PUBLICATION

AMCA 200-95 (R2011)

Air Systems

Air Movement and Control

Association International
AMCA Corporate Headquarters
30 W. University Drive, Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893, USA
communications@amca.org n Ph: +1-847-394-0150 n www.amca.org
© 2017 Air Movement & Control Association International
AMCA PUBLICATION 200-95 (R2011)

Air Systems

Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc.

30 West University Drive
Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893
 © 2011 by Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc.

All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and
108 of the United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for
permission or further information should be addressed to the Executive Director, Air Movement and Control
Association International, Inc. at 30 West University Drive, Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893 U.S.A.
Authority

AMCA Publication 200-95 was adopted by the membership of the Air Movement and Control Association
International, Inc. in 1995, and it was reaffirmed in 2000, 2007, and 2011.

Foreword

This publication is intended to provide basic information needed to design effective and energy efficient air
systems. in those cases where the system handles a gas other than air, the design data must be modified to allow
for the different physical properties of the gas being used.

Discussion is limited to systems where there is a clear separation of the fan inlet and outlet and does not cover
applications in which fans are used only to circulate air in an open space.

The design of most air sytems is based on airflow velocities which result in turbulent airflow. Some applications
require very low velocities, resulting in laminar flow conditions; others may require very high velocities, approaching
the speed of sound (Mach 1). The information given in this publication applies only to turbulent flow conditions and
not to these special systems using very low or very high flow velocities.

The flow through an air system will stabilize when the total pressure provided by the fan is exactly equal to the total
pressure losses in the system.

To achieve the desired airflow in the system the diesgner must have complete information on:

a) System Pressure Losses: The total pressure loss due to friction losses, shock losses, dissipation of velocity
pressure at the system discharge, and static pressure differences between the entry and discharge
openings. System pressure losses are discussed in detail in Section 4.

b) Fan Performance Characteristics: The relationship of the total pressure rise and the volume flow generated
by the fan. Fan performance characteristics are reviewd in Section 5. More complete information is
contained in AMCA Publication 201, Fans and Systems.

c) System Effect: The effect on the performance of the fan resulting from the difference between the fan inlet
and outlet connections to the installed system and the standardized connections used in laboratory tests
to obtain fan performance ratings. A practical approach to estimating System Effects is explained in AMCA
Publication 201, Fans and Systems.

AMCA 200 Review Committee

Robert H. Zaleski, Chairman Acme Engineering & Manufacturing Corp.

Jack E. Saunders Barry Blower/McQuay International

Neil H. Rutherford Delhi Industries, Inc.

Charles R. Voss Phelps Fan Manufacturing Co., Inc.

Robert L. Lanier Phelps Fan Manufacturing Co., Inc.

William Smiley The Trane Company

Paul R. Saxon AMCA Staff

Disclaimer

This manual has been prepared by the Air Movement and Control Association, Inc. The information contained in
this manual has been derived from many sources and is believed to e accurate. Please note that the
recommendations contained herein do not necessarily represent the only methods or procedures appropriate for
the situation discussed, but rather are inteded to present consensus opinions and practices of the air movement
and control industry which may be helpful, or of interest to those who design, test, install, operate or maintain fan-
duct systems. Thus, AMCA disclaimes any and all warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the accuracy of the
information contained in this maual and further disclaims any liability for the use or misuse of this information.
AMCA does not guarantee, certify or assure the performance of any fan-duct system designed, tested, installed,
operated or maintained on the basis of the information provided in this manual.

Objections to AMCA Standards and Certifications Programs

Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. will consider and decide all written complaints regarding
its standards, certification programs, or interpretations thereof. For information on procedures for submitting and
handling complaints, write to:

Air Movement and Control Association International

30 West University Drive
Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893 U.S.A.

or

AMCA International, Incorporated

c/o Federation of Environmental Trade Associations
2 Waltham Court, Milley Lane, Hare Hatch
Reading, Berkshire
RG10 9TH United Kingdom
Related AMCA Standards and Publications

Publication 200 AIR SYSTEMS

System Pressure Losses

Fan Performance Characteristics
System Effect
System Design Tolerances

Air Systems is intended to provide basic information needed to design effective and energy efficient air systems.
Discussion is limited to systems where there is a clear separation of the fan inlet and outlet and does not cover
applications in which fans are used only to circulate air in an open space.

Publication 201 FANS AND SYSTEMS

Fan Testing and Rating

The Fan "Laws"
Air Systems
Fan and System Interaction
System Effect Factors

Fans and Systems is aimed primarily at the designer of the air moving system and discusses the effect on inlet and
outlet connections of the fan's performance. System Effect Factors, which must be included in the basic design
calculations, are listed for various configurations. AMCA 202 and AMCA 203 are companion documents.

Publication 202 TROUBLESHOOTING

System Checklist
Fan Manufacturer's Analysis
Master Troubleshooting Appendices

Troubleshooting is intended to help identify and correct problems with the performance and operation of the air
moving system after installation. AMCA 201 and AMCA 203 are companion documents.

Publication 203 FIELD PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS OF FAN SYSTEMS

Acceptance Tests
Test Methods and Instruments
Precautions
Limitations and Expected Accuracies
Calculations

Field Performance Measurements of Fan Systems reviews the various problems of making field measurements
and calculating the actual performance of the fan and system. AMCA 201 and AMCA 202 are companion
documents.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Air system components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Symbols and Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.1 Symbols and subscripted symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2.2 Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. Properties of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3.1 Properties of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4. Airflow ...................................................................... 5

4.1 Flow conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.2 Flow about immersed bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4.3 Ducted flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4.4 System losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.5 System Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

5. The Flow System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5.1 Concepts of pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5.2 Examples of pressures in duct systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5.3 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.4 Fan total and static pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.5 The total system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5.6 Types of fan system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.7 System resistance factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5.8 System design and loss calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5.9 Density effects in air systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6. System Design and Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6.1 Point of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6.2 Fan performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

 6.3 Effects of system changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.4 Variable systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Annex A. SI / I-P Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Annex B. Standard Atmospheric Data Versus Altitude Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Annex C. Psychrometric Density Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Annex D. Friction Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Annex E. Air Density Correction Factor Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Air Systems
1. Introduction
An air system is any assembly of ducts, filters,
conditioning devices, dampers, louvers, fans, etc.,
the main purpose of which is to move air from one
place to another in a controlled fashion. Most air
systems draw air from one space and discharge it
into another.
Air systems are often required to operate
satisfactorily in a wide range of environmental
conditions. The conditions which will be encountered
must be considered in the design of the ducts, pipes,
etc., which will contain the airflow and constitute the
boundary of the system.
1.1 Air system components
A typical air system may contain one or more of the
following (see Figure 1):
a) System inlet
b) Distribution system
c) Fan
d) Control device
e) Conditioning device
f) System outlet
1.1.1 System inlet. An air system usually includes
devices such as louvers, filters, screens, guards,
grilles, etc., where the air enters the system. These
are used for safety reasons as well as to inhibit the
entry of rain, dust, and other unwanted matter. Their
appearance may be important as they are usually
visible on the exterior of a structure.
1.1.2 Distribution system. Most air systems are
made up of ducts specially designed and constructed
to convey air from the system inlet(s) to the system
outlet(s). In some cases, enclosed spaces in the
structure such as plenums above ceilings or holes in
walls may be used to confine and direct the flow.
1.1.3 Fan. Understanding the design and opera-tion
of air systems begins with an understanding of the
various types of fans, their performance
characteristics, and their applications.
200
A fan is required in order to produce the pressure
differential which results in the flow of air through a
system. The fan must be carefully selected to meet
the specified airflow and pressure for proper system
operation. Different fan designs produce different
pressure-volume and fan power relationships, which
are critical to air system operation. Refer to Figure
4.2, AMCA Publication 201-90.
1.1.4 Control devices. In many air systems it is
necessary to regulate and control the flow through
the system in response to some monitoring signal,
usually temperature or pressure. It may be also
necessary to regulate the flow in the individual
branches of the system. Control devices such as
dampers function by controlling the amount of airflow.
In some cases, the output of the fan can be varied by
other methods (variable speed motor, variable inlet
vanes, variable pitch impeller, etc.)
1.1.5 Conditioning device. Most air systems are
designed to take air from the inlet and change its
condition before discharging it at the outlet. Changes
may include the temperature, humidity, pressure,
contaminant level and cleanliness, etc., of the air.
Many conditioning devices require outside energy
sources, for example, heating and cooling coils; other
components such as filters are passive devices and
have no external energy connection. All conditioning
devices increase the pressure drop across the
system and this effect must be considered in the
selection of the fan.
1.1.6 System outlet. An air system usually includes
a special component at the termination of the system
or at the end of each of the system's branches, such
as a simple screen or louver. In many cases the
distribution of the air at the outlet to the receiving
space is very important, e.g., in an occupied air
conditioned room. These systems require carefully
selected outlets and diffusing devices to achieve
desirable air motion and temperature conditions in
the conditioned space. Typical devices are ceiling
diffusers and grilles. In some cases these may
incorporate control devices such as dampers and
mixing boxes.
 FAN MAIN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (DUCT)

SYSTEM
INLET

COIL BRANCH
DUCT
FILTER

LOUVER
DAMPER
DIFFUSER

SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM

OUTLET OUTLET OUTLET

Figure 1 - Typical Air System

2 | Air Systems
2. Symbols and Subscripts

2.1 Symbols and subscripted symbols

Symbol Description SI (I-P)

A Area m2 (ft2)
Ae Area-Orifice Equivalent to System m2 (ft2)
Ao Area-Nozzle with no loss m2 (ft2)
ah Absolute Humidity kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
C Dynamic Loss Coefficient Dimensionless
Cd Coefficient of Discharge Dimensionless
Cn Coefficient of Nozzle Discharge Dimensionless
c Speed of Sound m/s (ft/s)
D Duct Diameter and Equivalent Diameter m (ft)
E System Resistance Curve Dimensionless
ε Absolute Surface Roughness Height m (ft)
f Friction Coefficient Dimensionless
g Gravity m/s2 (ft/s2)
γ Ratio of Specific Heats Dimensionless
K System Effect Factor (System) Dimensionless
L Length m (ft)
μ Air Viscosity, Absolute N-s/m2 (lbm/ft-s)
∆P Pressure Differential Pa (in. wg)
P Pressure Pa (in. wg)
Ps Static Pressure Pa (in. wg)
Psx Static Pressure at Plane x Pa (in. wg)
Pt Total Pressure Pa (in. wg)
Ptx Total Pressure at Plane x Pa (in. wg)
Pv Velocity Pressure Pa (in. wg)
p Atmospheric Pressure Pa (in. Hg)
Q Airflow Rate m3/s (cfm)
Qx Airflow Rate at Plane x m3/s (cfm)
R Gas Constant J/kg-K (ft-lb/lbm-°R)
Re Reynolds Number Dimensionless
rh Relative Humidity % (%)
ρ Air Density kg/m3 (lbm/ft3)
ρx Air Density at Plane x kg/m3 (lbm/ft3)
SEF System Effect Factor (Fan) Pa (in. wg)
SR System Resistance Factor m-4 (ft-4)
sh Specific Humidity (_/_ dry air) kg/kg dry air (lb/lb) dry air
t Temperature °C (°F)
td Dry-Bulb Temperature °C (°F)
tw Wet-Bulb Temperature °C (°F)
V Average Velocity m/s (ft/min)
v Velocity - At any Point m/s (ft/min)
Y Expansion Factor Dimensionless
Z Altitude m (ft)
~ Is Proportional to Dimensionless

2.2 Subscripts

Subscript Definition Subscript Definition

a Element a n Reference to Nozzle

b Element b O Plane of System Outlet
c Element c - Combined x Plane 0, 1, 2,...as appropriate
d Discharge x,x' Between Planes x and x'
E Plane of System Entry 1 Plane of Fan Inlet
F Fan 2 Plane of Fan Discharge
3. Properties of Air
Atmospheric air is a mixture of several gases, water
vapor, and impurities. The relative amounts of the
important constituents for dry, sea level air are given
in Table 3.1. This table may be considered
representative of air at any altitude.
Table 3.1 - Dry Air Composition, Fraction
Component Volume Weight
Nitrogen 0.7809 0.7552
Oxygen 0.2095 0.2315
Argon 0.0093 0.0128
Carbon Dioxide 0.0003 0.0004
Also slight traces of neon, hydrogen, helium,
krypton, ozone and others
Although the gas composition of air can be
considered essentially constant, the amount of water
vapor contained in the air can vary greatly. The
properties of moist air are dependent upon the
relative amount of water vapor and dry air, therefore,
in defining the properties of moist air, this relative
amount must be defined (see Section 3.1.5
Humidity).
The impurities in the air are of various forms, but
basically can be divided into two categories: a)
particulates which can be either solid or liquid, and b)
mixtures, which can be either gas or vapor. The
distribution of these impurities is not uniform on an
atmospheric scale, but can be considered uniform for
the purposes of air system design. Since air is a
mixture of several gases, the behavior of air under
varying conditions can be best understood by first
reviewing the behavior of pure gases.
3.1 Properties of gases
A gas may be defined as a compressible substance
which has no free surfaces and occupies all portions
of its container. The important properties of an ideal
gas are listed below.
3.1.1 Density. The density of a gas is defined as the
total mass of the molecules in a unit volume. In the SI
system density is given in kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m3); in the I-P system, density is given in pounds
per cubic foot (lbm/ft3).
For purposes of uniformity, standard air has been
defined as air with a density of 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075
lbm/ft3) and an absolute viscosity of 18.19 × 10-6
4 | Air Systems
N-s/m2 (1.222 × 10-5 lbm/ft-s). This is substantially
equivalent to air at a temperature of 20°C (68°F),
50% relative humidity, and a barometric pressure of
101 kPa (29.92 inches mercury) at sea level. The
ratio of specific heats, (γ), is taken to be 1.4, which is
the expected value for a perfect diatomic gas.
The temperature and barometric pressure of
atmospheric air vary widely with weather conditions
and geographical location, most noticeably altitude.
In order to simplify design, standard atmospheric
conditions have been defined which give the variation
of atmospheric pressure, temperature, and,
therefore, density with altitude. Annex B lists these
variations.
3.1.2 Pressure
In an air system, pressure is the force exerted by the
air molecules on the surfaces which make up the
system. Since air molecules are always in motion,
they continuously collide with other air molecules or a
solid surface. All these collisions are considered to be
perfectly elastic and, in the case when a molecule
strikes a surface, the surface experiences a force
equal and opposite to the time rate of change of
momentum of the rebounding molecule. This force
causes the gas to exert an overall pressure on an
immersed body and this force per unit area is
referred to as the pressure. In air system work, the
units of pressure are given in terms of force per unit
area. The unit of measure for pressure in the SI
system is the Pascal (Pa); in the I-P system the units
are inches of water gauge (in. wg).
3.1.3 Temperature
3.1.3.1 Thermal relationships
The kinetic energy of gas molecules increases with
increasing temperature. The important effects of this
fact are stated in Boyle's Law and Charles' Law,
which state that the volume of a perfect gas varies
inversely with absolute pressure and directly with
absolute temperature, respectively. The total effect is
more properly stated by the equation of state:
PV = mRT Eq. 3.1-1
or
P = ρRT Eq. 3.1-2
Where:
P = Pressure
V = Volume
m = mass
R = Gas Constant
T = Absolute Temperature
ρ = m/V = density
In the design of most air systems, it is acceptable to
assume that the gas is incompressible, therefore, the
air density may be considered constant, and
therefore, the absolute pressure and absolute
temperature are directly proportional.
3.1.3.2 Dry-bulb, wet-bulb and dew point
temperature. Unless otherwise specified, the
temperature of an air-water vapor mixture is that
temperature which is indicated by an ordinary or dry-
bulb thermometer. This dry-bulb temperature is the
temperature of both the air and the water vapor in the
mixture. The wet-bulb temperature may be
determined by exposing a wetted bulb in a moving
air-water vapor mixture until equilibrium is obtained.
The wet-bulb temperature will be lower than the dry-
bulb temperature as long as evaporation continues. If
no evaporation is possible, the mixture is saturated
and the wet and dry-bulb temperatures for this
condition will be identical. The dew point temperature
of an air-water vapor mixture is the saturation
temperature corresponding to the absolute humidity
of the mixture. The dew point temperature may also
be considered as that temperature at which
condensation begins when the mixture is gradually
cooled.
3.1.4 Viscosity. A non-perfect gas, such as air, is
capable of exerting a force parallel to the surface of a
body which is moving with respect to the gas. The
magnitude of the force parallel to the surface is used
to define an important property of non-perfect gases
- viscosity. The effects of viscosity on the behavior of
real gases cause resistance to flow; the resistance is
proportional to the velocity gradients which exist in
the gas. The absolute viscosity (µ) is defined as the
shearing stress for a unit rate of change of velocity.
The absolute viscosity has units of newton-sec per
meter squared (N-s/m2) in the SI system and pound
mass per foot-second (lbm/ft-s) using I-P units.
3.1.5 Humidity. The density of atmospheric air is
also a function of the humidity. Although the change
in density due to a change in humidity is not large, it
is often significant and air system designers should
be aware of these changes. Remember that
increasing humidity lowers the density since water
vapor is lighter than dry air. The density of saturated
air for various barometric and hygrometric conditions
is shown in Annex C.
Partially saturated air contains vapor that is
superheated, that is, the temperature of the mixture
and, therefore, that of the vapor is higher than the
saturation temperature for the existing vapor
pressure.
The relative humidity (rh) of an air-water vapor
mixture is defined as the ratio of the vapor pressure
existing compared to the vapor pressure at saturation
for the same dry-bulb temperature. This is also equal
to the ratio of the mole fractions under the same
condition. Relative humidity is always expressed as a
percent.
Specific humidity (sh) is the actual mass (weight) of
the water vapor existing per unit mass (unit weight) of
dry air or gas. Absolute humidity (ah) may be
expressed in kilograms (pounds) of water vapor per
cubic meter (cubic foot) of mixture. The humidity of
an air-water vapor mixture is often expressed by
giving either relative humidity or a wet-bulb
depression.
4. Airflow
The flow of any fluid between two points is caused by
the existence of a pressure differential between the
two points. It is the purpose of this section to explain
the parameters that may affect the flow of a gas
between two points.
4.1 Flow conditions
Most air systems are designed in the incompressible
range. Where compressibility is a factor, Mach
number and Reynolds number must be considered.
The magnitude of these parameters gives an
indication of the effects which can be expected from
the deviations in the non-perfect gas behavior from
that of a perfect gas.
4.1.1 Mach number. Mach number, for our purposes
here, is the ratio of the velocity of an airstream to the
speed of sound in that airstream.
Mach number = V/c
Where:
V = velocity of air, m/s (ft/s)
c = speed of sound in air, m/s (ft/s)
The speed of sound is a function of temperature and
is the speed at which very small pressure
disturbances are propagated throughout the gas. The
speed of sound is proportional to the square root of
the absolute temperature, and for standard air is
approximately 345 m/s (1130 ft/s). If the Mach
number is small and no large static pressure changes
are introduced by mechanical means, the flow may
be considered incompressible, that is, the density is
everywhere constant. Air can be considered
incompressible if the fan total pressure rise is less
than 2980 Pa (12 in. wg).
Air Systems | 5
4.1.2 Reynolds number. The ratio of the inertia force friction drag, and, for streamlined bodies closely
to the viscous force caused by changes in velocity aligned with the flow, represents the entire drag force.
within the fluid element is known as the Reynolds For blunt bodies, which may be streamlined bodies at
number. large angles to the flow, profile drag exists. Profile
drag is caused by the inability of the flow, due to its
viscous effects, to follow the body shape. The
⎛ρ⎞
Re = DV ⎜ ⎟ Eq. 4.1-1A SI inability to follow the body shape creates a wake of
⎝μ⎠ very turbulent flow which in effect creates the profile
⎛ ρ ⎞ drag force. These wake effects are the predominant
Re = DV ⎜ ⎟ Eq. 4.1-1A I-P cause of flow losses in systems.
⎝ 60 μ ⎠
⎛ DV ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ ⎠

For standard air:

Re = 65970.3DV Eq. 4.1-1B SI

Figure 4A - Skin Friction Drag
Re = 102.3DV Eq. 4.1-1B I-P

Where:

D = Any convenient reference dimension, m (ft)

V = Velocity, m/s (ft/min)
μ = Absolute viscosity, N-s/m2 (lbm/ft-s)
γ = Kinematic viscosity, m2/s (ft2/s)
ρ = Density, kg/m3 (lbm/ft3)

For flow about immersed bodies, D is normally taken

as the length of body in the direction of flow. In ducted
flow, D is normally taken as the diameter of the duct;
in unducted flow, D is normally taken as the diameter
of the opening through which the flow passes.
For a fan, D is equal to the impeller tip diameter and
is only proportional to conventional Reynolds
numbers. The Reynolds number provides a
convenient non-dimensional means of comparing
two flows.
4.2 Flow about immersed bodies
If a solid body is immersed in a flowing stream of a
gas, the direction of flow of the gas will be parallel to
the surface of the solid body. The changes in the
direction of the molecules close to the body exert
forces on the body which when taken over the entire
body, are perpendicular to the direction of the gas
flow.
A non-perfect gas will also exert a force parallel to the
direction of the velocity, due to the viscosity of the
gas. This force, usually called drag, is due to two
effects. The first is the shearing force set up within
the molecules of the gas resulting from the molecules
decelerating from the gas velocity to zero velocity
when in contact with the body. This is called skin
Figure 4B - Profile Drag
Figures 4A and 4B illustrate skin friction drag and
profile drag.
4.3 Ducted flow
When air flows through a duct of constant cross-
section, the average velocity remains constant and is
parallel to the center line of the duct. Due to friction,
the velocity at the duct wall is zero and the average
velocity profile can be defined as either of two
conditions:
a) Laminar Flow: Flow in which the air velocity
vectors are parallel to the duct wall. This type of
flow is described as smooth.
b) Turbulent Flow: Flow in which air velocity vectors
at various points across the duct are at various
angles, up to and including reverse flow.
Except for extremely low air velocities, laminar flow
does not exist and all duct flow involving air can be
considered to be in the transition region between
laminar and fully turbulent flow. The transfer of
energy from the high velocity section in the center of

6 | Air Systems
the duct to the low velocity section near the duct wall
causes a marked resistance to the flow. This
resistance varies linearly with the length of the duct
and approximately with the square of the average
velocity in the duct. The resistance is also a function
of the Reynolds number of the flow, which is
calculated using the average velocity in the duct, the
duct diameter, and the surface roughness of the duct
wall.
The velocity profiles in a duct system for fully
developed flow will vary depending on whether the
flow is laminar or turbulent and the degree of duct
roughness. Velocity profiles of various flow conditions
are shown in Figure 4C.
The absolute velocity of the air stream will vary
substantially over the cross-sectional duct area, but
for duct systems the velocity used for determining the
velocity pressure is always the average velocity given
by:
V average = Q/A Eq. 4.3-1
Where:
V = Velocity, m/s (ft/min)
Q = Flow rate, m3/s (cfm)
A = Area of the cross-section where the flow occurs,
m2 (ft2)
The duct velocity profiles shown in Figure 4C are
uniform along the length of the duct and symmetrical
around the center line. Where there are disturbances
in the ducts, such as turns, expansion or contraction,
etc., the velocity profile across the duct can become
very asymmetrical as shown in Figure 4D.
The flow will return to a normal velocity profile after a
disturbance if there is sufficient length of straight duct
to allow the velocity distribution to regain uniformity. A
minimum of 2½ equivalent duct diameters of straight
duct is required to attain a normal velocity profile for
velocities of 12.7 m/s (2500 ft/min) or less. Add one
duct diameter for each additional 5.08 m/s (1000
ft/min). See AMCA Publication 201-90, Fans and
Systems.
4.4 System losses
The losses in total pressure for flow through a system
are caused by two factors: friction losses due to
viscosity as the air flows along the surface of ducts
and other system elements, and dynamic losses
due to the turbulent wake caused by changes in
direction and separation of the flow around obstructions.
In addition to the losses in total pressure in a system
caused by friction losses and dynamic losses, there
are losses due to System Effects.
System Effects occur because of the differences
between the fan inlet and outlet connections to the
installed system and the standardized connections
used in laboratory tests to obtain fan performance
ratings. AMCA Publication 201, Fans and Systems,
gives specific details on System Effects related to
fans. System Effects related to series system
elements are covered further in Section 4.5 of this
publication.
4.4.1 Duct friction losses. In the normal range of air
systems for HVAC and industrial applications, the
flow falls into the transition region between laminar
flow and complete turbulent flow. In this region the
losses due to friction are a function of Reynolds
number and the relative roughness of the duct wall.
The pressure loss in the transition region will vary at
slightly less than the square of the velocity. The
pressure loss due to friction for flow in ducts may be
calculated from the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
∆Pt = f(L/D) Pv Eq. 4.4-1
Where:
∆Pt = Total pressure loss due to friction, Pa (in. wg)
f = Friction factor, dimensionless
L = Length of duct, m (ft)
D = Diameter of pipe, m (ft)
Pv = Velocity pressure, Pa (in. wg)
In the transition flow range, the value of the friction
factor cannot be calculated directly. It can be
obtained from the Moody diagram or by iterative
solution of the Colebrook equation. See the ASHRAE
Handbook: Fundamentals, chapter on Duct Design,
for a more complete discussion of duct friction losses.
The Moody diagram, Figure 4E, shows the
relationship of the friction factor, Reynolds number
and duct roughness (ε) in meters (feet). Most
applications are in the transition region between
laminar and full turbulent flow conditions.
Using duct friction charts (see Annex D) is the most
common method of determining friction losses.
These charts are based on ducts having average
roughness and standard air density. Correction
factors must be applied for ducts having different
roughness, and for variations in air density and
viscosity.
Air Systems | 7
 r LAMINAR
TURBULENT

SMOOTH Re = 107
SMOOTH Re = 105
ε = 0.03D ROUGH
ε = 0.008D ROUGH
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

v
V
D = Duct Diameter
ε = Duct Roughness
Re = Reynolds Number
v = Velocity at any Point
V = Average Velocity
r = Radius

Figure 4C - Velocity Profiles in a Round Duct for Various

Reynolds Numbers and Duct Roughness

Figure 4D - Changing Velocity Profiles

8 | Air Systems
 0.10

0.09

0.08

0.05
0.07
0.04
0.06
0.03

0.05
0.02

0.015
FULLY ROUGH (EQ 18)
0.04 Eq. (29a)

RELATIVE ROUGHNESS, ε/D

0.010
0.008
FRICTION FACTOR, f

0.006
RO

0.03
UG

0.004
H
W
IT Eq.
H (2
Re 9a
DE )

0.002
PE
N
DE
NC

0.02
E

0.0010
0.0008
Eq. (27) 0.0006

SMOOTH PIPE 0.0004

0.015 Eqs. (28a) and (28b)

0.0002
TRANSITION
LAMINAR TURBULENT
REGION
0.00010

0.00005
0.010

0.009

0.008 0.00001
103 2 3 5 104 2 3 5 105 2 3 5 106 2 3 5 107 2 3 5 108

REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re

Figure 4E - Moody Diagram

Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993
ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals. (Moody 1944). Values on the chart are the same for both the SI and I-P systems. Equation numbers refer
to equations in the source document.

Air Systems | 9
Loeffler1 has developed simplified equations for the Correction factors for density and viscosity variations
friction factor in the normal range of flow conditions need to be applied for conditions other than standard
found in industrial and HVAC air systems. The air. See Annexes B and E.
equations provide for direct calculation of duct friction
total pressure losses. These equations yield results 4.4.2 Dynamic losses. Dynamic losses occur where
that are accurate within ±5% and are conservative there are changes in velocity or direction in the air
over most of the range of flow. system and are due primarily to the profile drag.
Dynamic losses are proportional to the square of
For aluminum ducts, medium smooth: velocity, and therefore, are proportional to the
velocity pressure.
ε = 0.0000457 m (0.00015 ft)
∆Pt ~ V 2 ~ Pv
⎛ LQ ⎞
1.863
Pt loss = a ⎜ 4.93 ⎟ Dynamic pressure loss data are given in a number of
⎝ D ⎠ forms such as pressure loss for given volume or
Where: velocity, equivalent length of duct, or velocity
pressure multiplier, and is available from
a = 1.764 × 10-2 Eq. 4.4-2 SI manufacturers' data and handbooks such as:
ASHRAE, the Industrial Ventilation Guide and
a = 4.816 × 10-9 Eq. 4.4-2 I-P SMACNA.

For galvanized steel ducts, average: Except at duct exits, dynamic losses occur along
some length and cannot be separated from friction
ε = 0.0001524 m (0.0005 ft) losses. For practical purposes the dynamic losses
are assumed to be concentrated at one point and the
friction losses are included as part of the duct friction.
⎛ LQ1.921 ⎞ Dynamic loss coefficients for duct fittings are based
Pt loss = a ⎜ 5.066 ⎟
⎝ D ⎠ on zero length. For friction loss calculations, the
Where: centerline length of the duct fitting is taken as the
length of the fitting.
a = 1.717 × 10-2 Eq. 4.4-3 SI
4.4.3 Dynamic loss coefficient. There are two
common methods of expressing dynamic losses.
a = 3.534 × 10-9 Eq. 4.4-3 I-P
These are: 1) The equivalent length of duct method,
and 2) the loss coefficient method. The equivalent
For fiberglass ducts or lined ducts, fabric and wire
length of duct method replaces the dynamic loss of
flexible ducts (wire covered with fabric), medium
fittings (elbows, tees, branches, etc.) with a length of
rough,
duct that will have an equivalent loss. The equivalent
length of duct for all of the dynamic losses are added
ε = 0.00091443 m (0.003 ft)
to the straight duct length. A friction chart showing the
loss is then used to determine the total loss in the
⎛ LQ1.965 ⎞ system.
Pt loss = a ⎜ 5.208 ⎟
⎝ D ⎠
The dynamic loss coefficient method is based on the
Where: fact that all losses in a system are functions of the
velocity pressure and can be calculated by a
a = 2.093 × 10-2 Eq. 4.4-4 SI corresponding dynamic loss factor multiplied by the
velocity pressure. These losses are added to the
a = 3.64 × 10-9 Eq. 4.4-4 I-P straight duct friction loss to determine the total loss in
the system.
Where:
The dynamic loss coefficient method is preferred
Pt loss = Total pressure loss, Pa (in. wg) because it is usually quicker and offers the
Q = Flow rate, m3/s (cfm) advantage of faster recalculation when other branch
D = Duct diameter, m (ft) (or equivalent diameter duct sizes are tried.
of rectangular ducts) D equivalent = (4ab/ )0.5
where a and b are the sides in m (ft) Dynamic losses are proportional to the velocity
L = Duct length in m (ft) pressure occurring in the system element and,

10 | Air Systems
therefore, the pressure loss in the fitting can be
related to the velocity pressure by use of a dynamic
loss coefficient.
The dynamic loss coefficient Co is defined as:
Co = ∆Pt/Pvo
Where:
Co = Dynamic loss coefficient, reference to section
o, dimensionless
∆Pt = Dynamic pressure loss, Pa (in. wg)
Pvo = Velocity pressure at section o, Pa (in. wg)
The coefficient relates the pressure loss in the
element to the velocity pressure at a given cross-
sectioned area of the element.
The pressure loss of duct system elements with
known dynamic loss coeffients can be calculated by:
∆Pt = Co Pvo
Where there are changes in area or divided flow in
the fitting, the designer must be careful to use the
proper area as noted in the loss tables for the
determination of the velocity pressure to be used with
the dynamic loss coefficient. The ASHRAE
Handbook: Fundamentals, Chapter on Duct Design,
provides a detailed discussion of the dynamic loss
coefficient and tables for coefficients of many
common duct elements.
4.5 System Effects
Additional losses can occur in air systems because of
the physical relationship of various elements in the
system. These System Effect losses occur because
of the difference between the way the performance of
the element was determined by testing and the way
the element is actually installed in the system.
4.5.1 Fan System Effects. Fan System Effects occur
because of the difference in inlet and outlet
conditions under laboratory test conditions and the
inlet and outlet conditions as the fan is installed in the
system. Detailed information on Fan System Effects
is contained in AMCA Publication 201, Fans and
Systems. The System Effect is accounted for as a
pressure loss which must be included with the other
system losses. The sum of the pressure losses is
then used as the basis for selecting the fan.
1. Loeffler, J. J., Simplified Equations for HVAC Duct Friction Factors, ASHRAE Journal, January, 1980
4.5.2 Element System Effects in series. System
Effects for other air system elements occur when two
or more elements are in close proximity to one
another. Loss coefficients for duct fittings, coils,
filters, dampers, etc., are determined with a sufficient
length of straight duct (normally 10 diameters) ahead
Eq. 4.4-5 of the element to allow for a normally distributed
velocity profile entering the element, and a sufficient
length of straight duct (normally 10 diameters)
downstream from the element to allow a normally
distributed velocity profile to be re-established. When
two elements, such as elbows, or an elbow and a
damper, are placed close together the air entering
the second element will be highly turbulent and
asymmetrical in profile, causing a higher loss than
expected. In addition, any static regain occurring
downstream of the first element would also be lost
when sufficient length of straight duct is not present.
To illustrate System Effects for duct elements, the
loss coefficients for a single 90° elbow and two
elbows in series are shown in Figure 4F.
Eq. 4.4-6
In the case of the two elbows in series, the difference
between twice the loss of the single elbow and the
actual combined loss is the System Effect. The
System Effect varies substantially depending on how
close the two elbows are to each other.
Similar effects can be expected when any system
elements are in close proximity. The amount of the
System Effect will vary over a rather wide range
depending upon the physical characteristics of each
element and their relationship to each other in the
system.
Very little actual data is available on System Effects
of various combinations of system elements, and the
system designer must, of necessity, estimate the
System Effects. The following tables for estimating
System Effects, and Equation 4.5-1, are given as a
guide to the designer. Actual data should be used
whenever it is available.
Cc = (Ca + Cb) K Eq. 4.5-1
Where:
Cc = Loss coefficient of combined elements,
dimensionless
Ca = Loss coefficient of element a, dimensionless
Cb = Loss coefficient of element b, dimensionless
K = System Effect Factor, dimensionless
Air Systems | 11
 ONE ELBOW Figure 4G should be used for elements in series
where the flow is straight through, while Figure 4H
should be used when a turning element (elbow, etc.)
C1 = 1.15* is involved. These tables have been developed on
FLOW the basis of limited data and are intended only as a
guide. Actual System Effects may vary from the
values shown. See sample calculation in Section 5.8

TWO ELBOWS IN SERIES

a b
RESISTANCE
ELEMENTS
C2 = VARIES
FLOW D
L
L
D

L/D .50 1 2 3 4 5 7.5 10

K 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.15 1.1 1.05 1.0

L/D 1.0 2.0 4.0 10.0

From SMACNA Duct Design Manual
C2 Loss
coefficient Figure 4G - Element System Effects for
for two 2.63 4.18 3.08 2.45 Straight Through Flow
elbows in
series**

2 C1 Two
times the
loss
2.30 a
coefficient
of a single
elbow

System b
+0.33 +81.7% +33.98% +6.5%
Effect
14.3% 1.88 0.78 0.15
(Difference)
L

* From I. E. Idelchik, Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 3rd

D
Edition, 1993, p.365, Hemisphere Publishing Company.
** ibid, p.375

Figure 4F - System Effect of Duct Elements

L/D .50 1 2 3 4 5 7.5 10

K 1.0 1.08 1.75 1.5 1.30 1.2 1.1 1.0

Figure 4H - Element System Effect for

Turning Elements

12 | Air Systems
5. The Flow System
5.1 Concepts of pressure
The flow of air between two zones (or spaces) is due
to a pressure difference between the two zones. This
pressure difference forces the air to flow from the
high pressure zone to the low pressure zone.
Ductwork is used in most air systems to convey the
air from one zone to another. The quantity of air Q in
m3/s (cfm) that will flow is equal to the cross-sectional
area A of the duct in m2(ft2) times the air velocity V in
m/s (ft/min).
Q = AV Eq. 5.1-1
ρ is equal to the air density in kg/m3 (lbm/ft3), and
standard air density equals 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075 lbm/ft3).
Pv is always positive and this pressure is always
exerted in the direction of airflow. Air confined within
a duct or a tank, whether in motion or not, creates
another kind of pressure which exerts itself in all
directions at once, including perpendicular to the
walls of the enclosure. This is known as static
pressure Ps. Static pressure is negative when it is
below atmospheric pressure, and positive when
above atmospheric pressure. Total pressure Pt at any
point in an air system is equal to the algebraic sum of
the static pressure Ps and velocity pressure Pv. Pt can
be either positive or negative, depending on its
components.

The air traveling at a given velocity V in m/s (ft/min) Pt = Ps + Pv Eq. 5.1-3

will create a velocity pressure Pv in Pa (in. wg). The
velocity pressure in these terms is: 5.2 Examples of pressures in duct systems

Pv = 0.5ρV2 Eq. 5.1-2A SI Of prime concern in air system design is the

relationship of these pressures internal to the air
Pv = ρ(V/1096)2 Eq. 5.1-2A I-P system. The significance of these pressures can be
demonstrated on the next several pages in Figures
And for standard air: 5A, 5B, and 5C.

Pv = 0.6V2 Eq. 5.1-2B SI

Pv = (V/4005)2 Eq. 5.1-2B I-P

Air Systems | 13
In Figure 5A, the sealed length of duct has a static pressure of 345 Pa (1.39 in. wg) above atmospheric pressure.
Since there is no airflow, velocity pressure is equal to zero. The total pressure Pt can then be calculated according
to equation 5.1-3.
SI I-P
Pt = Ps + Pv Pt = Ps + Pv
= 345 + 0 = 1.39 + 0
= 345 Pa = 1.39 in. wg

TOTAL PRESSURE - STATIC PRESSURE VELOCITY PRESSURE

=
345 Pa (1.39 in. wg) 345 Pa (1.39 in. wg) 0 Pa (0 in. wg)

Figure 5A - Sealed System

14 | Air Systems
In Figure 5B, with the duct open and a fan placed at one end blowing air through the duct, we find both static
pressure and velocity pressure as illustrated by the water gauge. The total pressure is the sum of velocity pressure
and static pressure.

TOTAL PRESSURE - STATIC PRESSURE VELOCITY PRESSURE

=
345 Pa (1.39 in. wg) 97 Pa (0.39 in. wg) 248 Pa (1.00 in. wg)

20.3 m/s
AIRFLOW
(4005 FPM)

In this illustration, the static pressure will be above atmospheric pressure and the total pressure is numerically
greater than either static or velocity pressure.

Figure 5B - Positive Pressure System

Air Systems | 15
In Figure 5C, a fan is placed at the end of the duct and draws air through the duct. In this case, the static pressure
is below atmospheric pressure. In both Figures 5B and 5C, the total pressure rise across the fan is 345 Pa (1.39
in. wg); therefore, the energy used in both systems is equal.

TOTAL PRESSURE STATIC PRESSURE VELOCITY PRESSURE

- =
-97 Pa (-0.39 in. wg) -345 Pa (-1.39 in. wg) 248 Pa (1.00 in. wg)

20.3 m/s
AIRFLOW
(4005 FPM)

Figure 5C - Negative Pressure System

16 | Air Systems
5.3 Conservation of energy Therefore, to simplify Bernoulli's Theorem:

The well known Bernoulli Theorem, frequently used
in the flow of fluids, states the law of conservation of
energy for fluid systems. In its simpler form for
airflow:
(V12/2g) + (P1/ρg) + Z1 = (V22/2g) + (P2/ρg)
+ Z2 + losses1,2
Where:
Vx2/2g= Kinetic energy or velocity pressure (Pv)
Px/ρg = Potential energy or static pressure (Ps)
Zx = The elevation (normally ignored in fan
systems with minimal changes in
elevation) may need to be evaluated when
the system elevation change causes a
noticeable change in air density.
Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2 + losses1,2 Eq. 5.3-1
Simply stated, the sum of static pressure and velocity
pressure at any point in a flow system is equal to the
sum of static pressure and velocity pressure at any
other point in the system, plus any losses in pressure
occurring between the two points.
Although it is very important to recognize that the
sum of static and velocity pressure remains constant
at any point in the system when disregarding losses,
it is the losses that are of real importance in the
design and function of air moving systems.
To illustrate Bernoulli's Theorem, Figure 5D shows a
typical venturi system commonly used to measure
fluid flow.

Pt PS PV Pt PS PV Pt PS PV

PT. #1 PT. #2 PT. #3 AIRFLOW

Pt Pt
PS
PRESSURE PS
Pa (INCHES W.G.) PV
PV

Figure 5D - Venturi System

Air Systems | 17
For the purposes of illustration, assume this is a
perfect device with no losses. The velocity pressure,
static pressure, and total pressure at each point in the
system are shown on the gauges as well as on the
lower portion of the illustration. Part of the static at
point 1 is converted to velocity pressure as the fluid
is accelerated in the contracted flow area in the neck
of the venturi. At point 2, in the neck of the venturi,
the velocity pressure reaches its maximum and the
static pressure is reduced, but the total pressure
remains constant. As the flow area is gradually
increased to point 3, the velocity is slowed down to
the original velocity and the velocity pressure is
reduced to its original value. The static pressure
increases back to its original value also, while the
total pressure remains constant.
In this illustration, part of the static pressure at point
1 is converted to increased velocity pressure at point
2 and the velocity pressure is then converted back
into static pressure at point 3.
The conversion of the velocity pressure into static
pressure by reducing the velocity is known as static
regain and it is very important to understand this
phenomenon in the design of flow systems.
In air systems, changes in velocity often occur as the
air flows through the various elements comprising the
system. Some total pressure loss will occur any time
the velocity in the system is increased or decreased.
The magnitude of these losses is dependent on the
physical characteristics of the system element in
which the velocity change takes place. Decreases in
velocity occurring at abrupt enlargements in area
result in total pressure losses approaching one
velocity pressure.
Figure 5E illustrates air flowing from a large plenum
through a long radius flow nozzle and discharging to
atmosphere.
POINT 1 POINT 2
Figure 5E - Airflow Through a Nozzle
18 | Air Systems
If the plenum is very large relative to the nozzle
diameter, the velocity in the plenum will approach
zero, so the total pressure at point 1 (Pt1) will be equal
to the static pressure (Ps1). Assuming a perfect fluid
and no losses occurring in the nozzle, the static
pressure in the plenum (point 1) is totally converted
to velocity pressure at the discharge of the nozzle
(point 2).
At point 2, just beyond the discharge end of the
nozzle, the static pressure (Ps2) will be zero (at
atmospheric pressure) and the total pressure (Pt2) will
be equal to the velocity pressure of the air stream.
Applying Bernoulli's Equation for points 1 and 2
gives:
Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2
Since Pv1 is equal to 0 and Ps2 is equal to 0, the
equation reduces to:
Ps1 = Pv2
In this case, the energy of the static pressure in the
plenum is totally converted to the velocity energy at
the discharge of the nozzle. It should also be noted
that the velocity pressure is totally lost as the
airstream discharges to atmosphere.
Using Equation 5.1-2A (as reduced above) the
relationship between static pressure and the throat
velocity can be established in the above example.
Using this in Equation 5.1-2A gives:
V2 = (2Ps1/ρ2)0.5 Eq. 5.3-2A SI
V2 = 1096(Ps1/ρ2)0.5 Eq. 5.3-2A I-P
Or where: Ps1 = Pv2
Then for standard air, the equations would be:
V2 = 1.29(Ps1)0.5 Eq. 5.3-2B SI
V2 = 4005(Ps1)0.5 Eq. 5.3-2B I-P
The throat velocity pressure would be:
Pv2 = 0.5ρ2V22 Eq. 5.3-3A SI
Pv2 = (V2/1096)2ρ2 Eq. 5.3-3A I-P
Where:
Ps1 = Pv2
Then, for standard air, the equation would be: In practical system design both Cn and Y approach
unity and can normally be neglected. However, these
Pv2 = 0.6V 2 Eq. 5.3-3B SI factors are important when measuring fan
performance in accordance with ANSI/AMCA
Pv2 = (V2/4005)2 Eq. 5.3-3B I-P Standard 210.

In the above example, the quantity of flow would be In Figure 5F, the nozzle is replaced by a sharp edged
dependent on the area of the nozzle discharge and orifice. The flow through the orifice tends to neck
the velocity in the throat as given by the equation: down to a flow area smaller than the orifice diameter.
The point at which the flow area reaches its minimum
Q2 = V2A2 is called the vena contracta. The flow through the
orifice is given by the equation:
Where:
Q = Cd(2Ps/ρ)0.5A Eq. 5.3-6 SI
Q = Airflow rate, m3/s(cfm)
V = Velocity, m/s (ft/min) Q = Cd1096(Ps/ρ)0.5A Eq. 5.3-6 I-P
A = Area, m2 (ft2)
Where:
Substituting for V2 from Equation 5.3-2A and 5.3-2B
gives: A = Area of orifice, m2 (ft2)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge, dimensionless
Q = (2Ps1/ρ2)0.5A2 Eq. 5.3-4A SI
VENA CONTRACTA
Q = 1096(Ps1/ρ2 )0.5A
2 Eq. 5.3-4A I-P

And for standard air:

Q = 1.29(Ps1)0.5A2 Eq. 5.3-4B SI

Q = 4005(Ps1)0.5A2 Eq. 5.3-4B I-P

The flow nozzle in the above illustration is the basis

for airflow measurement in the ANSI/AMCA Standard
210 duct nozzle and chamber nozzle methods of
airflow measurement. The ANSI/AMCA Standard 210
nozzle very closely approaches perfect flow
conditions with almost zero losses. There are,
however, some losses which vary with Reynolds
number as well as the effect of the compressibility of
the gas which must be accounted for. The Equation
5.3-4A must be modified by adding factors for the
losses and compressibility.
The equation of flow becomes:
Q = CnY(2Ps/ρ)0.5A Eq. 5.3-5 SI
Q = CnY1096(Ps/ρ)0.5A 5.3-5 I-P
Where:
Q = Airflow, m3/s (cfm)
Cn = Nozzle coefficient, dimensionless
Y = Expansion factor, dimensionless
A = Area of nozzle, m2 (ft2)
Figure 5F - Airflow Through an Orifice
In this case, the coefficient of discharge (Cd)
accounts for the reduction in flow area of the vena
contracta and losses occurring in the flow system.
The value of the coefficient of discharge is dependent
on the Reynolds number of the flow system. Where
sharp edged orifices are used in the duct system, the
coefficient of discharge is also dependent on the ratio
of orifice diameter to duct diameter.
As in the previous example, all of the velocity
pressure is lost as the airstream discharges to
atmosphere. Where ducts or plenums are used on
the discharge of nozzles or orifices, a portion of the
velocity pressure at the nozzle discharge is regained
as static pressure as the velocity returns to a normal
distribution.

Air Systems | 19
If we plot the flow through these elements versus Resistance Curve (see Figure 5H) the point of
static pressure as shown in Figure 5G, we obtain a operation is at the intersection of the fan performance
squared curve which is typical of flow versus curve and the System Resistance curve.
pressure for any constant system.

SYSTEM
RESISTANCE

PRESSURE
PRESSURE

POINT OF
OPERATION

P = KQ2

FAN PRESSURE
CURVE
FLOW FLOW

Figure 5G - Typical System Resistance Curve Figure 5H - Typical Point of Operation

These curves are called System Resistance curves,
and define the relationship of flow versus pressure
for any system with constant resistance. System
Resistance curves are defined by the following
equations:
Q = (2Ps/ρ)0.5Ae Eq. 5.3-7A SI
5.4 Fan total and static pressure
The flow of a gas through a system of ducts and
various system elements requires energy:
a) To accelerate the air from ambient conditions at
the entry to the system

Q = 1096(Ps/ρ)0.5Ae Eq. 5.3-7A I-P b) To overcome the losses in the system from
friction and system element shock losses
Then for standard air:
c) For the loss of energy dissipated as velocity at
Q = 1.29(Ps )0.5A Eq. 5.3-7B SI the system outlet
e

d) To overcome any static pressure at the entry or

Q = 4005(Ps)0.5Ae Eq. 5.3-7B I-P
outlet of the system
Where: The fan provides this energy by the increase in total
pressure from the fan's inlet to the fan's outlet. The
Q = Airflow, m3/s (cfm) inlet plane of a fan is referred to as Plane 1 and the
Ps = Pressure, Pa (in. wg) outlet plane as Plane 2. The total pressure provided
ρ = Gas density, kg/m3 (lbm/ft3) by the fan is made up of static pressure and velocity
Ae = Area of an orifice having resistance equivalent pressure components.
to the system resistance, m2 (ft2) (equivalent
orifice) The total pressure of a fan is defined as

The System Resistance concept is very useful in PtF = Pt2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-1
understanding flow in complete systems or elements
of flow systems. If we add a fan curve to the System Or:

PtF = Ps2 + Pv2 - Ps1 - Pv1 Eq. 5.4-2

20 | Air Systems
The velocity pressure of a fan is defined as:
PvF = Pv2 Eq. 5.4-3
The static pressure of a fan is defined as:
PsF = PtF - PvF Eq. 5.4-4
Fan static pressure, as defined, is a term that is
peculiar to fans and is not consistent with the normal
meaning of static pressure rise. Fan static pressure is
derived from the method of testing fans where the fan
static pressure is equal to gauge static pressure at
the fan discharge when the fan draws air from
surrounding atmosphere through a well shaped inlet.
Special care must be used when using fan static
pressure for purposes of matching the required fan
performance against system total pressure losses.
The relationship of these pressures is covered in
detail for various systems further on in this section.
The static pressure of a fan can also be stated in
several other forms. Substituting Equation 5.4-2 for
the total pressure of the fan in Equation 5.4-4 gives:
PsF = Ps2 + Pv2 - Ps1 - Pv1 - Pv2 Eq. 5.4-5
Simplifying:
PsF = Ps2 - Ps1 - Pv1 Eq. 5.4-6
Since:
Ps1 + Pv1 = Pt1
The equation can be restated as:
PsF = Ps2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-7
5.4.1 Fan performance specification. The system
designer should be aware of the effect of the velocity
pressure at the outlet of the system and the velocity
pressure of the fan discharge (plane 2) on the
determination of fan total or static pressure for the
system. The net result of the fan total or static
pressure requirements at a given flow rate for the
system is the fan performance specification, which is
normally stated as flow at a specific static, or total
pressure. This statement of required fan performance
is, in reality, a statement of one point on a system
resistance or equivalent orifice curve, which then
defines the flow and pressure relationship of the
system being designed.
The actual point of operation of the combined fan and
system will be the intersection of the fan performance
curve and the system curve as shown in Figure 5J.
Both static pressure and total pressure curves of the
fan and system resistance are shown. Either set of
curves can be used for the flow rate because the
point of operation is the same. The difference in
pressure at the point of operation between the total
pressure curve and the static pressure curve is the
velocity pressure at the fan discharge (plane 2).
Most fans are rated in terms of static pressure and
flow, however, fans having high discharge velocities
such as vaneaxial fans are quite often rated in terms
of total pressure. Be aware of these different
methods of rating and be certain whether fan static
pressure or fan total pressure was used to determine
the fan selection.
5.4.2 Fan system pressure relationships. Figure
5K shows the relationship of total pressure, static
pressure and velocity pressure for a fan with free inlet
conditions and discharging through a duct against
some system. In this example the fan is shown as
being equipped with a short inlet duct and an inlet
bell. For simplicity's sake it is assumed that there are
no losses at the inlet to the fan.
The total pressure prior to the entry of the fan in
Figure 5K is zero and since it was assumed that there
are no entry losses, the total pressure remains zero
until the flow is acted upon by the fan. As air enters
the fan, its velocity and the pressure due to that
velocity (velocity pressure) increases while static
pressure decreases in direct proportion. (In actual
conditions there will be some entry losses which will
be accounted for in the fan performance rating.)
Referring to Figure 5K, the fan total pressure is equal
to the total pressure at plane 2 minus the total
pressure at plane 1.
PtF = Pt2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-8
The fan static pressure is equal to the total pressure
at plane 2 minus the velocity pressure at plane 2.
PsF = Pt2 - Pv2 Eq. 5.4-9
The static pressure of the fan can also be stated as
the static pressure at plane 2 minus the static
pressure at plane 1 minus the velocity pressure at
plane 1.
PsF = Ps2 - Ps1 - Pv1 Eq. 5.4-10
Or, as the static pressure at plane 2 minus the total
pressure at plane 1.
PsF = Ps2 - Pt1 Eq. 5.4-11
Air Systems | 21
The actual static pressure rise across the fan from
plane 1 to plane 2 will be greater than the fan static
pressure by the amount of the velocity pressure at
the fan inlet, plane 1. The difference in the actual
static pressure rise across the fan and the fan static
pressure represents the energy required to
accelerate the air to its entry velocity. This kinetic
energy is retained by the moving air stream until
there is a change in velocity in the system or it is
dissipated at the point of discharge, and as such
does not represent a loss in total pressure until it is
discharged.
5.5 The total system
A fan provides the total pressure to move the air
through a system and the flow rate will reach a point
of equilibrium (point of operation) when the total
pressure provided by the fan equals the total
pressure losses in the system at that flow rate. A
typical system with inlet and discharge resistance is
illustrated in Figure 5L.
Applying Bernoulli's Equation at the point of entry and
the outlet:

The equipment arrangement shown in Figure 5K is PtE = PtO + Pt loss E,O - PtF Eq. 5.5-1
typical of the test conditions for fans in ANSI/AMCA
Standard 210, and is the basis for fan performance Rearranging:
ratings. When fans are tested in accordance with
ANSI/AMCA Standard 210, the inlet and discharge PtF = Pt loss, E,O + PtO - PtE Eq. 5.5-2
conditions are rigidly specified for each test method.
Restating in terms of Ps and Pv:
When a fan is installed in an air system where the
actual entry and exit conditions are different than the PtF = Pt loss E,O + PsO + PvO - PsE - PvE
test conditions, the performance of the fan may be
altered and System Effect factors must be used to
PtF = Pt loss E,O + PvO + (PsO - PsE - PvE) Eq. 5.5-3
account for the altered performance. AMCA
Publication 201, Fans and Systems describes
Substituting from Equation 5.4-4 for PtF :
various System Effects and provides quantitative
data for calculating System Effect losses.

AIRFOIL FAN - SWSI

PvF
PRESSURE

SYSTEM RESISTANCE
(TOTAL PRESSURE) PtF

PsF
SYSTEM RESISTANCE
(STATIC PRESSURE)

VOLUME FLOW RATE

Figure 5J - Constant Speed Performance Curve with System Resistance

22 | Air Systems
PsF = [Pt loss E,O + PvO + (PsO - PsE - PvE)] - PvF is included in the total pressure loss of the discharge
Eq. 5.5-4 element.

Equations 5.5-3 and 5.5-4 are the general statements
of fan total pressure or fan static pressure required
for flow through a system. The Pt loss term is the loss
internal to the system from friction and shock losses.
The PvO term represents the energy loss to the
system contained in the velocity at the outlet of the
system.
In Equation 5.5-4, the items enclosed in large
brackets represent the fan total pressure.
In the normal method of calculating system total
pressure losses, the velocity pressure at the outlet(s)
System total pressure loss = total pressure loss
internal to the system, plus the velocity pressure loss
at the outlet(s) of the system.
The term (PsO - PsE - PvE) represents the change in fan
total pressure or fan static pressure requirements
because of the static pressure conditions existing at
the system entry or outlet and any velocity pressure
present at the system entry. Velocity and velocity
pressure generated by external sources, such as
wind, at the system entry are seldom encountered,
so the PvE term can generally be disregarded.

PLANE 1 PLANE 2 RESISTANCE

ELEMENT
E

ENTRY FLOW OUTLET

0
FAN
PtF = Pt2 - Pt1
PsF = PtF - Pv2

Pt

+ Pv Pt2 = PtF

Ps2 = PsF
Pv1 Pv2
PtE= 0 0
Ps1
_ Ps ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE

Volume Flow Rate m3/sec (cfm)

Figure 5K - Fan with Discharge Resistance

(AMCA Installation Type B)
Air Systems | 23
 RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
ELEMENT PLANE 1 PLANE 2 ELEMENT
E
O
ENTRY FLOW FAN OUTLET

PtF Pv2

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
Pv Pt2
PvO = PtO
+ Ps2
PtE = 0 0
_
Pt PsF
ABSOLUTE
Ps PRESSURE
Ps1

PtE = PtO + Pt LOSS - PtF Pvt

PtF = Pt LOSS + PvO + (PsO - PsE - PvE)
PsF = [Pt LOSS + PvO + (PsO - PsE - PvE)] - Pv2

Figure 5L - Fan with Inlet and Discharge Resistance

(AMCA Installation Type D)

PLANE 1 PLANE 2
E O
ENTRY OUTLET

FLOW

FAN

Ptf = PvF PtF = PvF + PsF

since
+
PsF = 0
PtF = PvF = Pv2
0

Figure 5M - Fan with No Resistance at Either the Inlet or the Discharge

(AMCA Installation Type A)
24 | Air Systems
 RESISTANCE
E ELEMENT
PLANE 1 PLANE 2

ENTRY FLOW FAN OUTLET

0

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE Pt FAN PtO = Pv2
Pv

+ Pt
PtE = 0
_
Ps
Ps
Pt1 ABSOLUTE
FAN
PRESSURE
Pv Ps1
PtF = Pt LOSS + PvO
Where:
PsF = Pt LOSS + PvO - Pv2
Pv1
since PvO = Pv2
PsF = Pt LOSS
(Pressure Loss Internal to System)

Figure 5N - Fan with Inlet Resistance

(AMCA Installation Type C)

Air Systems | 25
5.6 Types of fan system PsF = Pt loss + PvO - Pv2 Eq. 5.6-2

There are four basic system Installation Types:
AMCA INSTALLATION TYPE A:
Free Inlet, Free Outlet
In the special case where the velocity pressure at the
outlet is equal to the velocity pressure at the fan
discharge, the fan static pressure will equal the total
pressure loss. If these velocity pressures are different
the fan total pressure and fan static pressure must be
increased or decreased by the amount of the
difference in these velocity pressures.

5.6.3 AMCA Installation Type C: Fan system with

AMCA INSTALLATION TYPE B:
Free Inlet, Ducted Outlet
ducted inlet and free outlet. Figure 5N illustrates a
system with all system losses on the inlet side of the
fan. Since the velocity pressure at the outlet equals
the velocity pressure of the fan discharge and is also
equal to the total pressure at the fan discharge, the
fan static pressure will be equal to the total pressure
losses of the system.

PsF = Pt loss Eq. 5.6-3

AMCA INSTALLATION TYPE C:
Ducted Inlet, Free Outlet
The fan in Figure 5N has a short discharge duct
which is the way ducted fans are normally tested. If a
fan is used at the end of a system and is not
equipped with a 2 to 3 diameter length of duct, the
system effect loss at the discharge must be included
when determining the total pressure loss.

AMCA INSTALLATION TYPE D: Fans designed for use at the end of a system, such
Ducted Inlet, Ducted Outlet as power roof ventilators, include the loss at the
discharge in the fan ratings and no system effect loss
is needed.

5.6.4 AMCA Installation Type D: Fan system with

Figure 5P - Installation Types
5.6.1 AMCA Installation Type A: Fan system with
free inlet and free outlet. An AMCA Type A
installation covers equipment such as window fans,
panel fans and power roof ventilators. This type of
installation, in which there is no resistance at the fan
inlet or outlet, is shown in Figure 5M. The fan
provides the total pressure necessary to move air to
the velocity at the fan outlet. The total pressure of the
fan for this special case is equal to the fan velocity
pressure Pv2.
5.6.2 AMCA Installation Type B: Fan system with
free inlet and ducted outlet. Figure 5K shows a fan
system with discharge resistance. In this system:
PtF = Pt loss + PvO Eq. 5.6-1
Where:
PsO = Ps1 + Pv1 = 0
And:
ducted inlet and ducted outlet. Figure 5L illustrates
a system with system resistance on both inlet and
discharge sides of the fan. In this case the general
equations 5.5-3 and 5.5-4 apply. In the special case
where the velocity pressure at the outlet is equal to
the velocity pressure of the fan discharge, the fan
static pressure is equal to the total pressure loss
internal to the system.
The system shown in Figure 5L has higher velocity
pressure, relative to the static pressure, than would
normally be expected in a system. This is done to
emphasize the velocity pressure effects on system
total pressure losses for purposes of illustration.
To illustrate the effect of the outlet velocity on the total
pressure requirements, Figure 5Q shows the same
system as in Figure 5L with the addition of an evasé
outlet (diffuser) on the system. The evasé outlet
greatly reduces the system outlet velocity pressure.
The reduction in fan total pressure and fan static
pressure is clearly evident when compared to the
system in Figure 5L and is equal to the reduction in
the velocity pressure at the duct outlet minus the total

26 | Air Systems
pressure loss in the evasé section. Losses will be CoPvo
quite small for a long evasé outlet of good design SR = Eq. 5.7-4 SI
(Q / 1.29)2
(optimum included angle is about 10 degrees). The
change in fan static pressure, because of the change
in the outlet velocity, is accounted for in the terms CoPvo
"PvO - PvF" in Equation 5.5-4. SR = Eq. 5.7-4 I-P
(Q / 4005)2

When system velocities exceed 15 m/s (3000 ft/min),

5.7.1 System resistance factors in series. The
consideration should be given to the use of an evasé
particular value of using the system resistance factor
outlet to reduce the system pressure requirements.
SR is that for resistances in series, the SR factors of
See ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, chapter on
Duct Design for more information on the subject. each element can be added to determine the system
resistance factor of the total system. As an example,
the three Figure 5R resistance factors in series can
5.7 System resistance factors
be added to obtain the system resistance factor of the
complete system.
The flow through any system is proportional to the
square root of the pressure causing the flow. This
In this case, the resistance factors (given for SI and
relationship, which defines the flow versus pressure
(I-P) units, respectively) of 34.49 (0.3), 22.99 (0.2),
characteristics of a particular system, is very useful in
and 17.25 (0.15), total 74.73 (0.65). The pressure
fan and system designs. The flow rate in any system
loss of this system would be defined by the equation:
was given earlier in equation 5.3-4B and can be
restated here as:
Pt loss = (Q/1.29)2SR Eq. 5.7-5 SI
Q = 1.29(Ps)0.5Ao Eq. 5.7-1 SI
Pt loss = (Q/4005)2SR Eq. 5.7-5 I-P
Q = 4005(Ps)0.5Ao Eq. 5.7-1 I-P
For an airflow rate of 2.83 m3/s (6000 cfm):
For standard air, where:
SI:
Ao = area of flow nozzle with no loss
Pt loss = (Q/1.29)2SR
This can also be stated as: = (2.83/1.29)2 (34.49 + 22.99 + 17.25)
= (2.195)2 (74.73)
Pt = (Q/1.29)2SR Eq. 5.7-2 SI = (4.818)(74.73)
= 360 Pa
Pt = (Q/4005)2SR Eq. 5.7-2 I-P
I-P:
Where:
Pt loss = (Q/4005)2SR
SR = System resistance factor, m-4 (ft-4) = (6000/4005)2 (0.3 + 0.2 + 0.15)
= 1/Ao2 = (1.498)2 (0.65)
= (2.244)(0.65)
= 1.45 in. wg
The system resistance factor can be calculated from
known pressure loss information:
5.7.2 System resistance factors in parallel. Similar
relationships can be established for flow through
ΔPt parallel systems. The total pressure loss through
SR = Eq. 5.7-3 SI
(Q / 1.29)2 each branch of a parallel system must be equal to
establish equilibrium.
ΔPt In Figure 5S the system resistance factor of each
SR = Eq. 5.7-3 I-P
(Q / 4005)2 branch is given as 0.3 and 0.2; and since the
pressure loss will be equal in both branches we can
for standard air. They can also be calculated from the equate these losses.
dynamic loss coeffient:

Air Systems | 27
 RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
ELEMENT PLANE 1 PLANE 2 ELEMENT
E 0

ENTRY FLOW FAN OUTLET

ATMOSPHERIC PtF Pv2

PRESSURE Pt2
Pv
Pv0 = Pt0
+ Ps2
PtE = 0 0
_ Ps
PsF
Pt ABSOLUTE
PRESSURE
Ps1

Pvt

Figure 5Q - Fan with Inlet and Discharge Resistance - Evasé Outlet Added

RESISTANCE 1 RESISTANCE 2 RESISTANCE 3

SR1 = 34.49 m-4 SR2 = 22.99 m-4 SR2 = 17.25 m-4

(0.3 ft.-4) (0.2 ft.-4) (0.15 ft.-4)

Figure 5R - Resistance in Series

RESISTANCE 1 Q1

SR1 = 34.49 m-4

(0.3 ft.-4)

QT

RESISTANCE 2 Q2

SR2 = 22.99 m-4

(0.2 ft.-4)
Figure 5S - Resistance in Parallel
28 | Air Systems
 2 2
⎡ Q1 ⎤ ⎡ Q2 ⎤ ⎡ 0.4472 ⎤
⎢ C ⎥ SR1 = ⎢ C ⎥ SR2 = QT ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0.9949 ⎦

Where: = QT (0.4495)
C = 1.29 (for SI units)
= 4005 (for I-P units) If:

And: QT = 0.472 m3/s or (1000 cfm)

Q1 SR2
= And:
Q2 SR1
Q1 = QT (0.4495)
⎡ S ⎤
Q1 = Q2 ⎢ R2 ⎥ Eq. 5.7-6
⎢⎣ SR1 ⎥⎦ Then:

Q1 = (0.472 m3/s)(0.4495) or (1000 cfm)(0.4495)

Substituting:
= 0.212 m3/s or (449.5 cfm)
Q2 = QT - Q1
And:
⎡ SR2 ⎤
Q1 = QT ⎢ ⎥ Eq. 5.7-7 Q2 = QT - Q1
⎢⎣ SR1 + SR2 ⎥⎦ = 0.472 m3/s - 0.212 m3/s or (1000 cfm - 449.5 cfm)
= 0.260 m3/s or (550.5 cfm)
For the example shown in Figure 5S:
It can further be demonstrated that the relationship of
SI: the system resistance factors for parallel systems is:
⎡ SR2 ⎤
Q1 = QT ⎢ ⎥ 1 1 1 1
⎢⎣ SR1 + SR2 ⎥⎦ = + + ... +
SRT SR1 SR2 SRn

⎡ 22.99 ⎤ System resistance factors can be quite useful in

= QT ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 34.49 + 22.99 ⎥⎦ many system design and analysis problems.

5.8 System design and loss calculations

⎡ 4.795 ⎤
= QT ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 5.873 + 4.795 ⎦ There are a number of design methods for sizing duct
work such as Equal Friction, Static Regain, etc.,
which are commonly used. The specific details of
⎡ 4.795 ⎤
= QT ⎢ ⎥ these various methods will not be covered in this
⎣10.667 ⎦ publication, and the reader is referred to the
ASHRAE Guide and the Industrial Ventilation Guide
= QT ( 0.4495 ) on this subject.

I-P: The procedure for calculating the total pressure loss

of the system is included as it is vital to the selection
⎡ SR2 ⎤ of the fan.
Q1 = QT ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ SR1 + SR2 ⎥⎦
Figure 5T, shown previously, will be used as an
example of the method of calculating the system total
⎡ 0 .2 ⎤ pressure loss and fan static pressure required.
= QT ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.3 + 0.2 ⎥⎦
It is necessary to include in the loss calculation all
factors that contribute pressure loss, including
⎡ 0.4472 ⎤ System Effects. The general method is to determine
= QT ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ( 0 . 5477 + 0 . 4472 ) ⎦ the loss of each element of the system as they occur

Air Systems | 29
and total the losses. In systems that include parallel ITEM DUCT,
branches it is customary to determine the loss of the 6.096 m (20 ft.) of 0.4064 m (16 in.) diameter.
branch path that has the highest resistance to Airflow = 0.94 m3/s (2000 cfm)
establish the fan requirements. Other branch paths Pt Loss = 8.94 Pa (0.036 in. wg)
that have lower losses must have resistance added
to them to balance the system since the total ITEM D - DIVIDED FLOW FITTING,
pressure loss of each path must be equal. 0.4572 m (18 in.) to 0.4064 m (16 in.) and 0.3048 m
(12 in.) diameter, with a main branch dynamic loss
5.8.1 Example: System loss calculations for coefficient of 0.
branch 1 (dynamic loss coefficient method) Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pv = 44.70 Pa (0.18 in. wg)
ITEM K - DISCHARGE DIFFUSER Pt Loss = 44.70 × 0 (0.18 × 0)
0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter with a dynamic loss
= 0 Pa (0 in. wg)
coefficient of 0.50.
NOTE: The net loss in the main branch of this fitting
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) is zero (0), since there is static regain to offset the loss.
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg)
Pt Loss = 0.50 × 25.08 (0.50 × 0.101) ITEM DUCT,
= 12.54 Pa (0.051 in. wg) 12.192 m (40 ft.), 0.4572 m (18 in.) diameter.
NOTE: Loss coefficient includes velocity lost at Airflow = 1.42 m3/s (3000 cfm)
discharge and static regained by diffusion. Pt Loss = 21.36 Pa (0.086 in. wg)

ITEM J - BALANCING DAMPER, E through H -These losses may be included in the

0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter with a dynamic loss manufacturer's rating data.
coefficient of 0.52.
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) ITEM E - ENTRANCE,
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg) from plenum 0.4572 m (18 in.) diameter, dynamic
Pt Loss = 0.52 × 25.08 (0.52 × 0.101) loss coefficient of 0.5.
= 13.04 Pa (0.053 in. wg) Airflow = 1.42 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pv = 44.70 Pa (0.18 in. wg)
ITEM DUCT, Pt Loss = 44.70 × 0.5 (0.18 × 0.5)
6.096 m (20 ft.) of 0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter. = 22.35 Pa (0.09 in. wg)
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm)
Pt Loss = 10.18 Pa (0.041 in. wg) ITEM F - COIL
(from Annex D) Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pt Loss = 74.51 Pa (0.3 in. wg)
ITEM A - ELBOW, (from manufacturer's data)
0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter with dynamic loss
coefficient of 0.22. ITEM G - FILTER
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg) Pt Loss = 86.93 Pa (0.35 in. wg)
Pt Loss = 0.22 × 25.08 (0.22 × 0.101) (from manufacturer's data)
= 5.518 Pa (0.022 in. wg)
ITEM FAN,
ITEM DUCT, Bulkhead Discharge (SEF due to lack of fan
6.096 m (20 ft.) of 0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter. discharge ductwork).
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) Airflow = 1.416 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pt Loss = 10.18 Pa (0.041 in. wg) Fan vel. = 6.53 m/s (1285 fpm)
SEF = 39.74 Pa (0.16 in. wg)
ITEM C - DIVIDED FLOW FITTING, (from AMCA Publication 201)
0.4064 m (16 in.) diameter to two 0.3048 m (12 in.)
diameter with a main branch dynamic loss coefficient ITEM FAN,
of 0.12. Fan enclosed in a cabinet; SEF due to plenum wall
Airflow = 0.94 m3/s (2000 cfm) being too close to fan inlet).
Pv = 32.29 Pa (0.13 in. wg) Airflow = 1.42 m3/s (3000 cfm)
Pt Loss = 0.12 × 32.29 (0.12 × 0.13) Inlet vel. = 5.31 ms (1045 fpm)
= 3.88 Pa (0.016 in. wg) SEF = 7.45 Pa (0.03 in. wg)
(from AMCA Publication 201)

30 | Air Systems
ITEM H - INTAKE LOUVER resistance will need to be added by adjusting its
Airflow = 1.42 m3/s (3000 cfm) damper to balance the system.
Pt Loss = 19.87 Pa (0.08 in. wg)
(from manufacturer's data) 5.8.3 Fan selection for the example system. The
total system pressure loss of the branch with the
SYSTEM TOTAL PRESSURE LOSS BRANCH 1 = highest resistance must be used to determine the fan
336.4 Pa (1.355 in. wg). pressure requirements. The fan will need to provide a
total pressure of 336.2 Pa (1.354 in. wg) at 1.42 m3/s
5.8.2 Example: System loss calculations for (3000 cfm). The fan static pressure PsF is equal to the
branch 2: fan total pressure PtF minus the calculated fan
discharge velocity pressure Pv2.
ITEM K - DIFFUSER
Pt Loss = 12.42 Pa (0.050 in. wg) PsF = PtF - Pv2
NOTE: Loss coefficient includes velocity lost at = 336.2 - 25.58
discharge and static regained by diffusion. = 310.62 Pa or (1.354 - 0.103 = 1.251 in. wg)

ITEM J - DAMPER This procedure applies to any system regardless of

Pt Loss = 12.91 Pa (0.052 in. wg) its complexity. The important point is that all losses,
including System Effect losses, need to be included
ITEM DUCT, in the calculations. In this, as in many systems, the
6.096 m (20 ft.) of 0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter. System Effect losses are a significant portion of the
Pt Loss = 10.18 Pa (0.041 in. wg) total pressure loss. AMCA Publication 201 should be
used to determine the System Effect losses for
ITEM B - 45° ELBOW, various fan inlet and outlet conditions. Figure 5W
0.3048 m (12 in.) diameter, dynamic loss coefficient shows the point of operation of this system, where
of 0.13. the system resistance curve intersects the fan
Airflow = 0.47 m3/s (1000 cfm) performance curve.
Pv = 25.08 Pa (0.101 in. wg)
5.9 Density effects in air systems
Since the elbow is located one duct diameter from
the divided flow fitting there will be a System Effect Since the density of the air varies with temperature,
loss that will need to be included. pressure (altitude), and humidity, it is necessary to
evaluate the effect of density on the system design
K factor from Figure 4H = 1.08 and fan performance. Because of the variations in
Pt Loss = 25.08 × 0.13 × 1.08 (0.101 × 0.13 × 1.08) density encountered in all air systems, a standard
= 3.52 Pa (0.014 in. wg) density was established, and is used as the basis for
determining fan performance and system pressure
ITEM C - DIVIDED FLOW FITTING, losses. Standard air density is defined as air with a
0.4064 m (16 in.) diameter to 0.3048 m (12 in.) density of 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075 lbm/ft3). Fan performance
diameter with a branch dynamic loss coefficient of ratings and system element pressure loss ratings are
0.46. based on handling air at standard density.
Airflow = 0.94 m3/s (2000 cfm)
Pv = 32.29 Pa (0.13 in. wg) The system designer must evaluate the actual air
K factor from Figure 4H = 1.08 density that will be handled by the system in order to
Pt Loss = 0.46 × 32.29 × 1.08 (0.46 × 0.13 × 1.08) properly determine the volume of flow required and
= 16.04 Pa (0.065 in. wg) the actual pressure losses in the system. Since fans
are essentially constant volume machines, the
Losses for the balance of the system are the same as volume of air handled by the fan will remain constant
those previously calculated. These total 281.1 Pa regardless of the density, but the total pressure
(1.132 in. wg). developed by the fan and the power required by the
fan will vary in direct proportion to the density.
SYSTEM TOTAL PRESSURE LOSS BRANCH 2 = Similarly, the pressure losses in the system due to
336.2 Pa (1.354 in. wg). friction and shock losses will also vary directly with
density.
The loss through branch 2 is equal to the loss
through branch 1, and the branches are in balance. In many applications it is actually the mass flow rate
Similar calculations for branch 3 show that it has a that is important, and, therefore, the volume of air
lower resistance than branches 1 and 2, and some required should be determined from the mass flow

Air Systems | 31
 12.2m 6.1m 6.1m
FAN
D C A
1.42m3/s
0.94m3/s 0.472m3/s

0.41m DIA. 0.30m DIA.

0.46m DIA.
E B B

COIL
F 0.30m DIA. 0.30m DIA.
FILTER 0.472m3/s 0.472m3/s
G
LOUVER
H J J DAMPER J
DIFFUSER K K K

3 2 1

SI

40 ft. 20 ft. 20 ft.

FAN
D C A
3000 CFM
2000 CFM 1000 CFM

16” DIA. 12” DIA.

18” DIA.
E B B

COIL
F 12” DIA. 12” DIA.
FILTER 1000 CFM 1000 CFM
G
LOUVER
H J J DAMPER J
DIFFUSER K K K

3 2 1

I-P

Figure 5T - Typical Air System

32 | Air Systems
 0.3810m DWDI FAN
0.2165M2 OUTLET AREA
600 1316 RPM
DESIGN
SYSTEM
PRESSURE, Pa

300

PT vs FLOW

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

3
m /sec

15” DWDI FAN

2.33 FT2 OUTLET AREA
2 1316 RPM
DESIGN
SYSTEM
PRESSURE, H2O in. wg

PT vs FLOW

0 1 2 3 4
CFM × 1000

Figure 5W - Fan Performance Versus System

Air Systems | 33
rate required at the design conditions. As an
example, in a system requiring a mass flow rate of
226.8 kg/min (500 lbm/min) at 121.1°C (250°F) and
at an altitude of 914.4 m (3000 ft), the air density from
Annex E is 0.800 kg/m3 (.05 lbm/ft3). The required
volume flow rate can then be determined by dividing
the mass flow rate by the design density:
SI (Volume flow rate)
226.8 kg/min ÷ (60 s/min × 0.800 kg/m3) = 4.725 m3/s
I-P (Volume flow rate)
500 lbm/min ÷ 0.5 lbm/ft3 = 10000 cfm
The pressure loss in the system would be calculated
based on 4.725 m3/s (10000 cfm) at standard air
density of 1.2 kg/m3 (.075 lbm/ft3). If in this example
the pressure loss at standard air is 1490.16 Pa (6 in.
wg) the pressure loss at actual conditions would be
this value multiplied by the density ratio:
SI (Pressure loss - actual conditions)
1490.15 Pa × (0.8 kg/m3 ÷ 1.2 kg/m3) = 993.44 Pa
I-P (Pressure loss - actual conditions)
6 in. wg × (.05 lbm/ft3 ÷ .075 lbm/ft3) = 4 in. wg
A fan for this system must be selected based on its
performance at standard conditions. For this example
select the fan for a performance of 4.725 m3/s (10000
cfm) at 1490.16 Pa (6 in. wg) static pressure.
Determine the fan power required at standard density
from the fan performance data. The power required
at actual conditions would then be calculated by
multiplying the catalog fan power by the density ratio.
In this example the fan power required at standard
conditions is 10.82 kW (14.5 BHP). At the actual
operating conditions of 121.1°C (250°F) air at 914.4
m (3000 ft) altitude, the fan power required would be
the power for standard air multiplied by the density
ratio:
SI (Power at actual conditions)
10.82 kW × (0.8 kg/m3 ÷ 1.2 kg/m3) = 7.21 kW
I-P (Power at actual conditions)
14.5 BHP × (0.05 lbm/ft3) ÷ .075 lbm/ft3) = 9.67 BHP
Consider other density effects when selecting a fan
for elevated temperature operations. If in this
example the fan would be required to start and run
some period of time at normal temperature as the
system warms up, the motor should be selected on
the basis of the cold air density. Since the fan will be
at 914.4 m (3000 ft) altitude, the air density at 20°C
(68°F) and 914.4 m (3000 ft) should be used to
determine the required fan power. Air at these
34 | Air Systems
conditions (Annex E) has a density of 1.072 kg/m3
(0.067 lbm/ft3). The power at these conditions would
be the power for standard air multiplied by the density
ratio:
SI (Power required at 20°C and 914.4 m)
10.82 kW × (1.072 kg/m3 ÷ 1.2 kg/m3) = 9.67 kW
I-P (Power required at 68°F and 3000 ft)
14.5 BHP × (0.067 lbm/ft3 ÷ 0.075 lbm/ft3) = 12.95 BHP
In normal HVAC applications the effects of density
changes other than for operation at higher altitudes,
are quite often ignored and the system design is
based on handling standard air. The system designer
should, however, be aware of the effects of density
change and take them into consideration when
making field measurements of system performance
or balancing the system.
Use Annex C to determine the density of air over a
range of barometric pressures, temperatures, and
relative humidities. Annex E gives the density ratios
for a wide range of temperatures and altitudes. The
air density at the various conditions is obtained by
multiplying standard air density of 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075
lbm/ft3) by the factors shown in the table.
6. System Design and Tolerances
Before making a final determination of the fan
selection there are several factors in the design of a
system and the selection of a fan that need to be
understood and evaluated:
a) The effect of variation in the resistance of the
actual installed system versus the resistance of
the designed system, i.e.; point of operation
b) The fan performance characteristics and
system/performance tolerances
c) The effect of changes in the system, either
intentionally or unintentionally, on the point of
operation
d) The upper and lower system resistance design
points in systems that have variable resistance
characteristics (constant volume systems), or
that have variable fan performance
characteristics (variable air volume systems).
6.1 Point of operation
The system resistance of the actual installed system
can vary substantially from that calculated for the
system design, because of a number of factors:
a) The installed system is different from the
designed system, such as the addition of elbows
and offsets to meet field conditions, failure to
provide turning vanes in elbows, or the change in
position of various system elements with respect
to each other;
b) Excessive leakage or increased resistance due
to poor quality workmanship at the installation;
c) Loss coefficients of the various system elements
such as coils, filters, dampers, diffusers, elbows,
etc., improperly accounted for;
d) System Effects:
• not properly accounted for
• ignored in the original system design
• not accounted for because of on-site
installation changes.
The degree to which all of the various tolerances and
the field changes affect the actual system resistance
varies quite widely. Experience indicates that the
difference to be expected between the calculated and
actual system resistance can be as much as ±10%.
In extreme cases, greater system resistance
differentials have been experienced. Not accounting
for system effects in the design will result in a higher
system resistance and reduced flow.
6.2 Fan performance
There is a wide variety of basic fan designs in axial,
centrifugal and mixed flow variations. Curves of
several typical basic fans, all selected for a point of
operation of 3.30 m3/s (7000 cfm) at a static pressure
of 1490.16 Pa (6 in. wg), are shown on Figure 6A. All
of these fans pass through the design point of
operation, but with different slopes. The point of
highest efficiency will typically occur somewhat to the
right of the peak pressure point.
6.2.1 System resistance effect on performance.
The system resistance curves for the point of
operation and curves for ±10% and ±25% of the
design pressure are also shown in Figure 6A. The
intersection of these system lines with the various fan
curves show what range of volume performance can
be expected for each fan over this range of system
resistance. The amount of variation in flow rate with
changes in the system resistance will be dependent
on the slope of the fan performance curve in the
range of operation.
These curves are only shown to make the system
designer aware of the effect of the slope of the fan
curve on the expected system performance with
variations in system resistance. Many other factors
enter into the determination of the best fan type and
size for a given application.
6.2.2 Fan performance tolerance. The fan
performance also has a tolerance which must be
considered. The AMCA Check Test Tolerances are
described in AMCA Publication 211, Certified Ratings
Program -Air Performance, Product Rating
Requirement Subsection B. The AMCA Check Test
Tolerance is shown on Figure 6B. This tolerance is to
be applied along a parabolic system line. The power
required by the AMCA Check Test Tolerances shall
not exceed the rated data at the measured volume by
more than 5% or 37 watts, whichever is greater. The
fan curve in Figure 6B has dashed lines indicating the
tolerance range of fan performance, and when
combined with the system resistance tolerance
curves, an area of probable system performance is
indicated by the tolerance limits shown for the system
resistance and the tolerance limits shown for the fan
flow-pressure. As can be seen, the probable flow
range could be from 3.15 m3/s (6674 cfm) to 3.39
m3/s (7185 cfm) which is -4.7 to +2.6%. An installed
system tolerance range approaching ± 5.0% of flow
could be expected.
6.2.3 Performance safety factor. Evaluate the fan
performance tolerance and system resistance
tolerances to determine if the lower or upper limits of
the probable flow in the system are acceptable. The
combination of these tolerances should also be
evaluated to ensure that the high side system
resistance curve does not fall into the unstable
portion of the fan curve. With a few exceptions, all
fans have an unstable range of performance.
Operation in this area of the curve should be avoided
and precautions taken to ensure operation outside of
the unstable area at the highest expected system
resistance.
6.2.3.1 Static pressure safety factor. It has been
common practice among system designers to apply a
performance safety factor to the calculated system
requirements. This is often accomplished by adding a
nominal percentage of pressure to the system
pressure requirements. Some system designers will
size the system for a higher flow rate than is required.
The use of safety factors is discouraged when all
system components and system effects are
properly accounted for. The use of safety factors
is not required when system effect factors and all
known losses are accounted for.
Air Systems | 35
6.3 Effects of system changes
Some air systems are designed to operate at more
than one system condition, such as an exhaust
system serving multiple inlets where some of the
inlets can be closed off, or supply systems where
some of the outlets can be closed off or dampered for
reduced flow. The effect of these changes in the
system need to be evaluated in the system design
and the selection of a fan for this service. The main
concern would be that the fan is not forced to operate
in the unstable range. Also, the fan performance
should be such that the system performance is
acceptable over the range of operating conditions
desired. The motor must be selected to cover this
range of operating conditions. The system resistance
and system performance, for the example used in
Section 5.8, were calculated for the design condition
and also for two other system conditions. [Figure 6C
illustrates the effect of system changes.] The system
resistance and flow were calculated for the condition
where all the dampers were open and for the
condition where one of the dampers was closed.
Each of these conditions has a different system
resistance curve resulting in a different operating
point on the fan curve and a different total flow for the
system. The flow in each branch of the system will
also change. This leads to an important conclusion:
IN A FIXED SYSTEM, A CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
IN ANY ELEMENT WILL CHANGE THE TOTAL
SYSTEM RESISTANCE, AND AS A RESULT,
CHANGE THE POINT OF OPERATION ON THE
FAN CURVE AND THE FLOW RATE THROUGH ALL
OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM.
It is because of this interaction of the total system
with changes in any part of the system that the job of
balancing a system is very difficult.
6.4 Variable systems
Where systems are designed to be variable over
some range of operation, or where both the fan and
system are variable, the point of operation needs to
be evaluated at the upper and lower limits of
operation, relative to the tolerance of the fan and
system.
36 | Air Systems
Figure 6D shows a typical fan curve with system
resistance curves for a variable system where the
system pressure is allowed to vary as the system
demand for airflow changes. The system may be
varied by volume control, dampers, or other control
devices to provide a varying flow rate as demanded
by the system.
The tolerance ranges are shown for both the fan and
the system resistance. The most critical point in the
design of this type of system will be at the low flow-
high pressure condition. The fan selection and
system limits should be such that the fan will operate
in the stable portion of the fan curve at the maximum
resistance condition. Make sure the fan power
requirements over the tolerance range can be met by
the motor selected.
Figure 6E shows a typical set of fan curves for a
centrifugal fan with inlet vane control with system
resistance curves for a variable resistance system. In
this system, both the pressure and flow
characteristics of the fan are varied by changing the
inlet vanes position to meet the flow rate demand of
the system. Similar systems employ axial fans with
variable pitch control, or fans with variable speed
capability.
The critical area of fan selection is near the peak of
the pressure curve. Almost all fans exhibit some
degree of instability to the left of the peak pressure
point. It is wise to avoid operation in this range
without the expressed approval of the fan
manufacturer.
There are many system variations to meet various
design criteria that the designer may encounter. Not
all of the possibilities can be covered in the scope of
this publication. If fan users apply the principles
outlined in this publication to the specific system,
they can expect to design a good, functional system
and avoid many of the pitfalls often encountered in air
systems.
 +25%
+10%
PRESSURE

BACKWARD -10%
1490.16 Pa
INCLINED FAN -25%
(6.0 in. wg)

RADIAL
BLADE FAN

3.3m/s VANEAXIAL
(7000 cfm) FAN

VOLUME FLOWRATE

Figure 6A - Performance of Example Fans with System Varations

+10%

DESIGN POINT
OF OPERATION
-10%
PRESSURE

FAN CURVE

POTENTIAL SYSTEM
FLOW RANGE
3.15 m3/s 3.39 m3/s
(6701 cfm) (7210 cfm)
3.3 m3/s AMCA CERTIFIED RATING
(7000 cfm) TOLERANCE

VOLUME FLOWRATE

Figure 6B - Air Performance with Certified Ratings Tolerance

Air Systems | 37
 DWDI FAN

DESIGN
SYSTEM
TOTAL PRESSURE

ONE DAMPER CLOSED

ALL DAMPERS CLOSED

Pt vs FLOW

VOLUME FLOWRATE

Figure 6C - Fan and System Curves - System Changes

+10%
-10%
HIGH PRESSURE
DESIGN POINT

FAN CURVE

+10%
PRESSURE

LOW PRESSURE -10%

DESIGN POINT

AMCA CERTIFIED RATING

TOLERANCE

VOLUME FLOWRATE

Figure 6D - Fan and System Curves - Variable Resistance System

38 | Air Systems
 +10%
-10% MAXIMUM FLOW
DESIGN POINT
PRESSURE

VARIABLE VOLUME
SYSTEM RESISTANCE

IVC SETTING 1 IVC SETTING 2 IVC SETTING 3 IVC SETTING 4

STATIC PRESSURE
CONTROL POINT

VOLUME FLOWRATE

Figure 6E - Fan and System Curves - Variable Volume System

Air Systems | 39
Annex A. SI / I-P Conversion Table

Conversion factors between SI and I-P systems:

Quantity I-P to SI SI to I-P

Length (ft) 0.3048 = m (m) 3.2808 = ft

Mass (weight) (lbs) 0.4536 = kg (kg) 2.2046 = lbs.

Time The unit of time is the second in both systems

(ft-s) 0.3048 = ms (ms) 3.2808 = fts

Velocity
(ft/min) 0.00508 = ms (ms) 196.85 = ft/min

Acceleration (in./s2) 0.0254 = m/s2 (m/s2) 39.370 = in.s/2

Area (ft2) 0.09290 = m2 (m2) 10.764 = ft2

Volume Flow Rate (cfm) 0.000471948 = m3/s (m3/s) 2118.88 = cfm

Density (lb/ft3) 16.01846 = kg/m3 (kg/m3) 0.06243 = lb/ft3

(in. wg) 248.36 = Pa (Pa) 0.004026 = in. wg

Pressure (in. wg) 0.24836 = kPa (kPa) 4.0264 = in. wg
(in. wg) 3.3864 = kPa (kPa) 0.2953 = in. Hg

Viscosity:
Absolute (lbm/ft-s) 1.4882 = Pa s (Pa s) 0.6719 = (lbm/ft-s)
Kinematic (ft2/s) 0.0929 = m2/s (m2/s) 10.7639 = ft2/s

Gas Constant (ft lb/lbm-°R) 5.3803 = J-kg/K (j-kg/K) 0.1858 = (ft lb/lbm-°R)

Temperature (°F - 32°)/1.8 = °C (1.8 × °C) + 32° = °F

Power (BHP) 746 = W (W)/746 = BHP

(BHP) 0.746 = kW (kW)/0.746 = BHP

40 | Air Systems
Annex B. Standard Atmospheric Data Versus Altitude Charts

Chart B.1 - SI Standard Atmospheric Data Versus Altitude

Z t p ρ μ v c
Altitude Temperature Atmospheric Gas Absolute Kinematic Speed of
Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity Sound

m °C kPa kg/m3 Pa•s m2/s m/s

0 15.00 101.32 1.230 1.793x10-5 1.456×10-5 340.43
100 14.35 100.13 1.215 1.790x10-5 1.473×10-5 340.05
200 13.70 98.94 1.201 1.786x10-5 1.487×10-5 339.66
300 13.05 97.77 1.189 1.784x10-5 1.500×10-5 339.28

400 12.40 96.61 1.177 1.780x10-5 1.512×10-5 338.89

500 11.76 95.46 1.166 1.777x10-5 1.524×10-5 338.51
600 11.11 94.32 1.155 1.774x10-5 1.536×10-5 338.19
700 10.46 93.20 1.145 1.771x10-5 1.546×10-5 337.73

800 9.81 92.08 1.134 1.768x10-5 1.559×10-5 337.34

900 9.16 90.98 1.123 1.765x10-5 1.571×10-5 336.95
1000 8.51 89.88 1.112 1.761x10-5 1.584×10-5 336.57
1100 7.86 88.80 1.102 1.758x10-5 1.595×10-5 336.18

1200 7.21 87.72 1.091 1.755x10-5 1.609×10-5 335.79

1300 6.56 86.66 1.080 1.751x10-5 1.621×10-5 335.40
1400 5.90 85.61 1.069 1.748x10-5 1.635×10-5 335.01
1500 5.25 84.56 1.058 1.745x10-5 1.649×10-5 334.62

1600 4.60 83.53 1.047 1.741x10-5 1.663×10-5 334.22

1700 3.95 82.50 1.037 1.738x10-5 1.676×10-5 333.83
1800 3.30 81.49 1.026 1.735x10-5 1.691×10-5 333.44
1900 2.65 80.49 1.016 1.732x10-5 1.705×10-5 333.05

2000 2.00 79.49 1.006 1.728x10-5 1.718×10-5 332.66

2100 1.35 78.51 0.996 1.725x10-5 1.732×10-5 332.26
2200 0.70 77.54 0.986 1.722x10-5 1.746×10-5 331.87
2300 0.53 76.57 0.976 1.718x10-5 1.760×10-5 331.48

2400 -0.60 75.62 0.967 1.715x10-5 1.774×10-5 331.08

2500 -1.25 74.68 0.957 1.712x10-5 1.789×10-5 330.69
2600 -1.90 73.74 0.948 1.708x10-5 1.802×10-5 330.29
2700 -2.55 72.82 0.938 1.705x10-5 1.818×10-5 329.90

2800 -3.20 71.91 0.929 1.702x10-5 1.832×10-5 329.50

2900 -3.85 71.00 0.919 1.699x10-5 1.845×10-5 329.10
3000 -4.50 70.11 0.909 1.695x10-5 1.865×10-5 328.71
3100 -5.15 69.23 0.900 1.692x10-5 1.880×10-5 328.31

3200 -5.80 68.35 0.890 1.689x10-5 1.898×10-5 327.51

3300 -6.46 67.48 0.880 1.685x10-5 1.914×10-5 327.11
3400 -7.11 66.62 0.871 1.682x10-5 1.931×10-5 326.70
3500 -7.76 65.77 0.862 1.679x10-5 1.948×10-5 326.70

Air Systems | 41
 Chart B.2 - I-P Standard Atmospheric Data Versus Altitude

Z t p ρ μ ν c
Altitude Temperature Atmospheric Air Dynamic Kinematic Speed of
Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity Sound

ft °F in. Hg lbm/ft3 lbm/ft-s ft2/s ft/s

-1000 62.6 31.02 .0787 1.212×10-5 1.538×10-4 1120.7
-500 60.8 30.47 .0776 1.208×10-5 1.556×10-4 1118.8
0 59.0 29.92 .0765 1.205×10-5 1.576×10-4 1116.9
500 57.2 29.38 .0754 1.202×10-5 1.595×10-4 1115.0
1000 55.4 28.86 .0743 1.198×10-5 1.614×10-4 1113.1
1500 53.7 28.33 .0732 1.195×10-5 1.633×10-4 1111.1
2000 51.9 27.82 .0721 1.192×10-5 1.653×10-4 1109.2

2500 50.1 27.32 .0710 1.189×10-5 1.673×10-4 1107.3

3000 48.3 26.82 .0700 1.185×10-5 1.694×10-4 1105.3
3500 46.5 26.33 .0689 1.182×10-5 1.714×10-4 1103.4
4000 44.7 25.84 .0679 1.179×10-5 1.735×10-4 1101.4

4500 43.0 25.37 .0669 1.175×10-5 1.757×10-4 1099.5

5000 41.2 24.90 .0659 1.172×10-5 1.778×10-4 1097.5
5500 39.4 24.43 .0649 1.169×10-5 1.800×10-4 1095.6
6000 37.6 23.98 .0639 1.165×10-5 1.823×10-4 1093.6

6500 35.8 23.53 .0630 1.162×10-5 1.846×10-4 1091.7

7000 34.0 23.09 .0620 1.158×10-5 1.869×10-4 1089.7
7500 32.3 22.65 .0610 1.155×10-5 1.892×10-4 1087.7
8000 30.5 22.22 .0601 1.152×10-5 1.916×10-4 1085.7

8500 28.7 21.80 .0592 1.148×10-5 1.904×10-4 1083.8

9000 26.9 21.39 .0583 1.145×10-5 1.965×10-4 1081.8
9500 25.1 20.98 .0574 1.142×10-5 1.990×10-4 1079.8
10000 23.3 20.58 .0565 1.138×10-5 2.015×10-4 1077.8

42 | Air Systems
Annex C. Psychrometric Density Tables

Chart C.1 - Psychrometric Density Table (SI)

Density of Saturated Air for Various Barometric Conditions - kg/m3

Dry-Bulb
Temp. °C Barometric Pressure kPa

97 98.5 100 101.5 103 104.5

-2.0 1.244981 1.263273 1.282390 1.302927 1.324194 1.340401
-1.5 1.242122 1.260977 1.280094 1.300086 1.322000 1.337965
-1.0 1.239396 1.258667 1.277753 1.297353 1.319731 1.335505
-0.5 1.236782 1.256345 1.275377 1.294710 1.317400 1.333027
0.0 1.234260 1.254012 1.272975 1.292141 1.315018 1.330532
0.5 1.231812 1.251672 1.270553 1.289629 1.312595 1.328024
1.0 1.229423 1.249325 1.268119 1.287163 1.310140 1.325506
1.5 1.227079 1.246973 1.265679 1.284731 1.307661 1.322979
2.0 1.224768 1.244618 1.263236 1.282324 1.305166 1.320447
2.5 1.222480 1.242261 1.260796 1.279934 1.302659 1.317912
3.0 1.220207 1.239902 1.258360 1.277553 1.300147 1.315376
3.5 1.217942 1.237545 1.255931 1.275177 1.297634 1.312841
4.0 1.215680 1.235188 1.253510 1.272800 1.295123 1.310307
4.5 1.213416 1.232834 1.251098 1.270421 1.292618 1.307778
5.0 1.211147 1.230483 1.248697 1.268037 1.290121 1.305254
5.5 1.208871 1.228135 1.246304 1.265645 1.287634 1.302735
6.0 1.206587 1.225792 1.243921 1.263247 1.285157 1.300224
6.5 1.204295 1.223453 1.241546 1.260842 1.282692 1.297720
7.0 1.201994 1.221119 1.239179 1.258431 1.280239 1.295225
7.5 1.199687 1.218791 1.236817 1.256015 1.277798 1.292738
8.0 1.197375 1.216468 1.234459 1.253595 1.275367 1.290260
8.5 1.195060 1.214150 1.232105 1.251173 1.272946 1.287790
9.0 1.192743 1.211838 1.229752 1.248752 1.270533 1.285328
9.5 1.190428 1.209530 1.227399 1.246334 1.268128 1.282875
10.0 1.188116 1.207227 1.225045 1.243920 1.265728 1.280428
10.5 1.185810 1.204927 1.222689 1.241512 1.263332 1.277988
11.0 1.183512 1.202631 1.220330 1.239113 1.260938 1.275553
11.5 1.181224 1.200338 1.217968 1.236723 1.258544 1.273122
12.0 1.178948 1.198047 1.215603 1.234343 1.256148 1.270693
12.5 1.176683 1.195757 1.213236 1.231974 1.253747 1.268266
13.0 1.174432 1.193466 1.210866 1.229616 1.251342 1.265837
13.5 1.172192 1.191174 1.208497 1.227266 1.248928 1.263406
14.0 1.169963 1.188879 1.206131 1.224925 1.246506 1.260970
14.5 1.167742 1.186581 1.203771 1.222588 1.244075 1.258527
15.0 1.165527 1.184277 1.201420 1.220251 1.241632 1.256073
15.5 1.163312 1.181965 1.199084 1.217911 1.239178 1.253607
16.0 1.161092 1.179644 1.196770 1.215560 1.236712 1.251125
16.5 1.158860 1.177313 1.194483 1.213191 1.234235 1.248624
17.0 1.156606 1.174968 1.192231 1.210795 1.231747 1.246101
17.5 1.154320 1.172609 1.190025 1.208361 1.229250 1.243553
18.0 1.151991 1.170232 1.187875 1.205877 1.226746 1.240975

Air Systems | 43
 Chart C.1 - Psychrometric Density Table (SI) (Continued)

Density of Saturated Air for Various Barometric Conditions - kg/m3

Dry-Bulb
Temp. °C Barometric Pressure kPa

97 98.5 100 101.5 103 104.5

18.5 1.148567 1.167391 1.185062 1.203323 1.225071 1.240138
19.0 1.146325 1.164887 1.182780 1.200987 1.222584 1.237641
19.5 1.144073 1.162437 1.180492 1.198647 1.220116 1.235154
20.0 1.141813 1.160033 1.178197 1.196304 1.217665 1.232675
20.5 1.139548 1.157668 1.175897 1.193957 1.215229 1.230205
21.0 1.137279 1.155335 1.173591 1.191607 1.212804 1.227740
21.5 1.135008 1.153029 1.171279 1.189254 1.210388 1.225283
22.0 1.132735 1.150742 1.168962 1.186898 1.207980 1.222830
22.5 1.130461 1.148470 1.166639 1.184537 1.205577 1.220383
23.0 1.128188 1.146207 1.164311 1.182174 1.203177 1.217939
23.5 1.125917 1.143949 1.161977 1.179806 1.200778 1.215499
24.0 1.123646 1.141691 1.159639 1.177435 1.198380 1.213061
24.5 1.121378 1.139431 1.157295 1.175060 1.195979 1.210625
25.0 1.119111 1.137164 1.154946 1.172681 1.193576 1.208190
25.5 1.116846 1.134888 1.152592 1.170298 1.191169 1.205755
26.0 1.114582 1.132601 1.150234 1.167912 1.188756 1.203320
26.5 1.112318 1.130299 1.147871 1.165521 1.186338 1.200883
27.0 1.110055 1.127983 1.145503 1.163126 1.183912 1.198445
27.5 1.107790 1.125650 1.143131 1.160726 1.181480 1.196003
28.0 1.105523 1.123300 1.140754 1.158323 1.179039 1.193559
28.5 1.103253 1.120932 1.138373 1.155915 1.176591 1.191110
29.0 1.100978 1.118548 1.135988 1.153503 1.174134 1.188656
29.5 1.098695 1.116147 1.133599 1.151086 1.171669 1.186196
30.0 1.096404 1.113730 1.131206 1.148664 1.169195 1.183730
30.5 1.094102 1.111299 1.128809 1.146239 1.166714 1.181257
31.0 1.091787 1.108856 1.126408 1.143808 1.164226 1.178775
31.5 1.089456 1.106402 1.124004 1.141372 1.161731 1.176286
32.0 1.087106 1.103942 1.121596 1.138932 1.159230 1.173786
32.5 1.084735 1.101478 1.119184 1.136487 1.156724 1.171277
33.0 1.082339 1.099014 1.116769 1.134037 1.154213 1.168756
33.5 1.079915 1.096553 1.114351 1.131582 1.151700 1.166224
34.0 1.077460 1.094100 1.111930 1.129122 1.149185 1.163679
34.5 1.074970 1.091661 1.109506 1.126656 1.146669 1.161121
35.0 1.072440 1.089240 1.107079 1.124186 1.144155 1.158549
35.5 1.069867 1.086844 1.104649 1.121710 1.141644 1.155963
36.0 1.067247 1.084478 1.102216 1.119229 1.139139 1.153361
36.5 1.064575 1.082149 1.099780 1.116742 1.136640 1.150743
37.0 1.061846 1.079865 1.097342 1.114250 1.134151 1.148108
37.5 1.059056 1.077632 1.094902 1.111753 1.131673 1.145455
38.0 1.056198 1.075460 1.092459 1.109249 1.129210 1.142784

44 | Air Systems
 Chart C.2 - Psychrometric Density Table (I-P)

Density of Saturated Air for Various Barometric Conditions - lbm/ft3

Dry-Bulb
Temp. °F Barometric Pressure in. Hg

28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 30.5 31.0

30 .07703 .07839 .07974 .08111 .08245 .08380
31 .07687 .07822 .07957 .08093 .08228 .08363
32 .07671 .07806 .07940 .08075 .08210 .08345
33 .07654 .07789 .07924 .08058 .08193 .08327
34 .07638 .07772 .07907 .08041 .08175 .08310
35 .07621 .07756 .07890 .08024 .08158 .08292
36 .07605 .07739 .07873 .07807 .08141 .08274
37 .07589 .07723 .07856 .07990 .08123 .08257
38 .07573 .07706 .07840 .07973 .08106 .08239
39 .07557 .07690 .07823 .07956 .08089 .08222
40 .07541 .07674 .07806 .07939 .08072 .08205
41 .07525 .07657 .07790 .07922 .08055 .08187
42 .07509 .07641 .07773 .09705 .08038 .08170
43 .07493 .07625 .07757 .07889 .08021 .08153
44 .07477 .07609 .07740 .07872 .08004 .08135
45 .07461 .07592 .07724 .07855 .07986 .08118
46 .07445 .07576 .07707 .07838 .07970 .08101
47 .07429 .07560 .07691 .07822 .07953 .08084
48 .07413 .07544 .07674 .07805 .07936 .08066
49 .07397 .07528 .07658 .07788 .07919 .08049
50 .07381 .07512 .07642 .07772 .07902 .08032
51 .07366 .07496 .07625 .07755 .07885 .08015
52 .07350 .07479 .07609 .07739 .07868 .07998
53 .07334 .07464 .07593 .07722 .07852 .07981
54 .07318 .07447 .07576 .07706 .07835 .07964
55 .07302 .07431 .07560 .07689 .07818 .07947
56 .07287 .07415 .07544 .07673 .07801 .07930
57 .07271 .07399 .07528 .07656 .07784 .07913
58 .07255 .07383 .07512 .07640 .07768 .07896
59 .07240 .07367 .07495 .07623 .07751 .07879
60 .07224 .07352 .07479 .07607 .07734 .07862
61 .07208 .07336 .07463 .07590 .07718 .07845
62 .07193 .07320 .07447 .07574 .07701 .07828
63 .07177 .07304 .07430 .07557 .07684 .07811
64 .07161 .07288 .07414 .07541 .07668 .07794

Air Systems | 45
 Chart C.2 - Psychrometric Density Table (I-P)

Density of Saturated Air for Various Barometric Conditions - lbm/ft3

Dry-Bulb
Temp. °F Barometric Pressure in. Hg

28.5 29.0 29.5 30.0 30.5 31.0

65 .07145 .07272 .07398 .07525 .07651 .07770
66 .07130 .07256 .07382 .07508 .07634 .07760
67 .07114 .07240 .07366 .07492 .07618 .07744
68 .07098 .07224 .07350 .07475 .07601 .07727
69 .07083 .07208 .07333 .07459 .07584 .07710
70 .07067 .07192 .07317 .07442 .07568 .07693
71 .07051 .07176 .07301 .07426 .07551 .07676
72 .07035 .07160 .07285 .07410 .07534 .07659
73 .07020 .07144 .07268 .07393 .07517 .07642
74 .07004 .07128 .07252 .07377 .07501 .07625
75 .06988 .07112 .07236 .07360 .07484 .07603
76 .06972 .07096 .07220 .07343 .07467 .07591
77 .06956 .07080 .07203 .07327 .07451 .07574
78 .06940 .07064 .07187 .07310 .07434 .07557
79 .06925 .07048 .07171 .07294 .07417 .07540
80 .06909 .07032 .07155 .07277 .07400 .07523
81 .06893 .07015 .07138 .07261 .07383 .07506
82 .06877 .07000 .07122 .07244 .07366 .07489
83 .06861 .06983 .07105 .07227 .07349 .07472
84 .06845 .06967 .07089 .07211 .07333 .07454
85 .06829 .06950 .07072 .07194 .07316 .07437
86 .06812 .06934 .07056 .07177 .07299 .07420
87 .06796 .06917 .07039 .07160 .07281 .07403
88 .06780 .06901 .07022 .07143 .07264 .07385
89 .06764 .06885 .07005 .07126 .07247 .07368
90 .06748 .06868 .06989 .07109 .07230 .07351
91 .06731 .06852 .06972 .07092 .07213 .07333
92 .06715 .06835 .06955 .07075 .07195 .07316
93 .06698 .06818 .06938 .07058 .07178 .07298
94 .06682 .06801 .06921 .07041 .07161 .07280
95 .06665 .06785 .06904 .07024 .07143 .07263
96 .06648 .06768 .06887 .07006 .07126 .07245
97 .06632 .06751 .06870 .06989 .07108 .07227
98 .06615 .06734 .06853 .06972 .01091 .07209
99 .06598 .06717 .06835 .06954 .07073 .07191
100 .06581 .06700 .06818 .06937 .07055 .07174

46 | Air Systems
 100 VE 100
LO
CI
TY
70 90 m/ 70
s
30
80
50 50
40 25 70 40

50
30 60 30

63
20

ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals.
80
18 50
20 20

0
Annex D. Friction Charts

16 45

10
5
14 40

12
35

0
10 12 10

16
30

0
10

20
7 7

0
9

25
5 8 5

5
31
4 7 4

0
40
3 6 3

0
50
0
2 5 2

63
Chart D.1 - SI

0
80

4
00

FRICTION LOSS, Pa/m

1 3.5 1
10
50

20
3
12

0.7 0.7
00
16

2.5
00

0.5 0.5
20

0.4 0.4
mm

00

2.0
R,

25
E

0.3 1.8 0.3

50
ET

31

1.6
IAM
00

0.2 0.2
D

1.4
40

CT

1.2
DU

9
0.1
20 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 200,000 400,000

AIR QUANTITY, L/s at 1.20 kg/m3 (ε = 0.09 mm)

Air Systems | 47
Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993
 10 10
80
7 00 7

48 | Air Systems
70
5 65 00 5
0
60 0 VE
4 0 LO 4
55 0 CI
0 TY
3 50 0 , fp 3
00 m
45

ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals.
00
2 40 12 2

3
00 00
36 0
00
32 10

4
00
00 0
90
1 28 00 1

5
00 80
00

6
0.8 24 0.8
00

7
8
20
0.5 0 0.5

9
18 0

10
0.4 00 0.4
16 40

12
00 00
0.3 0.3

14
14
00

16
18
0.2 12 0.2
00

20
22
Chart D.2 - I-P

10

24
00

26
90
0 30
32
0.1 80 0.1
0
36

0.08 0.08
40

70 18

FRICTION LOSS, in. of water per 100 ft of duct

0 00
45
50

60
55

0.05 0 0.05
60
in.

70

0.04 50
0 0.04
R,

80
E

0.03 0.03
90
0
ET

40
0
10
IAMD

0.02 0.02
CT

30
0
DU

0.01 0.01
50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 100,000 200,000 400,000
AIR QUANTITY, cfm at 0.075 lb/ft3 (ε = 0.0003 ft)

Reprinted by permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, from the 1993
Annex E. Air Density Correction Factor Charts

Chart E.1 - Air Density Correction Factor (SI)

(Multiply Standard Air Density, 0.075 lbm/ft3 × the Factor to obtain Density at Condition B.)
Altitude, m Sea Level 300 600 900 1200
Barometer, mm Hg 759.97 733.47 707.46 682.43 657.90
kPa 101.32 97.79 94.32 90.98 87.71
Air Temp. °C -20 1.22 1.12 1.08 1.04 1.00
0 1.12 1.04 1.01 .97 .94
20 1.03 .97 .94 .90 .87
40 .95 .91 .88 .85 .81
60 .93 .86 .83 .80 .77
80 .85 .80 .78 .75 .72
100 .79 .76 .73 .70 .68
120 .77 .72 .70 .67 .65
140 .73 .69 .67 .64 .62
160 .69 .65 .63 .61 .59
180 .65 .61 .59 .57 .55
200 .62 .57 .55 .53 .51
220 .57 .56 .54 .52 .50
240 .57 .55 .53 .51 .49
260 .56 .53 .51 .49 .47
280 .54 .52 .50 .48 .46
300 .52 .50 .48 .46 .44
320 .50 .48 .49 .45 .43
340 .49 .46 .48 .43 .41

Altitude, m 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700

Barometer, mm Hg 634.34 611.3 588.98 567.17 546.30
kPa 84.57 81.50 78.52 75.62 72.83
Air Temp. °C -20 .97 .93 .91 .87 .84
0 .90 .87 .84 .81 .80
20 .84 .81 .78 .75 .72
40 .78 .75 .73 .70 .68
60 .74 .71 .69 .67 .64
80 .69 .67 .65 .63 .60
100 .65 .63 .61 .59 .58
120 .62 .61 .59 .57 .58
140 .60 .58 .56 .54 .53
160 .57 .55 .53 .51 .49
180 .53 .51 .50 .49 .47
200 .49 .47 .47 .45 .43
220 .48 .46 .45 .43 .42
240 .47 .46 .46 .43 .41
260 .45 .44 .43 .41 .39
280 .44 .43 .42 .40 .38
300 .43 .41 .40 .38 .37
320 .41 .40 .39 .37 .35
340 .40 .39 .37 .36 .34

Air Systems | 49
 Chart E.2 - Air Density Correction Factor (I-P)
(Multiply Standard Air Density, 0.075 lbm/ft3 × the Factor to obtain Density at Condition B.)
Altitude, ft. -1000 Sea Level 1000 2000 3000 4000
Barometer, in. Hg 31.02 29.92 28.86 27.82 26.82 25.84
in wg. 422.2 407.5 392.81 378.6 365.0 351.7
Air Temp. °F -40 1.31 1.26 1.22 1.17 1.13 1.09
0 1.19 1.15 1.11 1.07 1.03 0.99
40 1.10 1.06 1.02 0.99 0.95 0.92
70 1.04 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86
100 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.81
150 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.75
200 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69
250 0.77 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.64
300 0.72 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.60
350 0.68 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56
400 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55 0.53
450 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50
500 0.57 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47
550 0.54 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45
600 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.45 0.43
700 0.47 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.39
800 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.36
900 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.33
1000 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31

Altitude, ft. 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000

Barometer, in. Hg 24.90 23.98 23.09 22.22 21.39 20.58
in wg. 338.9 326.4 314.3 302.1 291.1 280.1
Air Temp. °F -40 1.05 1.01 0.97 0.93 0.90 0.87
0 0.95 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.82 0.79
40 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73
70 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69
100 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.70 0.68 0.65
150 0.72 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.62 0.60
200 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.57 0.55
250 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.58 0.51
300 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48
350 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.45
400 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.42
450 0.48 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.40
500 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.38
550 0.44 0.42 0.41 0.39 0.38 0.36
600 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.34
700 0.38 0.37 0.35 0.34 0.33 0.32
800 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29
900 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27
1000 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25

50 | Air Systems
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