Oscillations

In this chapter we will learn about oscillatory motion or oscillations.

Any motion which repeats itself at regular intervals of time is known
as periodic motion. If a body moves back and forth repeatedly about
its mean position then it is said to be in oscillatory motion.
For example: The to and fro movement of pendulum, jumping on a
trampoline, a child swinging on a swing.
Oscillations can be defined as Periodic to and fro motion which
repeat itself at regular intervals of time.

Periodic Motion
Any motion which repeats itself at equal intervals of time is
called a periodic motion and the time interval at which the
motion is repeated is called time period.
Examples of Periodic motion:-
1. The revolution of the earth round the sun is periodic.
2. The motion of the hands of a clock is periodic.
3. Heart beat of a healthy person is periodic.
 4. Oscillation of a simple pendulum is periodic.

Oscillatory motion:-
If in the case of periodic motion the particle moves back and
forth in the same path, the motion is said to be oscillatory. It is a
constrained periodic motion between certain precisely forced
limits.
Examples
1. Oscillation of a simple pendulum
2. To and fro motion of the piston of an automobile engine.
3. Vibrational motion of atoms in a molecule.
4. Vibration of the prongs of an excited tuning fork.
It is to be noted here that every oscillatory motion is periodic, but
every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
Period of a periodic motion:-
The smallest interval of time after which a process or
phenomenon is repeated is called the period (T).
If a particle oscillates N times in a time t second, its period,
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
𝑇= =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁

Its SI unit is second.

Frequency of periodic motion:-
The number of repetitions of the periodic motion that occur per
second is called the frequency of the periodic motion.
If a particle executes N oscillations in t second,
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑁 1
𝜗= = =𝑇
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Unit is per second or 𝑠 −1 or hertz(Hz)

Angular Frequency:-
2𝜋
The quantity 𝜔 = = 2𝜋𝜐 is often used for convenience and is
𝑇
called angular frequency. It is same as the angular velocity and its
unit is radian/ second (rad 𝑠 −1 ).
Displacement:-
During every periodic motion, a certain measurable physical
quantity changes with time. The physical quantity which
undergoes a change with time in a periodic motion is called the
displacement variable. Displacement is always measured as a
function of time.
1. When a body attached at the end of a spring vibrates, the
displacement variable is the position vector of the body
measured from its equilibrium position.
2. In the oscillation of a simple pendulum the displacement
variable is the angular deviation from the vertical.
3. In the study of AC current, the displacement variable is the
voltage.
4. For sound wave travelling through air, the displacement
variable is pressure.
5. The displacement variable for the propagation of
electromagnetic wave is the electric and magnetic vectors.
 It is clear that the displacement variable takes both positive and
negative values.

Periodic Functions:-
The periodic motions can be represented by periodic functions.
The periodic functions F(t) with period T are those functions of
the variable t which have the property,
F(t)= F(t+T);
Where t is called the argument of the periodic function.
The above equation shows that the function has the same value
even when the argument is increased or decreased by an
integral multiple T for all values of t.

f (t) = A cos ωt
As cosine function repeats after 2π so it can be
written as
cos (θ) = cos (ωt + 2π) _______(1)
cos (ωt) = cos (ωt + 2π) (it keep on repeating after
2π)
Let Time Period = T
f (T) = f(t+T) where displacement keeps on
repeating after (t+T)
Acos (ωt) = cosω(t+T) = Acos (ωt+ wT)
Acosωt = A cos (ωt+ωT) ______ (2)
From Equation (1) and Equation (2)

ωT= 2π
Or T=2π /ω
Displacement as a combination of sine and
cosine functions
f (t) = A cos ωt
f (t) = A sin ωt
f (t) = A sin ωt + A cos ωt
LetA = D cosΦ Equation (3)
B=DsinΦEquation (4)
f (t) =DcosΦ sinωT + DsinΦ cos ωt
D (cosΦ sinωT + sinΦ cos ωt)
(Using sinAcosB + sinBcosA = sin (A+B))
Therefore we can write
f (T)= D sin (ωT+Φ)
From the above expression we can say
displacement can be written as sine and cosine
functions.
D in terms of A and B:-

A2 B2 = D2sin2 Φ + D2cos2 Φ
A2 B2 = D2
Or D= AB
Φ In terms of A and B
Dividing Equation (4) by (3)
B/A= DsinΦ/Dcos Φ
tan Φ = B/A
Or Φ= tan-1 B/A
Any periodic function can be expressed as a
superposition of sine and cosine functions of
different time periods with suitable
coefficients.
Simple harmonic motion:-
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a periodic
motion the body moves to and fro about its mean
position. The restoring force on the oscillating
body is directly proportional to its displacement
and is always directed towards its mean position.

In the above image we can see that a particle

is vibrating to and fro within the limits –A and
+A.
The oscillatory motion is said to be SHM if
the displacement x of the particle from origin
varies with time t:
x (t) = A cos (ωt + Φ)
Where
x (t) : displacement x as a function of time
A= amplitude
oIt is defined as magnitude of maximum
displacement of the particle from its mean
position.
ωt +Φ = phase angle (time-dependent)
ω= angular frequency
Φ = phase constant
o SHM is a periodic motion in which
displacement is a sinusoidal function of
time.
If we plot the graph between displacement
versus time we can conclude that the
displacement is continuous function of time.

The above graph shows displacement as a

continuous function of time.
Uniform circular motion and simple
harmonic motion:-
Consider a particle P moving round a circle
with centre O and radius A with uniform
speed v and angular speed ω.
At the instant t=0, let the particle be at A.
After time t, let the particle be at Q so that
AOQ=ө=ωt.
 Since the particle executes uniform circular
motion, it is subjected to an acceleration given
by,
a =r𝜔2 = A𝜔2 , along QO.
The acceleration can be resolved along the X
and Y directions. Component along X-
direction.
𝑎𝑥 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Component along the Y direction,

𝑎𝑦 = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
If the co-ordinates of Q at the instant t are x
and y, then,
x = A cos𝜃 ; y= A sin 𝜃
𝑎𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑎𝑦 = −𝜔2 𝑦
The components of acceleration, 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑦 ,
are proportional to the displacements x and y.
Thus when the particle P moves round a circle,
the foot of the perpendicular along any
diameter executes simple harmonic motion.
Thus simple harmonic motion can also be
defined as the projection of a uniform circular
motion along any diameter.
Characteristics of SHM:-
Expression for displacement:-
1. Displacement:-
The displacement of SHM along X and Y
axes are,
x = A cosθ; x = A cos ωt and
y = A sinθ ; y = A sin ωt
These are the equations for displacements
of SHM at any instant t.
The displacement of a particle executing
SHM at any instant is defined as the
distance of the particle from the mean
position.
2. Amplitude
It is the maximum displacement of the
particle executing SHM from the mean
position. When cos (ωt+Φ)=1. X= A. Here
A is the amplitude of SHM.
4. Phase
The argument of cosine or sine function at
any instant is called the phase of SHM at
that instant. It is (ωt±𝛷) and it gives the
state of motion of the particle.
5. Initial phase (epoch) Φ
It is the phase of the particle at t=0. Phase
of the particle is (ωt±Φ). At t= 0, phase Φ=
±Φ.

6. Time period T
The smallest time interval after which the
oscillation repeats itself is called time
period T of the oscillation.
If the displacement of SHM at any instant t
is,
y = A sin (ωt±Φ), the period T= 2π/ω
But ω=√𝑘/𝑚 ; T=2𝜋√𝑚/𝑘;
 Where m is the mass of the body, and k =
force constant.
7. Expression for velocity.
The displacement of a particle executing SHM
is given by,
Y = A sin (ωt + Φ)
The velocity is given by,
𝑑𝑦
𝑣= = 𝐴𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐴𝜔√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

= 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑣 = 𝜔 √𝐴 2 − 𝑦 2
At the mean position, y=0, the velocity is
maximum. 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝛢.
At the extreme positions, y= A. The velocity is
minimum. 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
8. Expression for Acceleration (a)
Y = A sin (ωt+Φ)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝐴 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙); 2 = - A𝜔2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
a = -𝜔2 𝑦
At the mean position , y= 0. a=0, the
minimum
At the extreme position, y= A. a=𝜔2 𝐴, the
maximum.
Energy of SHM
A particle executing SHM possesses two types
of energy ; potential and Kinetic energy.
Potential energy:-
It is the work done in displacing the particle
from the equilibrium position. At any instant
when the displacement is x,, the restoring
force, F= -kx; where k is therefore constant.
Work done is displacing the particle through
an additional distance dx is given by,
dW= -Fdx=+kxdx; since the displacement is
against restoring force.
Total work done when the particle is displaced
from 0 to x.
𝑥 1
W=∫0 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
1 1
Potential energy, 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2 2
Where m is the mass of the particle and ω is
the angular frequency. At the equilibrium
position x= 0, 𝐸𝑝 = 0, the minimum.
At the extreme positions, x=A, 𝐸𝑝 =
1
𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 , the maximum.
2
Kinetic Energy
Consider a particle of mass m executing SHM
with angular frequency ω. The velocity of the
particle at any instant, 𝑣 = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
1
K.E of the particle, 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
= 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑜𝑟
2
 1
= 𝑘(𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ).
2
At the mean position, x=0,
1
K.E, 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
2
At the extreme positions, x= A,
𝐸𝑘 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 .
Total energy at any instant:-
Total energy of harmonic oscillator, E=
PE+KE
1 1
E= 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝜔2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2 2
1 2 2 1
= 𝑚𝜔 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴2 .
2 2
This equation shows that the total energy of
the oscillator is a constant.
Graphical representation of Energy of SHM