpipe pressures and ECD are acceptable.
Although annular velocity refers to the average fluid
velocity, it should be noted that this is not the velocity of
all of the fluid in the annular cross-section. Figure 7-2
shows laminar velocity profiles between the drillstring
and the wellbore wall (in this case representing 5-inch
drillpipe in a large riser). Three fluids are shown; all have
the same average velocity, but different rheological
properties. It can be seen that there may be areas
toward the edges where the local fluid velocity is less
than a given slip velocity. In these cases, the particles
will fall back until they are agitated into the center of the
flow where they can be transported upwards. This is the
reason that optimizing rheological properties for hole
cleaning is an important aspect of hole cleaning, as will
be discussed later.
In a deviated or horizontal well, the velocity profile will
tend to be different due to pipe eccentricity. This results
in larger areas of lower flow rates, which can lead to
more cuttings dropping out of the flow and laying on the
Pipe Rotation
Rotation of the drillstring induces the fluid surrounding it
to revolve in the same direction. At the edge of the pipe,
the speed will be the same as the drillstring, and at the
wellbore wall, it will be zero. This rotational velocity
profile can be seen in Figure 7-3. It should be noted that
this example assumes a centered pipe. If the pipe is
eccentric, the profile will vary according to the angle
relative to the direction of the pipe.
Rate of Penetration
The concentration of cuttings in the fluid, assuming no
settling out, is a direct function of particle slip velocity,
ROP, flow rate, and hole geometry.
Mud Density
The density of the drilling fluid has a direct effect on the
slip velocity of particles due to buoyancy forces. As a
result, with high mud weights, lower flow rates are
required to achieve good hole cleaning. It should be
noted that this applies primarily to vertical holes. Unless
the mud weight approaches the cuttings density,
cuttings beds will still form in inclined wells and pipe
rotation is required to ensure transport of cuttings out
of the well.
Figure 7-4: Velocity profiles for 3 Power Law fluids at the same
flow rate and pressure drop
Hole Geometry
For a given flow rate, the larger the annular space
between the drillstring and the wellbore wall, the lower
the average velocity. This fact dictates the need for
higher flow rates to ensure good hole cleaning in larger
hole sections. It also should be remembered that the
Cuttings Properties
The size, shape, and density of a cutting or any solid
particle in the annulus affect the force required to move
it. This can cause problems when entering a new
formation or using a new bit type, as the change in
cuttings can result in hole cleaning problems despite
maintaining drilling parameters which were previously
adequate.
Cuttings dimension is normally measured as the
“effective diameter” and cuttings can range from a very
fine, coffee grounds size, to a significant fraction of the
bit size in fast underbalanced drilling. Cuttings are often
assumed to be spherical in order to simplify modeling
their behavior, but in practice cuttings are usually
irregular. Generally, the less spherical the cutting, the
slower it will settle. The common “diameters” that are
used in hole cleaning simulations are between 1/4-inch
and 1/2-inch, although engineers are encouraged to look
Best Practices
There is no magic formula for hole cleaning that covers
all situations. Because circulation is never continuous
through an entire section, the time dependent nature of
cuttings transport ensures that every well is different.
Good hole cleaning requires proper planning and
preparation, but must also include continuous
monitoring to ensure success. The simplest way is to
watch the volume and rate of cuttings coming over the
shakers. Changes in this trend can indicate a failure to
clean the hole. If the volumes are different than a similar
offset well, then perhaps cuttings are not being
transported adequately. Downhole pressure while drilling
(PWD) tools can help monitor hole cleaning in vertical
sections, as the suspended particles will increase the
bottom-hole pressure. A continuous increase in the
pressure may indicate that the cuttings concentration is
increasing. Surface torque and hook load can be used to
Drillstring Rotation
It is well understood that pipe rotation in deviated and
horizontal wellbores, especially with sizes less than 17 1/2
inches is greatly beneficial. The question is: What is the
optimal pipe rotation speed? A general industry rule-of-
thumb suggests at least 120 RPM in larger hole sizes.
Some have pushed for more aggressive speeds of up to
200 RPM. As with many aspects of drilling, the optimum
RPM is usually only found through experience. Higher
rotation speeds do help, but can lead to downhole
shocks, tool failure, and NPT. Low pipe rotation may lead
to poor hole cleaning, pack-offs, and time lost to wiper
trips. Proactive monitoring of downhole shocks,
adjustment to drilling parameters like weight-on-bit
(WOB) and RPM, and attention to the cuttings volume
and type coming over the shakers provide the best way
to optimize drillstring rotation.
Flow Rates
While it is relatively straight forward to calculate the
required flow rate to clean a vertical hole, horizontal
wells are more problematic. A number of industry
computer programs and models exist, but as a starting
point, the some broad industry rules-of-thumb for
extended reach wells are shown in Table 7-2.
Rheological
Tends to increase pressures.
Properties (PV,YP)
Colloidal <2 no no no no no no
Shale Shaker
The shale shaker can be regarded as the “first line of
defense” in the solids removal system. It uses a simple,
reliable method of removing large amounts of coarse
drilled solids from the circulating system. When
operational and correctly maintained, a shale shaker can
provide consistent removal of solids from the fluid
system.
An adequate number of shale shakers should be installed
to process the entire circulating rate, with the goal of
removing as many drilled solids as is economically
feasible. Since the shale shaker is regarded as the most
important piece of solids control equipment, the most
efficient shale shakers and screens should be selected,
especially when the goal is to achieve optimum economic
performance of the solids control system. Figure 8-2
depicts flow rate capacity versus mud weight ranges of
10 to 18 lb/gal for various API screen mesh sizes of a
Figure 8-2: Flow rate capacity versus mud weight for various API
screen numbers
Hydrocyclones
Technology improvements with shaker screens and
centrifuges have somewhat lessened the need for
hydrocyclones at the rigsite. However, there are still
areas where hydrocyclones are very important.
Hydrocyclones convert fluid pressure into velocity and
centrifugal forces, allowing up to 300 g-forces internally.
Centrifuges
An oilfield decanting centrifuge is a separation device
which utilizes g-force to enhance the settling of particles
from liquid and is capable of removing all solids larger
than 10µm, based on the settling principle of Stokes Law.
Unlike a shale shaker, centrifuge separation is based
primarily on density, not particle size. However, the
centrifuge, like all other pieces of solids control
equipment, is limited to a certain feed rate as well as the
percent of solids discharge allowed in the effluent before
plugging begins. Therefore, placing equipment upstream
of the centrifuge to remove larger solids will allow the
centrifuge to remove a larger percentage of smaller
solids closer to the 10µm range.
A centrifuge (Figure 8-8) separates solids from liquid fed
into a bowl; rotating at a high speed by imparting high
centrifugal forces (1,000 g-forces minimum
recommended) on the solids laden mud system.
Bearing failure
Discharge plugging/bypassing
Wear of wetted parts (feed tube, solid discharge
inserts, flight strips)
Excess vibration
Scroll flight wear
Bowl/scroll fusion (pack-off)
Rolling plug
Wear of wetted parts
Through routine maintenance and running within
manufacturer specified guidelines, the above listed
issues can be mitigated. The centrifuge operates with
less mechanical error when shutdown and startup are
limited (reducing on/off times), such as with 6 to 8 hours
of daily run time versus on/off per hour. The bearings
should be lubricated according to manufacturer
specifications to eliminate overheating that could lead to
bearing failure (do not over lubricate), as well as be
protected from vibration or movement when in transport
(mainly with land applications).
Other potential problems can occur with incorrect feed
rates, excess solids and incorrect differential speed.
These issues can lead to numerous problems, ultimately
leading to centrifuge failure. Check with the
manufacturer to ensure proper maintenance and
operational guidelines and specifications.
Palletized Material
Most drilling fluid products are transported to the
wellsite on stacked and shrink wrapped pallets. This type
of method for material handling is the most common for
small or moderate quantities. However, there are several
HES concerns associated with palletized material,
including:
Manual handling – Materials are supplied in sacks
of various weights and sizes, typically depending
Drummed Materials
When a drilling rig does not have bulk liquid handling
facilities, it is common for the fluid additives to be
supplied in drums. Drums will come in various sizes,
depending on the type of material being transported.
Drum composition is usually steel, but molded plastic is
sometimes used, especially if the material is corrosive.
The disadvantages of drum use outweigh the
advantages.
Disadvantages include:
Manual handling – Drums should not be manually
handled. Special handling precautions are
Bulk Bags
Some rigs have active fluid systems of 15,000 to 25,000
barrels, which require a large amount of chemical
additions on a daily basis. Fluid systems of this size
cannot be maintained through conventional methods,
such as utilization of 50 and 100 lb sacks. Therefore, bulk
bag systems are beneficial when the use of large
quantities of a material, in a relatively short period of
time, is anticipated. Materials such as salt for completion
fluids, bentonite when drilling surface hole, and barite
for major weight-ups are a few examples of when bulk
bags would be warranted. Bulk bags, depending upon the
bulk density of the material, can hold anywhere from
1400 lbs (lime) to 4000 lbs (barite) of product.
Common to all bulk bag systems is a support structure
that will hold a fully loaded bulk bag and a hopper
system to deliver material (Figure 9-4). Some systems
made for disposable bags have a spear to puncture the
Lost Circulation
Lost circulation, or lost returns, is the partial or total loss
of circulating fluid from the wellbore to the formation. It
is the loss of whole fluid, not simply filtrate, to the
formation. Losses can result from either natural or
induced causes and can range from a few barrels per
hour to hundreds of barrels within minutes. Lost
circulation is one of drilling’s biggest expenses in terms
of rig time and safety. Uncontrolled lost circulation can
result in a dangerous pressure control situation and loss
of the well. Additionally, losses into a reservoir formation
Natural Losses
Natural losses can occur within three formation types:
Losses into high matrix permeability formations
(gravels and coarse sands)
Formations with conductive natural fractures or
faults
Vugular or cavernous formations
Matrix Permeability
High permeability formations are encountered as a
matter of course in drilling. Formations with matrix
permeability which result in lost circulation include
mainly shallow coarse sands, gravels and micro-
fractured carbonates.
Natural Fractures
Naturally occurring fractures and faults can be found in
any type of formation. They are commonly found in
tectonically disturbed areas surrounding salt domes and
along mountain fronts. In such areas, it is generally
accepted that lost circulation is a matter of fact and
preparations to handle such problems are made a
standard part of drilling plans. Natural fractures can be
widened by excessive hydraulic pressure. They then
behave as induced fractures.
Vugular/Cavernous Formations
Vugular or cavernous structures form as portions of the
formation and are dissolved or decomposed over
geologic time. The voids generally form in dolomite or
limestone formations and can range in size from small
“worm-hole” networks to extremely large caverns.
Poorly compacted, buried reefs may also contain large
conductive voids. Lost circulation which occurs in a
cavernous formation can be the most difficult type to
overcome. The size of the voids and the total volume can
make it difficult to bridge the opening or fill the voids
with any lost circulation material pill or cement plug. In
addition, these voids often exist filled with water or
hydrocarbons which can interfere with certain remedial
techniques.
Induced Losses
Induced losses result from the creation and extension of
fractures by the drilling operation. Induced fractures
result when the equivalent circulating density (ECD) of
the drilling fluid exceeds the fracture gradient. This
causes the formation to part, opening a fracture. Unlike
natural losses which first occur at the bit, induced
fractures occur in the weakest exposed formation.
Induced fractures happen when the ECD is increased,
while weighting up, tripping, drilling too fast, or as the
result of a mud ring or other situation causing a
temporary pressure surge that breaks down a weak
formation. The location of the fracture is often closer to
the casing shoe than the hole bottom. This attribute of
induced fractures complicates the identification of the
loss zone and the placement of materials designed to
combat the problem.
Because fracture gradient changes with rock type, some
formations are more sensitive to induced fractures than
others. Depending upon depth, the fractures created will
either be horizontal or vertical. If the depth is 2500 feet
or less, horizontal fractures are usually produced. At
depths over 3500 feet, fractures are usually vertical.
Because horizontal fractures require lifting the entire
overburden, they are typically limited to shallow depths.
Vertical fractures occur without lifting the overburden,
Fracture Initiation
Induced fractures are created by excessive pressure in
the annulus and occur most often when weighting-up,
tripping, drilling too fast or killing a kick. High fluid
weight, excessive ROP, surge pressures, and annular
restrictions contribute to this problem. The drilling fluid
density should not be greater than that required to
control formation pressures. The ROP should be
controlled at a rate which keeps the ECD below the
fracture pressure by a safe level.
A good practice to follow, prior to making a bit trip, is to
circulate bottoms-up prior to stopping circulation.
Particularly after fast drilling, the fluid will be loaded
with cuttings which increase fluid density, rheological
properties, and static gellation, thus, increasing the
pressure required to break circulation, as well as
increasing the potential for lost circulation when tripping
into the hole. The use of successive, thin turbulent and
viscous sweeps improves the cuttings removal
Fracture Propagation
Propagation occurs when the high pressure conditions
that originally caused the fracture to occur are not
corrected. Every effort should be made to reduce
downhole hydraulic pressure and seal the fracture with
proper treatment. While squeezes may aggravate the
situation by forcing the fracture to open further, they
deposit LCM within the fracture. Once the squeeze
pressure is relaxed, the fracture can close and seal on
the LCM.
Once a fracture has been sealed, it should be protected
from being reopened by keeping the hydrostatic
pressure as low as is safely possible. If the fracture is
reopened, the seal is broken and must be re-established
to prevent further fluid losses.
Severity of Loss
The severity of the loss can be an important indicator of
not only the type of treatment required, but also the size
of the treatment. Numerous lost circulation remedies
have failed simply because the treatment size did not
match the severity of the loss. The industry has a
convention that quantifies losses according to severity,
ranked by the loss rate while circulating. Table 10-1 lists a
classification according to loss rate.
Note: Non-aqueous fluids (NAF’s) are more expensive
and their lost circulation problems are more difficult to
solve, therefore, lower loss rates are used.
Table 10-1: Loss rate classification (units are barrels per hour)
Settable Plugs
The term “settable plugs” is used here to describe lost
circulation techniques which use slurries that gel or
solidify to seal a loss zone. These types of slurries
include crosslinked polymers, cements, gunk pills (like
diesel oil and bentonite (DOB), diesel oil, bentonite, and
cement (DOBC), sodium silicate-calcium chloride, latex-
calcium chloride, resin-BENGUM™, and FLEX PLUG™),
coated sand type slurries. Not included in the settable
plug category are conventional LCM, barite plugs, and
high fluid loss squeezes like DIASEAL M.
The determination of which of these settable plugs
should be used is not simple and depends on a number of
factors. The most universally applicable settable slurries
are the gunk type DOBC and DOB. When spotting gunk
type slurry, the pumping ratio should be started at a high
ratio of mud-to-gunk for about half of the volume to
allow the slurry to invade the formation. It should then
be changed to a lower ratio of mud-to-gunk to provide a
higher viscosity to stop the loss.
Slurries that would not work well with high losses while
being placed or once placed include crosslinked polymer
slurries and conventional cements. Settable slurries
which can tolerate a moderate degree of contamination
include magnesium based cements, silicate or latex
slurries activated by calcium chloride, resin coated sand,
and thixotropic cements. Settable slurries which are
most effective in situations with high non-circulating
static losses are gunk slurries and combinations of
silicate or latex followed by cement.
Treatment Preparation
Many lost circulation materials require specialized
mixing procedures. Contact the supplier before using the
material to obtain the detailed mixing instructions.
Follow the instructions precisely. Certain standard
procedures apply in almost every lost circulation case.
These include:
1. Identifying the type, location, and severity of the
loss.
2. Reviewing the field history to determine what has
worked in the past.
3. Selecting the treatment type.
4. Verifying the hole volume, bit nozzle sizes and
maximum LCM concentration for downhole
equipment.
5. Estimating the volume of material to be pumped.
6. Identifying the need and availability of materials,
tanks and other equipment that may be necessary to
prepare spacers and LCM pills.
7. Ensuring that any additional equipment required
(e.g. pumping units, proportional blenders) is on
location and in operating condition.
8. Thoroughly cleaning the mixing tanks to prevent
contamination. Purging the mixing equipment and
lines of unwanted fluids prior to mixing.
9. Ensuring that the prepared lost circulation pill is
isolated from the rest of the drilling fluid system
until use.
Treatment Placement
Many treatments will require specialized pumping
procedures. The service company should be contacted
for detailed instructions on the placement of the
material. That being said, certain procedures can apply
to almost every situation. These include the following:
1. Review the placement requirements of the
treatment.
2. Prepare a plan to implement the placement
procedure.
a. Establish how the material will be delivered
downhole (i.e. by a pumping unit or with the rig
equipment) and rig up.
b. If mixing on the fly is required, establish how
that will be done and the rates at which it will
occur.
c. Determine if fluid other than that required to
keep the hole full will be pumped from the
surface into the annulus and rig up as needed.
Prepare to squeeze.
3. Once the placement has begun:
a. Continue until the LCM is completely displaced
from the drillpipe. Count pump strokes.
Stuck Pipe
Stuck pipe during drilling operations can occur for a
variety of reasons such as hole collapse, inadequate hole
cleaning, pulling the pipe into an under-gauge hole or by
differential sticking. Regardless of the reason, failure to
remedy stuck pipe will result in the necessity to part the
drillpipe. At this point, fishing can be attempted, but
most often, cementing and a sidetrack are necessary.
Obviously, stuck pipe should be avoided as much as
possible and treated to prevent expensive non-
productive time. The primary indication of stuck pipe is
the inability to move the drillstring. This is usually
associated with the inability to rotate the pipe, and often
circulation is difficult or impossible. Simply using the
maximum over-pull to try and free the pipe is often
counterproductive, resulting in a thoroughly stuck pipe
which would require a side track. It is important to use
good drilling practices to avoid stuck pipe, and if stuck,
Keyseating
A keyseat is caused by the drillpipe cutting or wearing a
slot into the side of the borehole. The drill collars, being
larger than the drillpipe, can become wedged into this
slot and then stuck. The drillstring is usually stuck while
pulling out of the hole. The drill collars are pulled into the
key seat and stuck. Keyseating is exacerbated by:
The number and severity of doglegs
Length of time that the uncased section of the
wellbore is left exposed, especially in terms of
rotating hours and number of trips
The relative size between the drillpipe tool joints
and the drill collars (Very large collars are less
likely to pull into a keyseat and become stuck,
than are collars that are just slightly larger than
the tool joint outside diameter.)
Rapid transition from a formation that is prone to wash
out to one that remains close to gauge, or the reverse
(The washed out section no longer provides support for
the adjacent formation and thereby concentrates the
wall stress exerted by the drillpipe.)
Wellbore Geometry
When designing a wellpath, it is important to consider
the need to move the BHA and other large diameter
components through the drilled hole. High bend motors,
in-gauge stabilizers and LWD tools, and more extreme
well paths can create a situation where the BHA drift
diameter is very close to the borehole size. In such
cases, even a small amount of cuttings or formation
swelling can prevent the BHA from pulling back out
through the formation. The addition of reamers can help,
but they will increase torque as well as increase cuttings
load. If problems are encountered or are expected,
carefully watching micro-doglegs in sliding intervals is
important. Reaming through these areas can help limit
trouble spots. It is important not to just look at the
dogleg over the length of a stand, but to consider the
micro-doglegs that most reduce drift diameter.
Formation Instability
The shape and diameter of the borehole is not
necessarily static over time. Reactive shales, formation
breakout, and moving salts are a few examples of
mechanisms that can result in a change of the well that
may cause stuck pipe. Additionally, formation instability
can result in cavings and hole collapse that result in a
sizeable amount of cuttings-like material entering the
annular fluid. The prevention of formation instability is a
separate topic, but generally it is controlled by correct
mud weight, mud water salinity, and good drilling
Cuttings Accumulation
The drillstring can become stuck when drilled cuttings
are not adequately removed from the hole. This type of
sticking is usually accompanied by loss or partial loss of
circulation caused by “packing off”. In a vertical well, this
tends to occur after fast drilling has loaded the annular
space with cuttings, followed by a sudden stop in
activity. At this point, the cuttings may settle; forming a
blockage if left long enough. In deviated wells, the
situation is more complex. Above a certain inclination
(often stated as 35°), cuttings beds will form on the low
side of the wellbore. If these beds become too large or
are pulled through too fast, the pipe may become stuck.
To prevent pipe sticking due to cuttings accumulation:
Always follow good drilling practices, including
proper drillpipe rotation speed, circulation after
kelly down, wiper trips, monitoring the cuttings
coming over the shakers, etc.
Provide proper training for the driller and mud
engineer to identify when cuttings are
accumulating downhole, necessitating additional
wiper trips and circulating times, as well as the
adjustment of mud properties.
Maintain drilling fluid properties capable of good
hole cleaning and general wellbore stability.
Maximize rotary drilling, especially for high angle
holes (>35°). The use of a rotary-steerable
system can greatly assist in this.
Barite Sag
Under certain circumstances, the weighting material in
drilling fluids can separate and settle. This phenomenon
is referred to as barite sag and it can cause significant
variations in mud density. These variations include both
decreases and increases in fluid density. A decrease in
mud weight, or light spot by itself is not a clear indicator
of barite sag. Although it is most often a problem in non-
Figure 10-3: Mud weight variations indicate sag after trip.
(Courtesy of M-I SWACO)
Wellbore Breathing
Wellbore breathing, also referred to as wellbore
ballooning, can be associated with either induced or
naturally occurring fractures, and is normally associated
with non-aqueous drilling fluids. Wellbore breathing is
troublesome for drilling operations due to the increase in
non-productive time. NPT related to wellbore breathing
is usually due to monitoring for flow on connections,
Normal Drilling
Is loss NO
Fix surface system leak
downhole?
YES
YES
Is casing
Fix hole in casing
worn, leaking?
NO
Energy Technology Company | 209
Chapter 10: Common Drilling Fluid-Related Problems
Normal Drilling
<
Seepage Loss Partial Loss Severe Loss
< 25bbl/hr WBM 25 - 100 bbl/hr WBM > 100 bbl/hr WBM
< 10 bbl/hr OBM 10 - 30 bbl/hr OBM > 30 bbl/hr OBM
Induced Fracture
Natural Loss Zones
Loss Zones
Reduce Mud Wt. Reduce Mud Wt.
& ECD, if possible & ECD, if possible
>
Reduce Mud Wt. Reduce Mud Wt.
YES & ECD if possible
S uccess?
& ECD, if possible YES
Success?
NO
NO YES YES
Success? Success?
Mix 5-10 sacks per hour Spot pill w/35-70 lb/bbl medium & coarse
fine LCM & drill ahead NO NO LCM blend: Pull up and wait
NO
See Severe Loss
Use alternative technique mudcap, drilling blend,
aerated mud, foam, mist, air drilling or set casing
Appendix 10-2: Decision chart for treating loss circulation
Energy Technology Company | 210
Chapter 11: Fluids-Related Productivity Optimization
Formation Damage
Formation damage can be defined as any restriction to
the flow of oil or gas from the formation to the wellbore.
Any restriction to flow around the wellbore reduces the
maximum flow potential and possibly the ultimate
hydrocarbon recovery. Formation damage may be the
result of physical, chemical, or bacterial alteration of the
producing formation. Formation damage includes
permeability or porosity impairment, skin damage, and
decreased well production. The skin value of a well is a
dimensionless factor that rates the production efficiency
Figure 11-2: Depiction of water-block (Courtesy of Baker Hughes
Drilling Fluids)
Formation Protection
It is advisable to follow some generally accepted
practices to prevent formation damage during drilling,
completion and workover operations. First, filtered brine
usually reduces the chance of introducing foreign
particles into the formation and causing water sensitive
clays to swell. Second, use of a laboratory tested and
selected surfactant helps reduce the chance of emulsion
formation, wettability change, and fines migration.
Lastly, the selection of a chemically compatible drilling,
completion and workover fluid reduces the probability of
insoluble salt precipitation.
Of the potential mechanisms to prevent formation
damage, the most significant is the prevention of fluid
loss to the formation. This is sometimes accomplished by
increasing the low shear rate viscosity (LSRV) of the
fluid. Because the flow rate in porous media is inversely
proportional to viscosity, increasing the viscosity of the
Drill-In Fluids
A drill-in fluid (DIF) is a combination of a drilling and
completion fluid specially formulated to maximize the
productivity index of a producing well. It must maintain
the desired properties of an acceptable drilling fluid (i.e.
density, viscosity, shale stability and fluid loss control) as
well as completion fluid characteristics (i.e. clean, non-
damaging to the wellbore and the internal pore structure
of the producing zone) (Table 11-1).
Drill-In Fluid
Drilling Completion
3 XCD Viscosifier
Polymer
7 CaCO3 Weighting/Bridging
Agent/LCM
PV <10 cp
YP 20 – 30 lb/100ft2
RPM 3/6 10 – 12
pH 9.0 – 10.0
% Insoluble
Solids, weight max < 2% by weight
Acceptable 0–2 0 - 10 0 - 50
Oxygen Corrosion
Many water base drilling fluids in use today are more
corrosive than those used in the past. Low solids non-
dispersed (LSND) and low pH polymer fluids will tend to
be more corrosive due to the elevated quantities of
oxygen associated with the systems and the limited use
of lignosulfonates. Used in sufficient quantities,
lignosulfonate acts as an oxygen scavenger. If it is not
being used, it is advisable to monitor the O2 level in the
mud and use a high quality oxygen scavenger. It has
been shown that dissolved oxygen levels exceeding 1.0
mg/L accelerate corrosion.
Oxygen enters a drilling fluid system at many points:
Shale shakers and hoppers
Cascading drilling fluids
Surface guns
Suction leaks
Centrifugal pumps
Desanders and desilters
When associated with CO2 and H2S, as little as five parts
per billion O2 can greatly accelerate corrosion. In
Bacteria-Induced Corrosion
Tubulars can suffer severe corrosion as the result of
bacterial action. Microorganisms (e.g. bacteria)
contribute to corrosion in different ways. For
microorganisms to accelerate corrosion rates, suitable
conditions must exist to promote their growth. An ideal
environment for bacterial growth includes moisture,
minerals, organic matter such as starch and polymers,
an energy source and a suitable pH. Some bacteria act
as cathodic depolarizers, while others form slimes or
growths that shield a portion of the metal and set up
oxygen concentration cells.
Microorganisms affecting corrosion are classified
according to the presence (aerobic) or absence
(anaerobic) of oxygen. In aerobic environments, the
species Thiobacillus accounts for most of the corrosion.
These bacteria convert sulfur to sulfuric acid, which will
stimulate corrosion. Under anaerobic conditions, sulfate
reducing microorganisms such as Desulfovibrio can
Increasing ROP
One of the advantages of drilling with a lower density
fluid is the improvement in the rate of penetration. This
occurs with all fluids, not just ones utilizing gases. But,
with the low densities achievable with gases, the
increase in ROP can be very significant. The increase is
due to the reduction in the confined compressive
strength of the rock. The confined compressive strength
can be described as a measurement of the hardness of
the rock, which takes into account the pressures
surrounding it. By reducing the annular pressure, the
confined compressive strength is decreased. The impact
of this can be seen in the following equation, which
comes from the Chevron Specific Energy Rate of
Penetration (SeROP) model.
13.33 µ N
CCS 1
DB
EFFM WOB AB
System Types
Systems utilizing gases can be broken into three
categories: aerated drilling fluids, foam systems, and dry
gas (air and gas drilling). Table 13-1 provides a brief
description of the systems and applications.
Dry gas High volumes of air/gas are Used for extremely low
(air pumped. Little or no fluid is in pressure formations
drilling) the system. Typically for slim hole
applications
Cannot tolerate water
Equipment
The equipment required to adapt a normal drilling rig to
aerated operations is relatively simple and can usually
be obtained, or in some cases fabricated, without too
much difficulty. The main items are as follows:
Rotating Head: A rotating head is needed to
divert pressurized mud, otherwise flow may
Bentonite Provides 3 to 12
viscosity and
wall cake
Hole Cleaning
Air entrained in the fluid can affect the rheological
properties of the mud, reducing its effectiveness at hole
cleaning. Some basic remedies include increasing the
yield point of the mud through gel additives and
polymers. Foamers can be added to get a more foam-like
flow, but these can lead to cavitation problems with the
mud pumps, as all of the bubbles may not break out of
solution. Higher ROP’s and intermittent flow can
exacerbate the situation. Controlled drilling is
recommended, and the volume of cuttings coming over
the shaker needs to be monitored. This takes some
experience to see what the normal volume of cuttings is
per stand, especially if flow is intermittent. Once this is
established, the amount of time circulating per
connection can be modified to match cuttings returns. It
should also be remembered that cuttings are likely to fall
back during connections, so care should be taken not to
pull into a tight spot once the connection is made.
Intermittent Returns
As the bubbles of air expand in the annulus, it is possible
for them to form large slugs of gas. This is more
problematic in deviated wells, where gravity separation
can occur, and with higher air flows. The lower the gel
strength and yield point, the more likely this is. The slugs
of air can be seen on surface as periods of no returns
followed by large volumes of mud and cuttings coming at
once. This sudden volume of mud can be quite dramatic
and even mistaken for a kick if no one is expecting it. A
covered possum belly and enclosed flow ditch are very
important in these situations to prevent large volumes of
mud spill on the location, thus causing an HES hazard.
Thought must be given to how the higher flow rate will
be dealt with at the shakers. When a large volume of
liquid overwhelms the shaker capacity, it must be
Corrosion
The injected air contains oxygen and carbon dioxide,
both of which are corrosive. The corrosive effect is a
function of the exposure time and volume of air pumped.
Various chemical additives may be added to prevent
corrosion, either by neutralizing the oxygen in the
mixture (oxygen scavenger) or by coating the pipe.
Additionally, scale inhibitors may be added. Maintaining
a pH above 10 will tend to help control corrosion, but
care must be taken so that an overly high pH does not
cause cuttings dispersion. If the aerated portions of wells
are short in nature and inspections are regular and
rigorous, it may be possible to operate without additional
additives, as long as caution is exercised.
Logging
An aerated drilling fluid can cause some issues when
logging. The bubbles entrained in the fluid can enter the
formation or remain in the fluid during logging. This can
significantly impact some logs such as sonic and neutron
logs. If aerated fluids have been used in a section that is
being logged, it is important to inform the logger and the
formation evaluation personnel involved. Pumping
unaerated fluid just before the logging can alleviate
some of the log interference, but bubbles in the
formation may still cause issues. In lost circulation
situations where aeration has been used, it can be
difficult to maintain the fluid column high during a
wireline logging run. If fluid can be pumped in, that may
be an option, otherwise the logging operation must be
run as fast as safely possible to ensure that the borehole
at the formation of interest is still full of fluid, as most
logging sensors require fluid in order to function
properly.
Downhole Tools
An aerated fluid can pose problems to some downhole
tools. Most MWD tools that send a signal through the
drilling fluid cannot tolerate more than a few volume
percent air before the transmission begins to degrade.
Cementing
As with any other under-balanced drilling operation,
cementing jobs can be problematic. Various solutions
exist, including foam and reduced density cement
formulations. These can be effective in some situations,
but as aeration has been used to combat severe losses,
these expensive cements may just be pumped into the
formation. In such cases, sometimes it is necessary to
simply pump a large volume of cheap cement and, if
cement is not seen at surface, pump a top job to meet
well requirements.
Foam Drilling
Drilling foams utilize a mixture of water, surfactants,
polymers and/or bentonite for gel strength and yield
point, and sometimes anti-corrosion agents. Foams have
a much higher air to liquid ratio as compared to an
aerated system and consist of at least 70% gas by
volume. This translates to lower pressures and greater
under-balance. At the same time, foam systems are far
more tolerant to fluid influxes and can transport more
cuttings than a pure air or mist system, although salt
water and hydrocarbons can damage foam quality. If the
foam is properly generated, it will have a very stable
continuous phase. This is particularly helpful in deviated
wells where flow separation is problematic for aerated
fluids. The disadvantage is the specialized equipment
needed and associated costs. Foams are typically mixed
in a dedicated foaming unit, but the essentials for foam
operations are an air compressor, tanks for blending,
water, detergent and additives, a detergent solution
pump, a foam generator and injection manifold. Logging
can also be problematic depending on the tools and
Increase in cuttings, or
Slow increase in fluid from the Increase the gas / air
pressure formation is being injection rates
carried to the surface
Two reasons:
1. Salt water from the
formation is diluting Increase the gas / air
the foam injection rates, as
Thin and watery
2. Oil from the well as the % of
formation is foaming agent
contaminating the
foam
Air
Air drilling is commonly used in areas where loss of
circulation with liquid type muds is a major problem. Air
is also used to drill hard, extremely low permeability rock
or formations. When drilling gas-bearing formations the
risk of downhole fires can be high. The chance of a
downhole fire when gas is present is increased if the
annulus becomes restricted, thus increasing the
pressure below the obstruction. Mud rings can cause this
type of problem. The standpipe pressure must be
continually monitored in order to detect and prevent an
excess pressure buildup. Even an increase in pressure of
about 15 psi can cause combustion to occur. Several
downhole tools have been designed to help combat fire
hazards. The Fire Float and Fire Stop are two of these
tools. The Fire Float is installed above the bit as a near-
bit protector. Under normal conditions it allows flow of
air while drilling, but does not allow back flow of air. If
the heat-sensitive ring is melted away by a downhole
fire, a sleeve falls and stops air flow in either direction. A
Fire Stop unit should be located at the top and midway in
the drill collar assembly. It consists of a simple flap
retained by a heat-sensitive zinc band. When the melt
temperature of the zinc band is exceeded, the flap closes
and air flow is halted. A quick rise in pressure at the
surface is noted which alerts the crew to the likelihood
of a fire.
Volume and pressure requirements must be considered
when selecting equipment for an air drilling program.
Surface pressure is determined by the total system
pressure losses. Atmospheric pressure decreases with
increasing elevation and relative humidity decreases
with increasing temperature. Equipment requirements
for a location which is situated at a high elevation in a
hot and dry climate are considerably different than
requirements for one which is in a cold, humid climate at
Natural Gas
Natural gas, rather than air, is used as the circulating
medium when reservoirs contain appreciable quantities
of gas. Air cannot be used because of the danger of
downhole fires. The gas is compressed in the same
manner as air, but the return gas must either be flared
or collected to be put into a pipeline. Recycling of the
gas is not recommended because of the abrasive
particles in the used gas which would tend to damage
the compressors. Fire and explosion hazards around the
rigsite, due to gas leaks, are a constant danger when
drilling with natural gas.
REFERENCES
The following reference information is provided to assist
readers in locating supporting information for various sections
of this handbook.