Module -2 Stress Concentration
Reasons for stress
Stress concentration: Localization of
high stresses due to the irregularities
present in the component and abrupt
changes of the cross section
concentration
 Variation in properties of
materials
air holes in steel components; and
nonmetallic or foreign inclusions.
 Load application
Contact between the cam and the
follower
 Abrupt changes in cross
section
steps are cut on the shaft and
shoulders
 Discontinuities in the
component
oil holes or oil grooves, keyways and
splines, and screw threads
 Machining scratches
 Stress concentration in brittle materials
 Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no readjustment of stresses at
the discontinuities. (due to inability of plastic deformation)

 When the magnitude of stress reaches the ultimate strength of the material, a
crack will nucleate and increases the stress concentration at the crack.

 Therefore, stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of brittle

materials.

Stress concentration in ductile materials (static load)

 When the stress reaches the yield point, then there will be a local plastic
deformation near the discontinuity which will lead to redistribution of stresses
near the stress concentration zone.

 There is no remarkable damage to the machine component. This redistribution

of stresses will be restricted to very small area.
 Stress concentration in ductile materials
(fluctuating load)
 Due to fluctuating load the component may fail due to fatigue. stress
concentration will leads to the reduction in endurance limit of the
ductile materials.

 Therefore stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of

machine components made of ductile materials.
 Stress concentration in ductile materials
(fluctuating load)
 Due to fluctuating load the component may fail due to fatigue. stress
concentration will leads to the reduction in endurance limit of the
ductile materials.

 Therefore stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of

machine components made of ductile materials.

Keyways Stepped shaft Screw threads

Effect of stress raisers  Geometrical irregularities

Stress concentration for various machine members

Plate with holes in Shaft with transverse holes

tension in bending

Steeped shaft with Steeped shaft with

shoulder fillet in shoulder fillet in
tension Bending
Stress concentration for various machine members
Stress concentration for various machine members
 Notch sensitivity factor (q)

In case of dynamic loading, if stress concentration present in the material, then it will
reduce the endurance limit.

The actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration
under dynamic loading is varied by the theoretical values predicted using theoretical stress
concentration factor.
Reason is the difference in stress gradient (notches, holes, grain size of material) in
the region of stress concentration and hardness of material.

Therefore two separate stress concentration factors are used . i.e. Kt and Kf.

 kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor

 kf = Endurance limit of the notch free specimen / Endurance limit of the notched
specimen

Notch sensitivity [q] : Susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of

stress raising notches in fatigue loading.
Or
The degree to which the theoretical effect of stress concentration is actually reached.
q = Increase of actual stress over nominal stress / Increase of theoretical stress over
σo = nominal stress obtained by the elementary equations

Actual stress due to fatigue loading = Kf σ0

Theoretical stress = Kt σ0

Increase of actual stress over nominal stress = (Kf σ0 - σ0)

Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Kt σ0 - σ0)

q=

Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)

When the material has no sensitivity to notches,

q = 0 and Kf = 1

When the material is fully sensitive to notches,

q = 1 and Kf = Kt
Notch sensitivity (q) for different materials
 Buckling
Corrosion
Creep

Fatigue  failure due to cyclic load

Fracture
Rupture
Wear
Yielding
Cup and cone ductile fracture Brittle fracture

Why ductile
material fails in a
brittle fashion?
Region indicating slow growth of
crack with a fine fibrous Region of sudden fracture with
appearance a coarse granular appearance
Crack initiation  Crack propagation  Fracture
 Factor of Safety

For Ductile Materials

For Brittle Materials

For Variable loading

 Fluctuating stresses

σmax = max stress ; σmin = min stress ; σa = stress amplitude

σmean = mean stress
The stresses induced in a machine component due to dynamic load
(change in magnitude with respect to time) is known as fluctuating
stresses.
 Variable loading
Types of loading
• Change in magnitude of the
• Fully Reversed loading
applied load
Example: Punching machine

• Change in direction of the load

Example: Connecting rod
https://machinedesign.top/content/fluctuating
-loads-design-theory-qa-and-numerical-
• Change in point problems
of application
• Repeated loading
Example: Rotating shaft

Fluctuating stresses
 Fatigue failure
( Time delayed fracture under cyclic loading)

Fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the material .

Regions of discontinuities (oil holes, keyways and screw

threads)

Regions of irregularities in machining operations (scratches

on the surface, stamp mark, inspection marks)

Internal cracks due to defects in materials like blow holes

 These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to

crack, then due to fluctuating load the crack spreads.
 Design of machine components for fluctuating load

Number of Stress
cycles amplitude

Mean stress Stress

Fatigue concentration

Corrosion
Residual
& creep
stresses

The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of

completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure

The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can
complete during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.
Endurance limit or fatigue limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number
of cycles without fatigue failure.

106 cycles are considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

Fatigue life: The total number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete
during the test before appearance of the first fatigue crack.
 S-N Curve
Ferrous metal: Steel
Non Ferrous metal : Aluminium
Fatigue test specimen
The S–N curve is the graphical representation of
stress amplitude (Sf ) versus the number of stress
cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log
graph paper.
The magnitude of this stress amplitude at 106 cycles
represents the endurance limit of the material.
Low cycle fatigue:
Any fatigue failure when the
number of stress cycles are less than
1000, is called low cycle fatigue.
Examples: Failure of studs on truck
wheels, failure of set screws for locating
gears on shafts, short lived components
like missiles.

High cycle fatigue:

Any fatigue failure when the
number of stress cycles are more than
1000, is called high cycle fatigue.
The endurance limit is not exactly a
property of material like ultimate
Examples: Failure of springs, ball tensile strength.
bearings and gears that are subjected to It is affected by factors such as the
fluctuating stresses.
size of the component, shape of
component, the surface finish,
temperature and the notch sensitivity
of the material.
 Effect of stress concentration on fatigue life

Real-World Allowable Cyclic Stress = ka * kb * kc * kd * ke * kf * EL

 surface finish factor, Size factor,, load factor, reliability factor, modifying factor to
account for stress concentration (1/Kf), temperature factor, impact factor
Surface finish factor Ka: It takes into account the reduction in

endurance limit due to variation in the surface finish between the

specimen and the actual component.

Size factor Kb : It takes into account the reduction in endurance limit

due to increase in the size of the component.

Reliability factor Kc : It depends upon the reliability that is used in the

design of the component. The greater the likelihood that a part will

survive, the more is the reliability and lower is the reliability factor.
 Macro observation of the Micro observation of the metal
metal Surface Surface

Surface roughness plays major role in the fatigue life of machine

components.
 Macro and micro observation of
the polished metal Surface

Polished surface with minimum roughness increases the life of a

metal due to the absence of stress raisers observed in the as
received conditions of a surface.
The graph shows that the
endurance limit is very low
in the corrosive
environment.

Because, the corroded

surface will induce crack
in the component surface
which will reduce the life
drastically.
1. There are two types of problems in fatigue design—
(i) components subjected to completely reversed stresses (solve
problem based on S/N curve),
(ii) components subjected to fluctuating stresses.
(Soderberg, Goodman, Gerber, modified Goodman diagram)

2. The completely reversed stresses are further divided into two groups—
(i) design for infinite life (the endurance limit becomes the criterion
of failure),

(ii) design for finite life (the S–N curve)

It consists of a straight line AB drawn from (0.9
Sut) at 103 cycles to (Se) at 106 cycles on a log-log
paper. The design procedure for such problems is as
follows:
Design for Variable loading

Modified Goodman diagram?

Modified Goodman line
Modified Goodman line
According to Soderberg line,

𝟏 𝝈𝒎 𝝈𝒗 𝑲𝒇
= + [𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 (𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐚𝐥 & 𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠)]
𝒏 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛

𝟏 𝝉𝒎 𝝉𝒗 𝑲𝒇
= + [For shear stress]
𝒏 𝝉𝒚 𝝉𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛

According to Goodman line,

𝟏 𝝈𝒎 𝝈𝒗 𝑲𝒇
= + [𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬(𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐚𝐥 & 𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠)]
𝒏 𝝈𝒖 𝝈𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛

𝟏 𝝉𝒎 𝝉𝒗 𝑲𝒇
= + [For shear stress]
𝒏 𝝉𝒖 𝝉𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛
 Combined variable loading
According to Soderberg line, (for normal stresses)

𝟏 𝝈𝒎 𝝈 𝒗 𝑲𝒇
= +
𝒏 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛
Multiplying throughout by 𝝈𝒚 we get,
𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒎 𝝈𝒚 𝝈 𝒗 𝑲𝒇 𝝈 𝒚
= +
𝒏 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛

𝝈𝒗 𝑲 𝒇 𝝈𝒚
Equivalent normal stress = 𝝈𝒎 +
𝝈𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛

According to Soderberg line, (for shear stresses)

𝟏 𝝉𝒎 𝝉𝒗 𝑲𝒇
= +
𝒏 𝝉𝒚 𝝉𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛
Multiplying throughout by 𝝉𝒚 we get,
𝝉𝒚 𝝉𝒎 𝝉𝒚 𝝉 𝒗 𝑲𝒇 𝝉 𝒚
= +
𝒏 𝝉𝒚 𝝉𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛

𝝉𝒗 𝑲𝒇 𝝉𝒚
Equivalent shear stress = 𝝉𝒎 +
𝝉𝒆 𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓 𝑲𝒔𝒛
 Fluctuating torsional shear stress

The endurance limit of a component subjected to

torsional shear loading is obtained from endurance limit
in reversed bending using theories of failures.

Maximum shear stress theory Distortion energy theory

𝑺𝒔𝒆 = 0.5 𝑺𝒆 𝑺𝒔𝒆 = 0.577 𝑺𝒆

Endurance limit in axial reversed loading is lower than

the endurance limit in reversed bending rotating beam
test.

For axial loading, (𝑺𝒆 )axial = 0.8 (𝑺𝒆 ) Bending

Text book
R.S. Khumri
Step1: Reversed axial loading
Step1: Reversed bending loading
Step1: Reversed bending loading
Text book
R.S. Khumri
Text book
R.S. Khumri
 Impact Loading

Consider an elastic system loaded by a falling weight ‘W’

W = Falling Weight (N)

h = height through which the weight falls (mm)
δ = displacement of the point of load application (mm)
L = length of the bar (mm)
A = Cross sectional area of the bar mm2
P = impact force which produces deflection δ (N)
E = Modulus of elasticity of bar material (N/mm2)
σi = impact stress in the bar
Energy released by the falling weight = potential energy = W (h + δ)
𝟏
Energy absorbed by the system = strain energy = Average load x deflection = 𝟐 𝑷 𝜹

Equating the above two equations,

𝟏
𝑷𝜹=𝑾 𝒉+𝜹
𝟐
𝜹 𝝈𝒊 𝝈𝒊 𝒍
Also, P = 𝝈𝒊 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 = 𝜺= OR 𝜹 =
𝒍 𝑬 𝑬

Substituting the above values, we get

𝟐
𝑨𝒍 𝑾𝒍
𝝈𝒊 − 𝝈𝒊 − 𝑾𝒉 = 𝟎
𝟐𝑬 𝑬

The above equation is a quadratic equation. Solving the equation and using the positive sign
for getting maximum value
𝑾 𝟐𝒉𝑨𝑬 𝟐𝒉𝑨𝑬
𝝈𝒊 =
𝑨
𝟏+ 𝟏+
𝑾𝒍
P=W 𝟏+ 𝟏+ 𝑾𝒍
𝑷
Where , = shock factor which indicates the magnification of the load W into the impact
𝑾
force P during impact.
 Titanic failure
Why Environment is Important
in Design?

IMPACT LOADING