NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE SPECIAL REPORT WOMEN IN POLICING: BREAKING BARRIERS AND BLAZING A PATH July 2019

U.S.
Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
National Institute of Justice
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE SPECIAL REPORT
WOMEN IN POLICING:
BREAKING BARRIERS
AND BLAZING A PATH
July 2019
U.S. Department of Justice
810 Seventh St. N.W.
Washington, DC 20531
David B. Muhlhausen, Ph.D.

Director, National Institute of Justice
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Opinions or conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position or
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Acknowledgments
This report and the National Institute of Justice’s Research Summit on Women in Policing
are a product of the vision, strength, and leadership of Captain Ivonne Roman of the
Newark (New Jersey) Police Department.
The following NIJ staff and contractors were instrumental in the development and
facilitation of the summit:
■■ Maureen McGough, Senior Policy Advisor

■■ Rianna Starheim, Writer (contractor)
■■ Dr. Gary Cordner, Chief Research Advisor
■■ Dr. Geoff Alpert, Chief Research Advisor
■■ Kristin Silver, Research Assistant
Kristin Silver also generated a crucial literature review in advance of the summit.
NIJ also thanks Dr. AnnMarie Cordner of Kutztown University, Nicola Smith-Kea of the
Arnold Foundation, and retired Chief Penny Harrington for their guidance and wisdom
in shaping the summit. Chief Harrington also graciously filmed videos chronicling her
experiences as the first woman chief of a major metropolitan police department, which were
used to frame discussions throughout the summit.
The following NIJ Law Enforcement Advancing Data and Science (LEADS) Scholars
provided guidance in creating a framework for the summit and pushing conversations
toward progress: Lt. Tara Coffey, Lt. Joan Fiesta, Capt. Erin Freidline, Lt. Aimee Haley, Sgt.
Renee Mitchell, Lt. Emma O’Flanagan, Sgt. Nicole Powell, Capt. Ivonne Roman, Maj. Wendy
Stiver, Lt. Rachel Tolber, Assistant Chief Paige Valenta, and Assistant Chief Sheryl Victorian.
NIJ also thanks the National Center for Women & Policing for providing copies of their
publication, Recruiting and Retaining Women: A Self-Assessment Guide for Law Enforcement,
funded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, grant number 99-LD-VX-0003 (https://www.
ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/bja/185235.pdf).
This report was prepared by Rianna P. Starheim, a writer with a federal contractor, on
assignment at the National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.
Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path i

Executive Summary
Despite efforts to increase representation, the percentage of women in law enforcement1

has remained relatively stagnant for the past few decades. Women constitute less than 13%
of total officers and a much smaller proportion of leadership positions.2 There is limited
empirical research on how to increase the number of women in policing, improve
the recruitment of outstanding women, and increase the retention and promotion of
exceptional women officers. There is also insufficient research for understanding the
unique challenges that women officers face and how best to mitigate or overcome these
challenges.
On Dec. 3-4, 2018, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) hosted the Research Summit
on Women in Policing at our Washington, D.C., headquarters. Nearly 100 attendees
participated, including sworn and civilian law enforcement officers from the United States
and abroad, leading policing researchers, representatives from professional organizations
and foundations, and federal partners. The goal of the summit was to understand the
current state of research relevant to women in American policing, and to generate a
research agenda of questions that women leaders in the field have identified as priorities in
moving the profession forward toward parity.
Meeting attendees developed a shared definition of parity in policing for the purpose of
this discussion: “When fair and equal access is equivalent to women’s propensity.”
As the research arm of the U.S. Department of Justice, NIJ uses research to understand and
advance criminal and juvenile justice issues. NIJ believes that listening to and working with
the dedicated individuals working on the front lines is the only way to effectively understand
both the field’s needs and what research is most relevant to addressing them. Based on
conversations at NIJ’s Research Summit on Women in Policing, this report documents the
current state of research on women in policing across the areas of culture, performance,
recruitment and retention, and promotion. It also sets out the agenda of research questions
that attendees collectively prioritized.
This report is only a starting point. Implementing this research agenda and moving toward
equality and equity for all women working in policing will take great effort, dedication,
partnerships, and time.
Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path iii

Attendees put forward the following key ■■ What role can/do men play in
questions in a research agenda to better improving the representation and
understand the state of women in American experiences of women in policing?
policing and improve the representation
and experiences of women in the field. THEME 2: CULTURE
These themes are not in priority order;
rather, they reflect the order of discussion ■■ What negative aspects of policing
in the summit. cultures need to change for women
officers to be better integrated into and
THEME 1: CHARTING A COURSE integral to departments?
■■ What makes a law enforcement
■■ How have the representation and
environment toxic for women
experiences of women in policing
practitioners?
changed in the past 30 years?
■■ What are women police officers’
■■ What barriers do women in policing
perceptions and experiences of
face? How do these barriers compare
harassment in the workplace? What are
to barriers women face in other
effective interventions to reduce the
professions?
prevalence of harassment?
■■ What strategies create sustained
■■ How can law enforcement academies
cultural changes that lead to
better serve women?
improvements in the representation
and experiences of women in policing? ■■ What is the impact of language in
shifting or maintaining the status
■■ How can law enforcement
quo of how women are treated in law
agencies — in partnership with
enforcement?
other organizations — improve
data collection and measures to ■■ How can we foster the courage to
better inform efforts to improve the be accountable for improving the
representation and experiences of representation and experiences of
women in policing? women in policing?
■■ What practices in other industries ■■ What are the experiences of women

are promising for improving the working in police departments as
representation and experiences of civilians and contractors?
women in law enforcement?
THEME 3: PERFORMANCE
■■ What is the relationship between race,
ethnicity, and gender in these issues?
■■ What metrics measure the extent to
Between sexual orientation, gender
which women in policing thrive?
identity, and gender? What are the
specific experiences of officers who ■■ How are women impacting police
are women of color, and how does the organizations?
intersection of gender and race affect ■■ Do women and men police officers
the challenges women of color face in perform differently? If so, how?
this occupation?
■■ How do women and men police
■■ How can we increase diversity in officers compare in regard to officer
policing? injuries and fatalities? How do
■■ What are men’s perspectives on women they compare in regard to citizen
in policing? complaints and use of force?
■■ What is the most effective business case

for advancing women in policing?
iv Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

■■ What are the advantages and ■■ To what extent do hiring criteria and
disadvantages associated with physical fitness requirements and tests
assigning women officers across parts accurately reflect the standards and
of a department versus assigning skills needed to be a successful officer?
them together? ■■ To what extent do agency-led
■■ To what extent are women deterred representations of policing (in outward-
from taking certain assignments and facing communications such as
positions? To what extent are the recruitment videos) accurately reflect
potential contributions of women in actual duties?
certain assignments and positions ■■ Is rotating shift work necessary? Are
diminished? other, more family-friendly policies
■■ How does the media portray the feasible?
performance of women in policing and ■■ Which U.S. agencies have progressive
women in power? policies toward parental leave, and what
■■ Do women and men in policing receive is the impact of these policies?
equal pay for equal work? ■■ What is the impact of postnatal nursing
■■ What experiences and skills are policies?
necessary to have a successful policing ■■ How does the availability of quality
career, and how can more opportunities child care affect women in policing?
be created for women to acquire these
critical attributes? ■■ What health issues are specific to
women police officers, and how can
they be addressed?
THEME 4: RECRUITMENT AND
RETENTION ■■ How do women and men police officers
compare in regard to physical and
■■ Why do women decide not to become mental wellness, stress, and burnout?
police officers? What deters them? How does this compare to other
■■ How can we make the police profession professions?
more enticing to women? ■■ Why do women leave policing, both
■■ Do departments have different criteria during and after the academy? Are
for women and men? Should they? retention rates and reasons for leaving
similar for men and women? What is
■■ How can we make policing a viable the cost to departments when they lose
and interesting career option for girls, officers, in whom they have invested
starting at a young age? significant training funds, particularly
■■ What is the role of a police officer today, early in their career?
and how can we recruit accordingly? ■■ What are the characteristics of effective
■■ What is the professional background of recruitment and retention programs
people coming into policing, and how with regard to women officers? What
does that impact the profession? can we learn from departments that
■■ What role can the federal government are recruiting and retaining women
play in advancing the representation successfully?
and experiences of women in policing? ■■ How can departments better help
women balance their professional and
personal lives?
Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path v

THEME 5: PROMOTION crisis (i.e., the glass cliff)? If so, what

can be done to help these women be
■■ What is the representation of women in more successful leaders?
law enforcement across ranks?
■■ What is the impact of women taking
■■ Why are women not being promoted women-specific leadership training
nor seeking promotion at the rates one compared to general policing training?
might expect?
■■ What is necessary for women to be at
■■ Do women face discrimination in the least proportionally represented in
promotion process? leadership?
■■ How do people view power and ■■ What is the impact of an increased
ambition in women officers number of women in leadership?
compared to how they view their male
■■ Does mentoring work? What does
counterparts?
successful mentoring look like? What
■■ Are women more likely to be are the advantages and disadvantages of
promoted into leadership positions in women and men mentors?
organizations experiencing a legitimacy
vi Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................... i
Executive Summary ................................................................................................iii
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
Guiding Principles .................................................................................................. 1
Research Agenda ..................................................................................................... 3
Field Priorities ....................................................................................................... 23
Promising Practices and Next Steps ..................................................................... 24
Notes ...................................................................................................................... 27
Attendees ................................................................................................................ 29
DOJ Participants .................................................................................................... 33
Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path vii

National Institute of Justice Research

Summit on Women in Policing
Introduction
On Dec. 3-4, 2018, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) hosted nearly 100 sworn and
civilian law enforcement officers, leading policing researchers, representatives from
professional organizations and foundations, and federal partners to discuss the state of
research on women in American policing and identify priority questions to form a research
agenda on the issue moving forward. This report summarizes the discussions during the
summit. These viewpoints do not necessarily reflect the position of NIJ or U.S. Department
of Justice.
Guiding Principles
This report and all of the questions put forward in the research agenda were founded on
the following guiding principles.
“Without looking to see how it’s going to change at a structural level, we’re just
tinkering around the edges.”
Moving toward parity must be part of an industry shift. Although the research questions and
work detailed in this report are an important part of the process, they can only be addressed
within a greater industrywide shift. This includes not only improving the representation
and experiences of women in law enforcement but also making a larger shift in culture and
mindset across the field.
“There’s no typical ‘woman’ coming into a police agency. It’s a spectrum. It’s not
necessarily ‘me and how I navigated.’ It’s the aggregate.”
Women are not a homogenous group. As a group, women face disproportionate challenges
in policing. However, “women” is an extremely broad category. Data collection should be
conducted in a way that allows the analysis of rank, background, economic status, race,
sexual orientation, gender identity, and many other factors.
Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 1

Issues of gender and race are inextricable. Partnerships are the most powerful vehicles
The intersection of gender and race must for progress. Moving the needle on
be considered whenever discussing or women’s advancement in policing cannot
exploring issues relevant to women in be accomplished by NIJ, or any other
policing. Although some questions in organization, in isolation. Partnerships
this research agenda explicitly address between law enforcement, foundations,
this intersectionality, any research done think tanks, academic institutions, trade
to explore the experiences of women organizations, and other stakeholders will
in policing must be done in a way that be vital in improving the representation
allows for analysis across racial and ethnic and experiences of women in policing. All
differences. These analyses must go deeper parties have the potential to benefit from
than a simple comparison between races, to such collaborations.
include an in-depth understanding of the
different experiences across each racial and “We can talk about this as a policing
ethnic group represented and explore the problem, but this is an endemic
broader societal and cultural contexts that problem in our society.”
may drive these differences.
We can learn from other contexts. American
INTERSECTIONALITY: Gender policing is not the only field in which
and race are inextricable issues. women face disproportionate adversity.
Researchers should design data There are numerous lessons to be learned
collection in a way that allows for the from other contexts, including analogous
delineation of any interdependent industries and policing in other countries.
factors contributing to discrimination Several of the panels in NIJ’s summit
or disadvantage, including race, class, focused on learning from medicine,
and gender. technology, and the military as well as
policing in Australia, Canada, and New
The future must be built on a foundation Zealand.
of data. Little is known about certain
issues related to women in policing, and Men play a significant role. Through this
rigorous research designs to address these summit, NIJ primarily convened women
gaps are not always possible. However, NIJ attendees to define the issues facing women
strongly encourages all practitioners and in policing today. NIJ is acutely aware that
researchers to build the knowledge base on addressing these challenges is not the sole
women in policing, using research designs responsibility of women. All members of the
with high internal and external validity, policing community need to be partners in
wherever possible. addressing these issues. Men are important
change agents in policing, and they will be
The field must be empowered to drive integral to bringing about an essential shift
this progress. The research questions in policing culture.
put forward in this report come directly
from practitioners working within the “Success” is a policing field with both
policing field, and from researchers and equality and equity. Although the first steps
other individuals working closely with toward progress are action items — such
the field. NIJ is strongly committed to as policy changes within departments and
supporting field-driven inquiry and change an increased research focus on women in
that is directly responsive to the needs of law enforcement — substantive change will
practitioners. come only with a broad shift in culture and
2 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

mindset to equality and equity for women first woman chief of a major American
in policing. Attendees agreed that this will police department — the Portland
be a long path but believe that the shift is (Oregon) Police Bureau — and co-founder
eminently possible. of the National Center for Women &
Policing. When Harrington started as an
officer with the Portland Police Bureau
Research Agenda in 1964, there were only 12 women in
the department. She faced widespread
The attendees at the Research Summit on challenges over the course of her career,
Women in Policing identified key research ranging from blatant harassment and
questions, divided into the following sexism to many iterations of body armor
themes: Charting a Course, Culture, that did not fit or protect women’s bodies.
Performance, Recruitment and Retention, Although many of the challenges that
and Promotion. Answers to these research Harrington and other women faced still
questions will help law enforcement exist, her remarks illuminated some of
agencies and researchers build a knowledge the progress that women in policing have
base to better understand the state of made over the past few decades. Although
women in policing, the barriers that women attendees were heartened by the progress
in policing face, and effective changes that that has been made, they noted that, in
can be made to improve the representation many ways, “we’re still fighting the same
and experiences of women in policing. The fight that she fought then.”
following themes are not in priority order;
rather, they reflect the order of discussion Although the percentage of women in
at the summit. policing has remained relatively stagnant
over the past 30 years, attendees agreed
THEME 1: CHARTING A COURSE on — and the research literature shows —
Women are dramatically underrepresented a trend toward progress on many fronts.
in American law enforcement, yet there Understanding the progress we have made
is limited research exploring why this will help identify bright spots, promising
underrepresentation persists. Women make practices, areas for continued improvement,
up more than half of the U.S. population and issues and areas that have not
but fewer than 13% of law enforcement progressed over time.
officers.3 Large law enforcement agencies,
urban areas, and communities with high
levels of racial and ethnic diversity tend
to have a higher proportion of women
officers.4 Attendees at the NIJ summit
noted that when women’s representation
in law enforcement does not mirror their
proportion of the population, trust in
law enforcement may be lacking because
certain populations are not equitably
represented.5
How have the representation and

experiences of women in policing changed
in the past 30 years?
Although she wasn’t able to join in person,

Captain Ivonne Roman, Newark (NJ) Police Department, and Chief Danielle
the summit included videos of comments Outlaw, Portland (OR) Police Bureau.
from retired Chief Penny Harrington, the

What barriers do women in policing face? What strategies create sustained cultural
How do these barriers compare to barriers changes that lead to improvements in the
women face in other professions? representation and experiences of women
in policing?
Although attendees were intentional
about continuously orienting the Several agencies across the country have
conversation toward progress, much of made progress in increasing gender
the discussion during the summit was parity, and their experiences offer lessons
about the barriers that women in policing learned that help other departments.
face. Law enforcement attendees spoke In Portland, Oregon, Harrington filed
at length about the barriers they had hundreds of lawsuits and complaints in an
personally faced over the course of their effort to initiate change. Several attendees
careers, such as the “boys club,” adverse or felt that race and gender discrimination
hostile environments, explicit and subtle lawsuits had historically been the most
harassment, sexism, skewed physical fitness effective way to change departments.
assessments, double standards, and a lack Recommendations from the Christopher
of support and opportunity. Researchers Commission, which was founded in Los
in attendance also spoke about some of Angeles after the Rodney King beating in
the research that has been done on these 1991, led to sweeping reforms in the Los
barriers. Angeles Police Department. When the
commission mandated that the department
The existing research looks at some hire 50% women, the representation of
promising practices for decreasing the women increased dramatically in recruit
barriers and challenges women in policing classes (but only for several years) before
face. Attendees noted that these practices again dropping. “I don’t believe that
should be identified and replicated, along change is going to come from what we do
with thorough evaluations of their impact. in any individual department,” said one
Attendees pointed to promising practices attendee. “Change comes from lawsuits,
including mentoring, sponsorship, support horrible events, mandates. We’re not
networks, and strengthening and enforcing going to get this done in departments
harassment policies. Attendees noted the that don’t want change, and most don’t.”
Women’s Leadership Academy6 in Newark, Attendees suggested that change was most
New Jersey, as an example of successful likely to occur and be sustained if it was
support to help women applicants meet mandated by a mayor, governor, the federal
physical fitness and academy requirements government, or other political drivers
while building peer networks of women outside of police organizations.
supporting each other’s success.
Further research should examine what
Attendees noted that many of the barriers factors have been the drivers of change
to women in policing are not specific to within the agencies that have made
policing; rather, they are reflective of progress on gender parity, considering
larger societal issues and will take time both internal (e.g., visionary leadership
and commitment to improve. One officer or internally driven policy changes) and
said citizens would ask when the “real external factors (e.g., lawsuits or consent
police” would arrive when she and her decrees). Participants noted that increases
female partner responded to a call. “That’s in the representation of women in response
a broader cultural mindset barrier, not to mandates (e.g., consent decrees)
internal to the police department,” she said. appeared to be temporary and that the
One researcher noted, “We can talk about percentage of women in a department
this as a policing problem, but this is an would fall when the mandate was no longer
endemic problem in our society.” in place. One participant noted the need

for research on the women recruited and in other fields — such as technology,
hired under these mandates in order medicine, and the military — can highlight
to better understand their experiences, promising practices for law enforcement.
particularly once the mandate expires. Similarly, American policing can learn
lessons from how other countries have
How can law enforcement agencies — in addressed a lack of gender parity in their
partnership with other organizations — policing systems.
improve data collection and measures
to better inform efforts to improve the What is the relationship between race,
representation and experiences of women ethnicity, and gender in these issues?
in policing? Between sexual orientation, gender
identity, and gender? What are the specific
Policy changes and other interventions experiences of officers who are women
must be evidence-based. If there is not of color, and how does the intersection
yet data on an intervention, it should be of gender and race affect the challenges
piloted, measured carefully, and replicated women of color face in this occupation?
to determine its effectiveness. Although
issues affecting women in policing are Some racial and ethnic groups are
understudied, one researcher stressed disproportionately impacted by the
the need to look at the research that has challenges that women in policing face.
already been conducted on perceptions of It is critical to better understand this
policing in general, and to expand these intersectionality in order to make progress.
studies into actionable items for officers Attendees stressed that intersectionality
and departments across the country. between race and gender must be an
Researchers at the summit expressed their important part of any research on women
belief that police-researcher partnerships and policing, and that all research must be
could help build the knowledge base. “In conducted in a way that allows for analysis
policing, we lean too much on ‘I think,’” across race and ethnicity. Attendees noted
said one officer. “We need to build an the importance of ensuring that research
evidence base.” both captures the specific challenges facing
police officers who are women of color and
Attendees noted that researchers and explores promising practices for addressing
practitioners working to gather data on these challenges at the agency level.
women in policing must remember that
women are not a homogenous group. Data “I think folks are still putting
collection must allow for exploration of minorities in positions to say they
the intersections of race, gender, and checked the box. We need more of a
other demographic factors, including commitment to diversity in how we
rank, background, economic status, sexual look, how we think, what we value as
orientation, and gender identity. an organization.”
What practices in other industries How can we increase diversity in policing?

are promising for improving the
representation and experiences of Research shows that diverse workforces
women in law enforcement? are more effective, creative, and resilient
than homogenous workforces, and that
Law enforcement is not the only field teams with broad perspectives are better
affected by a lack of gender parity, nor at making decisions and solving problems.
is the United States the only country. Studies also point to the high value of a
Attendees agreed that progress made police force reflective of the diversity in

the community it serves. Given the value of particularly in discussions geared toward
diversity in policing, it is important to study generating solutions. They felt strongly that
how to better attract and support a diverse it would be critical to understand men’s
workforce. perspectives on the issues that women
in policing face, and how to improve the
Attendees, particularly women of color and representation and experiences of women
other minorities, shared their experiences in policing.
and challenges related to diversity. Several
attendees felt that they had been hired What is the most effective business case
or promoted to “check the diversity box,” for advancing women in policing?
rather than being based on their merits
and qualifications. These attendees Studies and anecdotal evidence begin to
stressed the need for departments to go make the case for increasing the number
beyond merely increasing the number of of women in policing. Women have been
minority officers — to also achieve greater found to have proportionally fewer use-of-
diversity in background and thought. A force and citizen complaints, potentially
researcher pointed to the Vancouver Police saving departments from costly lawsuits.
Department in British Columbia as one of One attendee stated, “Male officers cost
the first agencies to commit to diversifying more, with excessive use of force and
the department to reflect the population. complaints. I think that’s where we get
To do this, the department stopped leverage to change.” Participants discussed
awarding applicants additional points the potential impact of tying efforts to
solely for military experience and started advance women in policing to possible cost
recruiting applicants with college degrees savings, particularly when working with
and employment experience in diverse individuals in leadership positions who have
fields. Another attendee raised the practice oversight of limited budgets. Studies have
of removing identifying information also shown women to be more capable in
from applications and solely reviewing their interactions with diverse communities,
candidates with demonstrated experience although existing evidence in this area
and skills. One attendee noted that “you is limited and largely outdated. Another
can’t be what you can’t see” and stressed attendee raised the question, why would a
the importance of agencies having women law enforcement agency want to essentially
and minority leaders for others to look up exclude 50% of its potential workforce and,
to. Attendees pointed to the importance of in so doing, eliminate a pool of qualified
moving beyond desegregation to achieve and talented workers? Other attendees
true integration and inclusion. noted that increased representation of
women in policing to better reflect the
“You can’t be what you don’t see.” population at large is a moral imperative,
and no further justification should be
What are men’s perspectives on women in necessary.
policing?
Several attendees noted that, in the
Attendees at NIJ’s research summit interest of making sustainable changes,
represented a broad range of perspectives, underrepresentation of women in policing
but they were almost exclusively women. should not be addressed as a gender
This was an intentional decision by the issue. Rather, the focus should be on
organizers of the summit, who felt that transforming policing and policing culture
women should be empowered to define the in a way that would naturally lead to an
issues relevant to their own experiences. increase in women applicants and retention
Attendees all agreed on the importance of of women officers. An international officer
including men in subsequent conversations, agreed that her country’s efforts to increase

parity in policing focused on a broad

cultural change, which naturally led to an
increase in the number of women in the
organization, including the transformation
of their department from a “police force” to
a “police service.”
“We need research on how to empower

men to support women in their
department.”
What role can/do men play in improving

the representation and experiences of
women in policing?
Men will be important partners in the

(From left to right) Dr. Carolyn Naoroz, Richmond (VA) Police Department;
movement toward gender parity in policing. Dr. Cara Rabe-Hemp, Illinois State University; and Deputy Commissioner
“We need research on how to empower men Tracie Keesee, New York City Police Department.
to support women in their department,”
said one attendee. Attendees unanimously
agreed on the importance of including men
in solutions but stressed the importance of THEME 2: CULTURE
engaging men without putting them on the With 18,000 unique police agencies across
defensive. They suggested that this can be the country and no nationally centralized
done by placing an emphasis on fixing a policing system, it is difficult to draw
flawed system rather than fixing the people universal conclusions about American
within that system. Attendees posited that policing from studies done through one
their male counterparts may be unaware or several agencies. Even so, researchers
of the extent of the problems women in have attempted to examine the challenges
policing face, making them less inclined to and barriers that women officers face in
become partners in addressing the issue. environments where they are not valued,
Rigorous research can help empirically welcomed, or viewed as equals. Limited
demonstrate the problem. qualitative research has highlighted
that women officers routinely face
Attendees debated various types of
sexual harassment and discrimination.7
mentorship. There was agreement about
Research has also found that certain
the value of male mentors in navigating
policies disproportionately dissuade
a male-dominated system, as well as male
women from becoming law enforcement
supervisors who had advocated for the
officers.8 Although research has begun to
professional development and promotion of
examine the law enforcement culture, we
some of the attendees. Attendees noted that
need additional research and nationally
men often hold positions of greater power
representative surveys to empirically
and influence in policing than women do
understand policing culture and its effect
and are often the necessary messengers to
on the well-being of women officers.
raise awareness and spark action. “It can’t
be just us,” said one woman attendee. “We Attendees at the Research Summit on
have to have allies that speak on our behalf. Women in Policing identified the following
We say it, and no one hears. Our male key research questions relevant to women’s
counterparts say it once and everyone says, experiences with policing culture.
‘Oh, what a great idea.’”

What negative aspects of policing cultures What are women police officers’
need to change for women officers to perceptions and experiences of
be better integrated into and integral to harassment in the workplace? What are
departments? effective interventions to reduce the
prevalence of harassment?
Changing the culture within a department
or an entire field can be a long-term Some attendees agreed that harassment
and difficult undertaking. Studying the and sexism are normalized to the extent
effectiveness of interventions in making that, often, only the most egregious cases
women more integral and integrated in are reported. “I don’t think of myself as
policing culture will help law enforcement harassed, ever,” said one officer, “but a
executives and agencies develop lot of the things I experience would be
effective policies to support this shift. considered harassment in another field.”
Representatives from law enforcement Some of the limited research reflects
agencies abroad stressed the importance this — many women police officers
of not only increasing the representation reported that they had not experienced
of women but also mindfully integrating sexual harassment but reported that they
women into the fabric of a department’s had experienced specific behavior that
leadership as essential steps in supporting would constitute harassment. Although
such a culture change. Attendees noted some studies have found declining levels of
a lack of and a need for evidence-based harassment in law enforcement, attendees
practices to guide departments in these questioned whether harassment had truly
interventions. declined — or only the reporting of it. “It’s
become so normalized that they don’t think
What makes a law enforcement environment it’s at the level of harassment,” one attendee
toxic for women practitioners? said. Officers criticized weak sexual
harassment policies and cumbersome,
Attendees almost unanimously agreed long, and non-anonymized harassment
that parts of the current American complaint processes as well as concerns
policing culture are toxic for women. about retaliation. “It’s difficult to file a
Several officers said they nearly left law complaint when we have to provide our
enforcement because of this. “No one name. We have to wait hours to talk to an
valued me on the job,” said one officer. [internal affairs or commanding] officer.
Research that identifies the components The process is horrible,” said one officer.
contributing to an environment that is toxic “These are roadblocks thrown up so that
for women will enable these components to people won’t rock the boat.”
be more effectively addressed.
Researchers noted that harassment has
“We teach police officers that changed over time, particularly with the
everything is a threat. For women, not strengthening of sexual harassment laws
only can they not trust the people in the 2000s, and that there are likely
they’re policing, they also can’t trust generational differences between women’s
the people who are supposed to experiences with harassment. There was
have their backs. This is incredibly consensus that much of the harassment
damaging to women.” that women in policing currently face is
subtle sexism rather than overt harassment.

One officer noted that “when women are “Women face a lot of trauma when
at work, we have to deal with men treating they start at the police academy.
us in a certain way and we have to be wary Police academy is where you learn the
of it. I am constantly wary: Are you talking rules, where you start to negotiate
to me because of my mind or because of your identity. This has to be severely
my body?” One participant noted that redone.”
the conversation seemed to be framed
around women police officers having to How can law enforcement academies
get used to being disrespected by their better serve women?
male counterparts, as opposed to women
police officers demanding the respect they Attendees unanimously agreed that the
deserve. Attendees also noted that — given curricula and requirements of American
the nature of the profession — women police academies are not reflective of the
officers also experienced harassment from abilities and skills officers will draw on after
the public during their performance of leaving the academy. Attendees noted an
regular duties. extreme emphasis on seemingly irrelevant
physical requirements that are never again
Attendees noted the extreme harm that tested in an officer’s career. They also
sexism and harassment cause women agreed that academy experiences are not
officers. One attendee said, “We teach optimally designed for women — one of the
police officers that everything is a threat. major contributing factors to a culture that
For women, not only can they not trust does not always respect and support women
the people they’re policing, they also can’t officers. Attendees spoke to their difficult
trust the people who are supposed to have personal experiences in the academy and
their backs. This is incredibly damaging to agreed that department leadership should
women.” prioritize changes to academy structure
and curricula. “Women face a lot of trauma
Women are not the only group impacted when they start at the police academy,” said
by harassment. “It’s traumatic for everyone,” one law enforcement executive. “Police
an attendee said. “These tentacles reach out academy is where you learn the rules, where
far beyond just female police officers. When you start to negotiate your identity. This
you mistreat one segment of the police has to be severely redone.” Research to
department, it’s actually impacting the understand the academy experience, and
entire department and hurting the entire the demands on an officer after leaving
force.” Another participant raised the point the academy, can help inform future
that if an officer is harassing others in the curricula to better prepare officers for the
workplace, that type of conduct can spill demanding day-to-day work of policing.
over into how that officer interacts with and
treats the public. What is the impact of language in shifting
or maintaining the status quo of how
Although there is extensive anecdotal women are treated in law enforcement?
evidence pointing to widespread
harassment of women in policing, rigorous Several attendees emphasized the
studies of women officers’ experiences importance of language in perpetuating
with harassment would help us better challenges for women in policing. Research
understand its extent and scope, and how on the language used to discuss issues
best to confront and reduce these instances. of women in policing — and policing

generally — can help identify ways that are women, but 68% of the civilian force is
an individual’s choice of words or a women. One attendee noted that women
policy’s wording inadvertently perpetuates civilians in police departments may offer
discrimination, and how changes in interesting insights into why some women
language can help shift the status quo. choose not to pursue a career as an officer.
Attendees noted that this starts at a young Attendees suggested that policing might
age, with simple phrases such as “like a look to the military for trends, parallels,
girl” being used as an insult rather than and lessons learned regarding sworn
a compliment describing confidence and officers, civilians, and contractors.
strength. One attendee noted that women
use weaker language on resumes and in THEME 3: PERFORMANCE
interviews to describe their work, using
Research findings have been mixed
phrases such as “I participated in” or “I
regarding gender differences in
helped” instead of “I created” or “I led.”
performance. Individual studies have shown
no gender differences in certain areas.9
How can we foster the courage to
Other findings have contradicted gender
be accountable for improving the
stereotypes, such as a study that found men
representation and experiences of
officers used more “supportive” behaviors
women in policing?
than women officers.10 Despite these mixed
Attendees noted that it requires courage results, meta-analyses have confirmed that
and strength to be an advocate for gender women officers are less likely than men
parity in policing. Attendees felt that to use force11 and that men officers are
there was currently a lack of incentives significantly more likely than women to
for department leadership and other engage in police misconduct.12 No research
personnel to commit to increasing parity indicates that women lack the skills and
and improving the experiences of women abilities to perform the duties of a police
within their agencies. Studies that examine officer.
how to better foster this courage can help
Attendees at the Research Summit on
encourage additional advocates for change.
Women in Policing identified the following
One participant suggested that these
key research questions relevant to women’s
activities should be required in position
performance in policing.
descriptions for department leaders and
that execution of these activities (or lack
What metrics measure the extent to which
thereof) should be considered in their
women in policing thrive?
performance reviews.
With neither a shared definition of success
What are the experiences of women
nor metrics to measure it, it is impossible
working in police departments as civilians
to determine the extent to which women in
and contractors?
policing thrive. One researcher stated, “If
women in policing want to move forward, I
Just as “women” is not a homogenous
would argue that we need to come up with
group, “policing” also includes many
metrics for women in policing [who] are
groups. Conversations about women in
thriving. We need to come up with a way
policing have historically focused on sworn
to measure it.” Although most attendees
officers, but they should be expanded to
agreed with the need for metrics to
include civilians and contractors as well.
measure success, they argued that these
Attendees noted that, in many departments,
metrics should be identical to those used
civilians were disproportionately women.
to measure whether male officers are
For example, in the New York Police
thriving. One chief suggested that looking
Department (NYPD), 18% of sworn officers

at how many women apply for various jobs that compared rates and types of injury and
and promotions might be a good indicator fatalities between women and men officers.
of whether officers are comfortable and Although it is difficult to generalize the
supported within an organization. results of individual research projects,
studies have found that women are less
How are women impacting police likely than men to use excessive force or to
organizations? under-police.
To better understand the value of “We want to show the public that
increasing the number of women in women are everywhere. We want to
policing, we need to understand how show the public that we have people
women impact police organizations. of every shape and size and color —
Research might consider how departments somebody you can identify with. And
with an increasing number of women that’s good! That creates change
officers in leadership and in the ranks have outside. But inside the department,
changed over time. “We have to look at when we gerrymander women like
what women in positions of power are doing that, they’re by themselves. I think
for police agencies and look at agencies that we have to be really strategic about
do have women in these positions to see where women are placed within the
and measure impact,” said one researcher. police department.”
“We don’t want to just make women What are the advantages and
good men.” disadvantages associated with assigning
women officers across parts of a
Do women and men police officers department versus assigning them
perform differently? If so, how? together?
Few studies have evaluated the differences Departments have explored various
between women and men officers or methods of placing their women officers
compared their performance. Attendees within an agency. Some women officers
cautioned against projecting masculine reported feeling isolated if they are the
metrics of good policing onto women. only women within a unit. Other officers
“We don’t want to just make women good reported that their department placed
men,” said one attendee. Additional women in units together, minimizing the
research can help us better understand representation of women across a variety of
whether there are differences in the way the department’s units. One attendee stated,
women and men officers function and “We want to show the public that women
perform. One participant noted the value are everywhere. We want to show the public
of exploring existing databases that capture that we have people of every shape and size
officer demographic data (e.g., the FBI’s and color — somebody you can identify
forthcoming use-of-force database) as a with. And that’s good! That creates change
viable next step. outside. But inside the department, when
we gerrymander women like that, they’re
How do women and men police officers by themselves. I think we have to be really
compare in regard to officer injuries and strategic about where women are placed
fatalities? How do they compare in regard within the police department.” Research
to citizen complaints and use of force? examining officer perceptions and the
impact of each approach will help guide
Attendees noted a dearth of research on department policy and law enforcement
officer injuries and fatalities, and called for executive thinking on this issue.
more of this research, particularly studies

“[The department] appointed the first How does the media portray the
female to the SWAT team, and then performance of women in policing and
the rest of the SWAT team quit.” women in power?
To what extent are women deterred Women law enforcement executives felt
from taking certain assignments and strongly that there were differences in the
positions? To what extent are the potential media attention they got when compared to
contributions of women in certain their male colleagues. One chief said that
assignments and positions diminished? the media frequently portrayed her as a
“bad, angry, black woman.” Other attendees
Anecdotal evidence shows that women spoke to “death by a million cuts” in the
are comparatively underrepresented in media, and that media coverage tended to
positions and assignments such as the portray power as a positive trait for men
SWAT team and overrepresented in clerical but a negative trait for women. “When folks
and other assignments. Research can help want to take a picture with me, I go out of
quantify this representation, to help us my way to make sure I’m smiling,” said one
better understand the breakdown of women chief. “They write about my stature. They
within positions and assignment types. talk about what I wear. I have to push back.
When I call them on it, they step back and
One attendee noted that women were say, ‘Oh, we didn’t realize that’s what we
“organizationally segregated” within her were doing.’” Research on media coverage
department, comprising nearly 20% of can help quantify this issue and raise
total officers but 3% of lieutenants and 1% awareness of disparities in media coverage
of executives. She added that women were between women and men in power.
disproportionately placed in administrative Participants also noted the importance of
roles and excluded from the SWAT team understanding the impact of the portrayal
and other “elite” units. An attendee noted of women police in television and movies.
that when one department appointed
the first woman to its SWAT team, the Do women and men in policing receive
rest of the SWAT team quit. Attendees equal pay for equal work?
believed that some of the reason for a lack
of women in particular positions was that Although anecdotal evidence suggests
women chose certain assignments to avoid that women officers are paid less for equal
particularly severe harassment and sexism work than their male colleagues, there are
among “elite” units. “I think a lot of women currently no large-scale rigorous studies
go to safe locations in the agency where examining the pay gap to confirm whether
they don’t have to deal with that every day,” there are differences between the pay of
one attendee said. men and women officers for equal work.
One attendee wondered whether there is
“When folks want to take a picture with an overall pay gap because women may
me, I go out of my way to make sure not pursue positions with pay incentives
I’m smiling. They talk about my stature. like night differentials as often as men
They talk about what I wear. I have to do. Quantifying pay differences — if
push back. When I call them on it, they any — between women and men officers,
step back and say, ‘Oh, we didn’t realize controlling for years on the job and other
that’s what we were doing.’” factors, will be an important first step
toward equal pay.

What experiences and skills are necessary

to have a successful policing career, and
how can more opportunities be created for
women to acquire these critical attributes?
The field needs a better understanding

of the skills and experience necessary to
progress up the leadership ladder. Once
these have been identified, organizations
need to provide women with opportunities
to gain the skills and experience needed
to progress. More research is needed on
key transition points and how experience
accumulates to position women for success (From left to right) Nicola Smith-Kea, Laura and John Arnold Foundation;
in the field of policing. Captain Paige Valenta, Madison (WI) Police Department; Dr. Anne Kringen,
University of New Haven (CT); and Dr. Amie Schuck, University of Illinois,
Chicago.
THEME 4: RECRUITMENT AND
RETENTION
Recent surveys of undergraduate students Why do women decide not to become
demonstrate that women view policing police officers? What deters them?
careers as inhospitable and assume it is
more difficult to gain respect as women Understanding the reasons that women
officers when compared to their male decide not to become police officers can
colleagues. This may impact the likelihood help law enforcement agencies change
of these students pursuing a policing recruiting tactics to better attract and
career.13 Research has also found that a retain top talent. Law enforcement
budget increase is the only significant attendees spoke at length about the reasons
predictor of a law enforcement department that many of them had nearly chosen a
hiring women at an increased rate.14 career other than law enforcement or had
Overall, no standardized, empirically nearly left the profession. A researcher
supported programs exist to increase the had strongly considered a career in law
representation of women in policing. enforcement but eventually chose to study
it instead. She said, “At interviews, people
Attendees at the Research Summit on started to advise [me] on what I should
Women in Policing identified the following expect. They said, ‘You know, you’re
key research questions relevant to the probably never going to be able to get
recruitment and retention of women officers. married or have a relationship because men
don’t like to wait at home.’ I asked myself
“At interviews, people started to advise why I was applying for a job where this was
[me] on what I should expect. They okay to tell me. So, instead of accepting, I
said, ‘You know, you’re probably never went to grad school and studied women
going to be able to get married or have in policing. I did my master’s thesis on
a relationship because men don’t like to the question, ‘Why don’t women decide to
wait at home.’ I asked myself why I was become police officers?’”
applying for a job where this was okay
to tell me. So, instead of accepting, I
went to grad school and studied women
in policing. I did my master’s thesis on
the question, ‘Why don’t women decide
to become police officers?’”

How can we make the police profession “My 10-year-old granddaughter told
more enticing to women? me, ‘I’ve told my friends you kick butt
for a living.’ They’re already forming
Women apply to law enforcement their opinion of law enforcement at
agencies at a much lower rate than men. that age.”
Understanding the factors dissuading
women from applying can help agencies How can we make policing a viable and
attract more women applicants. Attendees interesting career option for girls, starting
spoke at length about their various at a young age?
impressions of policing before they
joined the force. One chief, a woman of Attendees agreed that the recruitment of
color, said that she didn’t want to become women officers should begin at a young
a police officer because she and her age. Officers expressed pride that their
contemporaries had a “natural fear” and children had positive impressions of law
dislike of the police. Other attendees stated enforcement careers. One chief said, “My
that they had not seriously considered a 10-year-old granddaughter told me, ‘I’ve
career in law enforcement or didn’t know told my friends you kick butt for a living.’
that women could pursue careers as law They’re already forming their opinion of
enforcement officers until they experienced law enforcement at that age.” Studies to
a ride-along or other positive interaction measure the impact of outreach to young
with a law enforcement officer, often a populations can help inform targeted
woman. An attendee also referenced job agency recruitment efforts. Studies in the
announcements directed toward women by military have shown that girls with mothers
the Department of Homeland Security and in the military are more likely than their
Immigration and Customs Enforcement, peers to join the armed services. Attendees
which led to thousands of women noted the value of replicating this research
applicants. within policing.
Do departments have different criteria for “One of the big problems with
women and men? Should they? recruitment, especially [of] women,
is that the image from the media is
Although we anecdotally know that some that real policing is cops and robbers,
departments have different eligibility going out and catching the bad guy.
criteria for women and men, there is a This isn’t necessarily the day-to-day.”
lack of rigorous study to quantify how
many departments have different criteria What is the role of a police officer today,
and to learn the scope and impact of and how can we recruit accordingly?
these differences. Michigan was cited as
one state with different criteria for men Current agency recruitment materials are
and women. Qualitative research has often based on stereotypes about what
found that women do not want different police officers do, rather than reflecting
standards than men for being hired or the day-to-day roles of an officer. Attendees
promoted; rather, they want decisions to agreed that these materials were a barrier
be merit-based, using unbiased standards. to attracting women. One attendee stated,
Studies for understanding the scope and “One of the big problems with recruitment,
scale of differences in criteria — and especially [of] women, is that the image
whether these differences are necessary, from the media is that real policing is
relevant, and effective — can help inform cops and robbers, going out and catching
department policy. the bad guy. This isn’t necessarily the

day-to-day.” Another attendee stressed the

importance of recruiting materials that
focus on community-oriented policing
and portray policing as a service and an
institution designed to serve communities.
One chief said that her department aimed
to do this by making their officers visible
and accessible through monthly “Meet the
Police” days and other events. Studying the
appeal of current recruitment materials
to prospective recruits, and comparing
how the materials portray police officers’
roles with the actual roles law enforcement
officers play, will help agency recruitment
practices become more evidence-based.
(From left to right) Inspector Julie Duncan, Queensland (Australia) Police
In New Zealand, women make up more Service; Inspector Tammy Fryer, Windsor (Ontario) Police Service; and Deputy
than 30% of total staff and nearly 20% of Chief Kaye Ryan, New Zealand Police.
sworn officers. The New Zealand Police
have committed to equal representation by on the value of recruiting from diverse
2021 and have intentionally focused their backgrounds and fields. One attendee said,
recruitment efforts on attracting a diverse “We shouldn’t just recruit from criminal
pool of applicants that is representative justice programs. We should also recruit
of the New Zealand population. A police from nursing, psychology, and other
recruitment video from New Zealand was ‘serving’ programs. We can teach skills.”
shown at the summit as an example of Another attendee noted the importance of
these efforts. The video features women recruiting individuals who show potential,
officers, portrays police interacting with focusing on promising individuals who are
the community, emphasizes the value of under-employed.
communication and relationship building,
and uses humor to promote a different What role can the federal government
image of police and police work.15 play in advancing the representation and
experiences of women in policing?
“We shouldn’t just recruit from
criminal justice programs. We should Attendees suggested that the federal
also recruit from nursing, psychology, government would be a helpful partner in
and other ‘serving’ programs. We can creating a single clearinghouse of accessible
teach skills.” research relevant to issues of women in
policing, and they encourage federal
What is the professional background of agencies to engage with issues of gender
people coming into policing, and how does parity in law enforcement. One researcher
that impact the profession? suggested the value of tying access to
federal funds to an agency’s efforts
We do not currently have an empirical to recruit and retain women. Another
understanding of the professional attendee suggested the federal government
backgrounds of law enforcement officers could support promising practices such
in the United States. Understanding as mentorship programs and leadership
the impact of these backgrounds on law development courses designed specifically
enforcement can help agencies better target for women.
their recruitment efforts. Attendees agreed

“I’ve made more than 1,000 arrests access resources. These are the
and not once did I have to do 24 talents and skills we need to reflect in
push-ups before putting handcuffs on our marketing materials.”
someone. I’ve never run a mile and a
half after a suspect.” To what extent do agency-led
representations of policing (in outward-
To what extent do hiring criteria and facing communications such as
physical fitness requirements and tests recruitment videos) accurately reflect
accurately reflect the standards and skills actual duties?
needed to be a successful officer?
Attendees expressed frustration at the
Research shows that women are disconnect between representations of
disproportionately disadvantaged by certain policing and the reality of the job. One
hiring and physical fitness requirements, attendee stated, “Marketing materials
and there is a lack of evidence that these should show what policing is really about,
tests accurately reflect the actual duties not all shooting and rappelling from
of a law enforcement officer. Attendees helicopters. We always show all the sexy
identified these requirements as a major stuff, but not conflict resolution, problem
challenge for women, with one participant solving, helping people access resources.
wondering if these were deliberate attempts These are the talents and skills we need
to “wash women out.” One attendee noted to reflect in our marketing materials.” A
that tests for employment were based on review could help agencies understand
upper body strength, thus favoring men, whether their recruitment materials reflect
despite a lack of evidence that upper body the actual duties of law enforcement
strength correlated with an applicant’s officers.
success as a police officer. Other attendees
agreed with this observation. One attendee Is rotating shift work necessary? Are other,
noted, “I’ve made more than 1,000 arrests more family-friendly policies feasible?
and not once did I have to do 24 push-ups
before putting handcuffs on someone. I’ve Summit attendees reported that rotating
never run a mile and a half after a suspect.” shift work is difficult for families and
Attendees discussed changes made in the disproportionately impacts women, and
American military that revised physical they questioned whether shift schedules
fitness assessments to more accurately and other policies truly benefit agencies.
reflect the physical demands of the job. Researchers in attendance confirmed that
Understanding how requirements could there is little evidence in favor of shift work
better correlate with actual duties has schedules. Research examining the impact
the potential to dramatically improve the of various schedules, including fixed-
number and experiences of women in shift schedules, will help law enforcement
policing. One attendee noted the need for executives understand the impacts of
not just social science research but also various schedules on officers’ performance
extensive legal review of court rulings on and duties.
the subject across the country.
Which U.S. agencies have progressive
“Marketing materials should show policies toward parental leave, and what is
what policing is really about, not the impact of these policies?
all shooting and rappelling from
helicopters. We always show all the American law enforcement agencies have a
sexy stuff, but not conflict resolution, wide variety of parental leave policies. Little
problem solving, helping people research has been conducted to understand

the impact of various policies, both on “Daycare is the No. 1 thing they talk
officers and on the agency. Attendees about. If we had this, that would solve
stressed the need for maternity uniforms the majority of issues. We know what
and accommodating parental policies. the issues are, but we choose not to
Reviews, comparisons, and evaluations spend our money on this.”
of these policies will help agencies make
informed decisions regarding parental How does the availability of quality child
leave. One American chief stated that her care affect women in policing?
department had successfully implemented
a permanent (as opposed to rotating) shift Day care provision in law enforcement
schedule, nursing rooms for mothers, six agencies is a highly under-researched area.
weeks of paid maternity leave for natural One major metropolitan police department
births, and eight weeks of paid maternity had recently convened to examine issues
leave for cesarean sections. “That’s that disproportionately impacted its women
about commitment to being equitable to sworn officers and civilian staff. “Day care
everyone,” she said. Participants also noted is the No. 1 thing they talk about,” said
that increasing men’s access to benefits an executive from this agency about the
such as paternity leave may positively convening. Studies examining the cost and
impact women’s ability to balance personal impact of day care provision might point to
and professional responsibilities. One its promise as a tool to recruit and retain
participant noted an increase in the officers.
number of requests from men officers for
days off or shift changes to accommodate What health issues are specific to women
child care needs. She noted that, previously, police officers, and how can they be
this largely fell to women officers, who then addressed?
appeared to have attendance issues when
compared to their male counterparts. Although there are health issues that
disproportionately or exclusively impact
What is the impact of postnatal nursing women, attendees noted that we do not
policies? have a good understanding of the best way
law enforcement agencies can address and
There is also wide diversity in postnatal accommodate issues, including physical and
nursing policies across U.S. and mental health and wellness, stress, burnout,
international police agencies. Many post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicide.
agencies do not have postnatal nursing
policies. An international officer shared How do women and men police officers
that, in some agencies in her country, compare in regard to physical and
postnatal nursing policies have had a mental health and wellness, stress, and
significant positive impact, and women burnout? How does this compare to other
can receive paid maternity leave for up to professions?
one full year. “These are agencies that are
listening and responding to women,” she Although research has documented the
said. Many attendees doubted the feasibility physical and mental toll of police work,
of such policies in America. Studies attendees identified a need for increased
examining the impact of various postnatal research to compare wellness, stress, and
nursing practices will help agencies make burnout between women and men officers.
informed decisions in considering and Identifying these differences, if any, is the
developing their own policy. first step in developing interventions to
improve wellness and reduce stress and
burnout in all officers.

Why do women leave policing, both during What are the characteristics of effective
and after the academy? Are retention recruitment and retention programs with
rates and reasons for leaving similar regard to women officers? What can we
for men and women? What is the cost learn from departments that are recruiting
to departments when they lose officers, and retaining women successfully?
in whom they have invested significant
training funds, particularly early in their Although attendees identified several
career? promising recruitment and retention
initiatives, they called for many more
A special report from the Bureau of Justice of these programs, and evaluations to
Statistics indicates that in academies with a understand their impact. Recruitment
predominantly stress-based military model and retention programs have not been
(e.g., paramilitary drills, intensive physical rigorously studied. Pilot studies and
demands, and public disciplinary measures), rigorous evaluations of innovative
female recruits had a 68% completion rate recruitment and retention programs will
compared to 81% for male recruits. In identify promising practices for replication
academies with a predominantly nonstress and further study.
model (which includes an emphasis on
academic achievement, physical training, Congress has supported practices to
and a supportive instructor-trainee promote the recruitment of women to
relationship), female and male recruits the armed services. These include family-
both had a completion rate of 89%.16 We friendly programs to support dual military
do not have an empirical understanding families, such as the largest child care
of the reasons why women leave or are program in the United States. A career
dismissed from academies. Similarly, we do intermission program allows parents to
not have an understanding of why women take sabbaticals from the service to raise
leave the police profession. Attendees children and to take up to 12 weeks of
valued information gained from current paid family leave. Other changes include
law enforcement officers, but they noted updating combat gear to better fit women’s
it would also be important to capture bodies, updating the command culture to
data from recruits who dropped out address sexual harassment in the armed
(e.g., through exit interviews) to better services, and using centralized processes
understand and address their reasons like command climate surveys to keep
for leaving. An empirical understanding track of the command culture. Attendees
of dropout rates and the reasons behind encouraged exploring the feasibility of
them can help departments mitigate similar measures in policing.
challenges and amend policies to better
support women throughout their time at Attendees believed that we can learn
the academy and after their departure. One from departments with higher rates of
participant noted that the financial impact success in recruiting and retaining women.
of losing women candidates and officers Australia has made impressive progress in
must also be explored, particularly given the recruitment and retention of women.
training costs and limited budgets. One officer from the Queensland Police
Service said, “Inclusion creates diversity.
“Inclusion creates diversity. We We treat everyone [as] equal. We create an
treat everyone equal. We create an environment and the diversity comes.”
environment and the diversity comes.”

“The biggest obstacle for women in

police work is the ability to balance
work and family life. A lot of women
simply opt out of policing for this
reason.”
How can departments better help women

balance their professional and personal
lives?
There was consensus among attendees that

the difficulty of balancing professional and
personal responsibilities was a major factor
driving women to leave policing or choose
a different career from the outset. “The
biggest obstacle for women in police work Major Wendy Stiver, Dayton (OH) Police Department.
is the ability to balance work and family
life,” said one attendee. “A lot of women
simply opt out of policing for this reason.” counterparts. Studies have found that
Research can help departments understand women officers were treated as tokens,
how certain policies might help officers were subjected to sexual harassment, and
balance their professional and personal received messages from male supervisors
lives without significant financial and other that their promotions would be based on
costs to the agency. their gender rather than qualifications and
merit.17 Additional research has found that
Attendees agreed that departments must women may not pursue opportunities for
prioritize policy changes that would promotion because they lack confidence,
help officers balance their professional paired with a lack of structured support
and personal lives better. Rather than for maintaining a personal life and raising
seeing these policy changes as a burden children while handling the demands of a
for a department, attendees stressed policing career.18
that departments should see this as
an opportunity to attract and retain Attendees at the Research Summit on
the best officers. Attendees noted Women in Policing identified the following
that if departments did not frame the key research questions relevant to the
conversation in that way, they would risk promotion of women officers.
wasting significant resources in their talent
pool. Additionally, participants discussed “Women have been told it will be twice
the fact that these types of considerations as hard to do this as a woman.”
could — and possibly should — be relevant
for all officers, not just women. What is the representation of women in law
enforcement across ranks?
THEME 5: PROMOTION
Promotion of women officers to higher We know that women are underrepresented
ranks has not been well studied. Limited in law enforcement, particularly in
existing research suggests that many leadership positions. A better empirical
qualified women candidates face understanding of the exact representation
disproportionate barriers to promotion of women across ranks, both within
when compared with their male departments and nationally, will establish a
baseline against which to measure progress.

“Who has access to power?” asked one whether women in law enforcement do seek
attendee. “What are the pathways? We have promotion at a rate lower than that of their
to look at the structural factors that are male counterparts and, if so, why.
leading this.” Others noted that it would
not be surprising to find a small number “When we talk about the ‘good old boy
of women at higher ranks because of the network,’ I am living it. It’s very deep-
barriers women face. “Women have been rooted and the culture is very bad.
told it will be twice as hard to do this as a The mindset is that women belong at
woman,” one officer said. home, cooking for their spouses.”
“At a hostage rescue training, I Do women face discrimination in the

remember thinking ‘I don’t think promotion process?
my skill sets are going to result in a
positive resolution.’ All of my male There was widespread belief among
colleagues were brimming with attendees that women officers face
confidence, but I didn’t have the self- discrimination in the promotion process.
confidence to question them. Shortly Many officers shared stories of being passed
after, I retired from the team.” over despite scoring highly on promotion
exams, and Harrington stated that her
Why are women not being promoted nor department chose not to fill nearly 10
seeking promotion at the rates one might positions rather than promote her. Many
expect? attendees felt that the promotion process
was subjective and biased against women.
Attendees at the summit noted that one “To get to lieutenant in my agency, it’s
reason for a lack of women in leadership completely up to the chief’s discretion,” said
positions stemmed from women not one officer. Officers also spoke about their
applying for these opportunities. Research experiences with nepotism and entitlement,
in analogous fields suggests that women both within the promotion process and
are more hesitant than men in applying in day-to-day activities. One chief stated,
for promotion and more likely to doubt “When we talk about the ‘good old boy
their qualifications. Many attendees network,’ I am living it. It’s very deep-rooted
shared stories of such experiences. For and the culture is very bad. The mindset
example, one attendee said the following: is that women belong at home, cooking
“At a hostage rescue training, I remember for their spouses.” Studies to examine
thinking, ‘I don’t think my skill sets are discrimination in the promotion process
going to result in a positive resolution.’ can help us understand it empirically.
All of my male colleagues were brimming Researchers should carefully consider
with confidence, but I didn’t have the methodology and data collection to ensure
self-confidence to question them. Shortly that analysis can delineate discrimination
after, I retired from the team.” One female based on gender, race, and other factors.
participant noted that women officers told
her they did not want to go through the “Power: for men it’s viewed as a
process of having to prove that a woman positive but for women it’s a negative.”
could do what the men had been doing.
Another female participant raised the issue How do people view power and ambition in
of a lack of access to career development women officers compared to how they view
training and pointed to the traditionally their male counterparts?
male-centric networking that occurs at
events like golf, cigar nights, and fishing Summit attendees felt that differences in
trips. Further research will illuminate the way power and ambition are viewed

by women and by men have an impact on her position (chief of a major metropolitan
how women officers are perceived and, department) as a stepping stone to
ultimately, on their ability to successfully “something bigger and better,” a criticism
do their jobs. One attendee said, “Power: she doubted most of her male counterparts
for men it’s viewed as a positive but for experienced. A different chief stressed the
women it’s a negative.” An attendee raised importance of women being champions of
the common conception of a woman in change in shifting this narrative. She noted
leadership as “shrill, unlikable, needs to that whenever she heard a woman being
smile more.” Another noted a reluctance criticized as ambitious, she would respond,
to promote women because of the “That’s great, so am I.”
assumption that a woman in a leadership
position would be unlikable. Existing “From a research perspective, we
research in analogous fields may be helpful need to learn from these women
when considering research designs for about their successes. What pathways
investigating this issue. got them there? We need to be very
purposeful about that.”
Attendees agreed that traditional command
presence is laden with masculine norms. Are women more likely to be promoted
Women law enforcement executives into leadership positions in organizations
believed they had repeatedly received experiencing a legitimacy crisis (i.e., the
less respect than their male counterparts glass cliff)? If so, what can be done to help
throughout their careers because they did these women be more successful leaders?
not conform to these masculine norms,
despite being effective leaders. Attendees The “glass cliff” theory suggests that women
urged a shift away from these traditional have a higher likelihood of being placed in
masculine norms to a more open-minded leadership positions within departments
definition of an effective leader. in crisis, where they are more likely to fail.
Examining the context of women leaders
Several law enforcement executives at in law enforcement will either affirm or
the summit agreed that they had needed debunk this theory. Interviews with women
to make many more sacrifices over the executives in departments in crisis, as
course of their careers than their male well as other forms of research, can help
counterparts. One executive stated that inform actions to support women in these
because she felt constant criticism for positions. One researcher said, “From a
being “a woman, and so weaker,” she had research perspective, we need to learn from
never been able to let her guard down and these women about their successes. What
had felt pressure to constantly project a pathways got them there? We need to be
traditionally masculine command presence very purposeful about that.”
“that wasn’t me or my leadership style.” A
second executive agreed that differences Attendees identified a number of
in the ways power and ambition are viewed unanswered questions around women
across gender made it necessary for her to officers and promotion, including a
work harder than her male counterparts to lack of understanding of the leadership
earn respect, and her successes were often opportunities that women receive and
criticized as being too ambitious. the context behind these opportunities.
Although many believed that women
Instead of ambition being seen as an are often put in positions of leadership
asset, one attendee said it was portrayed within departments in crisis, there was
as “watch out, she’s ambitious.” She noted some disagreement about whether this
that she was frequently accused of using was negative. “Every challenge is an

opportunity,” noted one attendee about Attendees also felt that understanding
the glass cliff theory. “No matter what typical paths to promotion — and how
department, we should leave it better than these differed from the paths of women
we found it.” officers not promoted — would help
identify factors contributing to a lack
What is the impact of women taking of parity. To general agreement, one
women-specific leadership training attendee prioritized the question, “How
compared to general policing training? do people get into spaces that we have
deemed jumping-off points for leadership?”
A number of training and other Attendees identified jumping-off points like
professional development programs experience in SWAT teams and other elite
exist specifically for women officers. units, and competitive training such as the
Attendees were divided in their opinions FBI National Academy, and they mentioned
of these trainings. Although most felt the importance of developmental or
that the women-specific trainings were “reach” assignments. One attendee noted
helpful, there was also discussion that the particular importance of women
participation in such a program could “use consciously seeking opportunities to
up” an officer’s professional development attend established and respected executive
opportunities, making it less likely that she development programs. Another pointed
would have the opportunity to attend the to the logistical challenges of needing to be
FBI National Academy or other prestigious away from home (in many cases, for weeks)
trainings. in order to attend.
“A man can spend a year on patrol and “Women are change catalysts within
get seven years credit. A woman gets a police organizations. Instead of
quarter credit.” asking ‘are women making it in
policing?’ when are we going to start
What is necessary for women to be at least asking ‘how are women impacting
proportionately represented in leadership? police organizations in positive ways?’
I’d love to see the research move away
Attendees felt confident that empirical from whether women are making it to
research would show significant disparities how they are positively impacting.”
between men and women regarding
promotion and opportunity. “A man can What is the impact of an increased number
spend a year on patrol and get seven years’ of women in leadership?
credit. A woman gets a quarter credit,” said
one officer. Other attendees felt they were Studies examining promising and
more often judged on their hair, makeup, effective practices will help increase the
and clothing than on valid qualifications. number of women in law enforcement
Studies are needed to explore this leadership positions. Equally important
apparent disparity and understand how to will be measuring the impact of women
increase women’s access to promotion and in leadership positions on individual
opportunity. officers, law enforcement agencies, and
communities. Attendees stressed the
Attendees felt that the first step toward importance of studying this impact. One
increasing promotions of women was attendee said, “Women are change catalysts
understanding how the structure of an within police organizations. Instead of
organization, the policies and practices asking, ‘Are women making it in policing?’
guiding it, and its leadership’s outlook when are we going to start asking, ‘How
affect the number of women promoted. are women impacting police organizations

in positive ways?’ I’d love to see the

research move away from whether women
are making it to how they are positively
impacting.”
“When I was promoted to sergeant, I

was the first and only female sergeant
in our organization. It wasn’t until I
was surrounded by all these amazing
women, willing to talk about their
experiences and what they were going
through, that I could say, ‘Hey, I can
do this.’”
Does mentoring work? What does

successful mentoring look like? What (From left to right) Lt. Rachel Tolber, Redlands (CA) Police Department;
are the advantages and disadvantages of Chief Carmen Best, Seattle (WA) Police Department; and Dr. Marisa Silvestri,
women and men mentors? University of Kent (England).
Many attendees pointed to mentoring around. We have to stand up for each other.”
as one of the most influential factors in Another participant noted the extreme
their careers and a way to help women be importance of women choosing to mentor
successful in an adversarial system. One other women who are new to the profession.
attendee said, “When I was promoted to
sergeant, I was the first and only female Summit attendees also discussed the pros
sergeant in our organization. It wasn’t until I and cons of having men or women as
was surrounded by all these amazing women, mentors. Men were more commonly in
willing to talk about their experiences and positions of authority and influence and
what they were going through, that I could were less able to identify with a woman
say, ‘Hey, I can do this.’” officer’s personal experiences, particularly
navigating a male-dominated culture as
Not all departments have women who can a woman. Attendees reflected on their
serve in a mentorship capacity. One officer positive experiences with men as mentors
noted that she had to drive an hour to find and advocates, noting that the male
another woman in a command position. In perspective was particularly helpful in
small departments in particular, officers navigating the leadership structure.
often felt they were “n = 1,” the only woman,
without others to turn to for inspiration
and guidance. Attendees proposed a Field Priorities
statewide or national network of women
Summit participants selected 15 of the
mentors that would cross departmental
most important questions to put forward
lines.
in the research agenda. They are ranked in
order of importance, based on votes by the
Attendees also noted that women
attendees.
sometimes choose not to mentor or
otherwise support each other, and that this
1. What barriers do women in policing
is detrimental. “We have to get out of this
face?19 How do these barriers compare
‘crabs in a bucket’ syndrome,” said one chief
to barriers women face in other
about unhealthy competition and hostility
professions?
between women. “There’s so much to go

2. How can law enforcement agencies — in are the advantages and disadvantages of
partnership with other organizations — women and men mentors?
improve data collection and measures 14. What are the experiences of women
to better inform efforts to improve working in police departments as
the representation and experiences of civilians and contractors?
women in policing?
15. What is necessary for women to be at
3. Why are women not being promoted least proportionately represented in
nor seeking promotion at the rates one leadership?
might expect?
4. What is the relationship between race,
ethnicity, and gender in these issues? Promising Practices and Next
Between sexual orientation, gender Steps
identity, and gender? What are the
Attendees identified a number of promising
specific experiences of officers who
practices. These recommendations reflect
are women of color, and how does the
the opinions of attendees at the summit.
intersection of gender and race affect
They are not necessarily evidence-based
the challenges women of color face in
and do not reflect the official position of
this occupation?
the National Institute of Justice.
5. What role can/do men play in
improving the representation and Support mentoring and sponsorship.
experiences of women in policing? Attendees almost unanimously agreed that
6. What is the impact of an increased having strong role models, advocates, and
number of women in leadership? mentors (both women and men) among
law enforcement leaders was important in
7. What is the role of a police officer today a woman officer’s career track and success.
and how can we recruit accordingly? They pointed to the need for national
8. What are the characteristics of effective or statewide networks to mentor women
recruitment and retention programs officers who may not have women leaders
with regard to women officers? What within their own organizations to look
can we learn from departments that up to. “Some agencies don’t have enough
are recruiting and retaining women women — or none — to do this,” said
successfully? one attendee. “We need to find a way to
9. What negative aspects of policing reach into these spaces to connect women
cultures need to change in order for with mentors to help them be successful
women officers to be better integrated in a system that doesn’t want them to be
into and integral to departments? successful.” Attendees noted the value
of women officers supporting and lifting
10. What is the most effective business case up other women officers, rather than
for advancing women in policing? competing or fighting with each other.
11. What experience and skills are
necessary to have a successful policing Create flexible, family-friendly policies. The
career, and how can more opportunities research suggests that agencies with higher
be created for women to acquire these levels of procedural, distributive, and
critical attributes? interpersonal justice are more efficient and
effective organizations. Law enforcement
12. How can we make the police profession
organizations need to identify and adopt
more enticing to women?
standards that promote equality and
13. Does mentoring work? What does equity for all employees. Policies that have
successful mentoring look like? What a disproportionate negative impact on

a group of workers should be reviewed Newark, New Jersey, to help women recruits
and changed. The long-term benefits of pass physical fitness tests, create a network
promising practices such as family-friendly of women officers, advocate for these
policies (e.g., parental leave, postnatal officers, and increase the recruitment and
nursing, and nonrotating shift schedules) promotion of women in law enforcement.
should be explored. Similar programs can provide important
community, support, and advocacy for
Improve and enforce harassment policies. women officers.
Beyond the initial harm of a harassment
incident, attendees enumerated the One attendee spoke about a quarterly
many difficulties faced by women filing meeting she had started after she became
sexual harassment claims. These included the first and only woman in a leadership
retaliation, waiting hours to speak to an position in her small agency. She invited all
internal affairs or commanding officer of the women in her agency to the meeting
about a complaint, unnecessarily lengthy but noted that almost all attendees were
and cumbersome processes, and the lack nonsworn officers. She noted that the
of assurance that complaints would remain women who attend “have great ideas about
anonymous and confidential. how to improve things,” and that she was
continuing to work to increase participation
Find advocates for change. Women did not from sworn officers.
create the barriers and challenges that they
face in policing, and they will not solve Reframe the profession. Attendees criticized
these issues alone. Allies will be integral stereotypes of policing as masculine
in making progress. Attendees identified and violent. They called for a shift in
police chiefs, male counterparts, mayors, emphasis toward community policing,
trade organizations, and politicians as valuing relationships, and increasing trust.
groups that could serve as partners. Attendees believed this shift would increase
the appeal of policing for women, more
Re-examine physical fitness standards. accurately portray policing’s mission, and
Physical fitness standards were identified result in a stronger, more effective police
as one of the key reasons that women profession. They noted the successful shift
recruits did not complete academy in police departments abroad from “police
training, yet attendees noted that these force” to “police service” as a promising
requirements were largely not based on model for framing this necessary shift.
evidence nor reflective of the physical
requirements of the job. Re-examining Look to the “bright spots.” With
and revising these standards to more approximately 30% women, the Madison
accurately reflect the physical demands of (Wisconsin) Police Department has one of
the job has the potential to dramatically the highest percentages of women officers
increase the number of women in policing. in the country. Some Canadian agencies
Some attendees noted the need for more offer progressive policies, such as postnatal
rigorous assessments of other, nonphysical nursing and extended paid parental leave.
requirements, such as emotional Medicine, technology, the military, and
intelligence, negotiation and de-escalation other fields have made progress toward
ability, and interpersonal skills. parity, and these should be viewed as allied
fields when considering how to make
Support women. After finding that women progress on issues related to women in
failed out of police academy at a rate two policing. These “bright spots” can offer
to three times that of men, officers formed lessons.
the Women’s Leadership Academy in

policing are pilot projects. Evaluating

interventions to measure and quantify their
impact will create an evidence base to help
departments understand what works.
Learn from research in other fields. Like

women in policing, women in medicine
also face significant barriers. Dr. Linda
Pololi described how she has helped build
a consortium of five medical schools to
examine issues of women in medicine.
After conducting in-depth interviews with
both men and women who work in medical
Deputy Commissioner (retired) Nola Joyce, Philadelphia (PA) Police Department. schools, Dr. Pololi’s team performed
a quantitative analysis and ultimately
Publish issue briefs on relevant research. developed a survey of medical schools’
Attendees expressed a desire for easy-to- approach to women in academic leadership
digest issue briefs that would summarize all positions. This research helped illustrate
relevant research on an issue in one place. the challenges that women in medicine
They suggested a target audience of city face, differences in perception between
managers, unions, and police executives. men and women, and promising steps for
making progress. Similar research and
Convene follow-up meetings. NIJ’s methodologies would be helpful in better
research summit was a first step toward understanding issues of women in policing.
understanding and making progress on the
state of women in policing, but additional Learn from successful efforts abroad.
meetings are needed to collect more input Representation of women in U.S. policing
from the field, explore priority areas in is especially low when compared to many
greater detail, and generate promising of our international counterparts. Law
practices. Attendees suggested that, in enforcement participants from New
follow-up meetings, women attendees might Zealand, Australia, and Canada shared
bring a male officer from their department. steps their agencies have taken not only
Attendees also suggested that focus groups to recruit and retain women in greater
of women officers would be helpful to delve numbers but also to completely transform
into specific issues at greater length. the mission of their departments — thus
creating an environment where diversity
Create a space for relevant research. is not only welcomed but celebrated.
Attendees pointed to the lack of a Transferability assessments of these efforts
centralized database or other source of could identify a framework for how U.S.
information for law enforcement leaders agencies may apply similar strategies.
who want to learn more about how to
work toward parity. “There’s no one place, Prioritize the issue. The New York Police
that’s part of the problem,” an attendee Department has a unit dedicated to equity
said about research relevant to women in and inclusion, and it recently convened
policing, and best practices for shifting an a women’s institute to look at issues
agency’s culture and increasing parity. that disproportionately impact women
in the agency who are sworn officers,
Evaluate the impact of interventions. With civilians, and contractors. This was done
a lack of rigorous research, many initiatives with full support of the commissioner
for increasing the number of women in and demonstrates the department’s

commitment to the issue. Creating commitment to engaging with gender issues

units with the dedicated purpose of both in the policing field and beyond.
understanding the issues women officers
face, and supporting these officers,
creates infrastructure within an agency’s Notes
organization that can be powerful in
1. The terms “law enforcement”
shifting its culture and practices. “It’s
and “policing” are used somewhat
very intentional,” said one officer about
interchangeably in this report. For
the initiatives in New York City. “It does
the purposes of this convening, law
create angst. There are some folks that are
enforcement includes police, sheriffs,
very disturbed. As they should be. I would
and other peace officers. It does
encourage anyone interested in doing this
not include correctional officers,
to reach out.”
prosecutors, or other practitioners,
although many of the issues are also
Invest in partnerships. This research
relevant to those stakeholder groups.
agenda is only the first step in a long
road toward gender equality in policing. 2. 2013 Law Enforcement Management
Law enforcement, researchers, and other and Administrative Statistics data
stakeholders will need to establish and indicated that 9.5% of first-line
maintain strong partnerships to answer supervisors were women, and 2.7% of
the research questions in this research chiefs or executives were women.
agenda, and many more. Law enforcement 3. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime
executives will need to commit to in the United States, 2016 (Washington,
supporting and valuing the women officers DC: U.S. Department of Justice,
in their departments. Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2016),
https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-
Reframe conversations about women u.s/2016/crime-in-the-u.s.-2016.
in policing. Conversations about the
challenges that women in policing 4. Amie M. Schuck, “Female
face often focus on the ways that Representation in Law Enforcement:
law enforcement agencies can better The Influence of Screening, Unions,
accommodate their women employees. Incentives, Community Policing,
Asking instead how agencies can optimally CALEA, and Size,” Police Quarterly 17
use their talent pool reframes the no. 1 (2014): 54-78.
conversation around opportunities for 5. The background information at the
departments to optimize their resources. beginning of each theme is adapted
from a literature review compiled
Commit to long-term work. Advancing by Kristin Silver in advance of the
women in policing should not be seen December research summit. These
as a series of short-term solutions. The paragraphs are intended solely to
barriers that women in policing face provide limited background on existing
were not created overnight, and quick-fix research relevant to each theme. They
solutions are likely to be ineffective in the are not intended to represent the
long term. Changing the negative aspects full extent of all relevant literature.
of the culture of an organization or in Kristin Silver, Women in Policing (2018),
the policing field takes time and effort. unpublished manuscript.
Many of the issues women in policing
6. For more information on the
face are not specific to policing; rather,
Women’s Leadership Academy, visit
they are reflective of broader societal
https://www.womensleadpd.org.
issues. Attendees called for a long-term

7. Cara Rabe-Hemp, Thriving in an 14. William T. Jordan, Lorie Fridell, Donald

All-Boys Club: Female Police and Their Faggiani, and Bruce Kubu, “Attracting
Fight for Equality (Lanham, Maryland: Females and Racial/Ethnic Minorities
Rowman & Littlefield, 2018). to Law Enforcement,” Journal of
8. Anne Li Kringen and Madeleine Novich, Criminal Justice 37 no. 4 (2009): 333-341.
“Is It ‘Just Hair’ or Is It ‘Everything’? 15. Watch the recruiting video
Embodiment and Gender Repression in at https://www.youtube.com/
Policing,” Gender, Work & Organization watch?v=f9psILoYmCc#action=share.
25 no. 2 (2018): 195-213, doi:10.1111/ 16. Bureau of Justice Statistics, “State
gwao.12207. and Local Law Enforcement Training
9. Richard J. Lundman, “Officer Gender Academies, 2006,” Special Report
and Traffic Ticket Decisions: Police (Washington, DC: U.S. Department
Blue or Women Too?” Journal of of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,
Criminal Justice 37 no. 4 (2009): 342-352, 2009), https://www.bjs.gov/content/
doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.06.002. pub/pdf/slleta06.pdf.
10. Cara Rabe-Hemp, “Female Officers and 17. Carol A. Archbold and Dorothy Moses
the Ethic of Care: Does Officer Gender Schulz, “Making Rank: The Lingering
Impact Police Behaviors?” Journal of Effects of Tokenism on Female Police
Criminal Justice 36 no. 5 (2008): 426-434, Officers’ Promotion Aspirations,”
doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.07.001. Police Quarterly 11 no. 1 (2008): 50-73,
11. P. Colin Bolger, “Just Following Orders: doi:10.1177/1098611107309628.
A Meta-Analysis of the Correlates 18. Carol A. Archbold and Kimberly
of American Police Officer Use of D. Hassell, “Paying a Marriage Tax:
Force Decisions,” American Journal of An Examination of the Barriers
Criminal Justice 40 no. 3 (2014): 466- to the Promotion of Female Police
492, doi:10.1007/s12103-014-9278-y; Officers,” Policing: An International
and Natalie Todak, “The Decision to Journal of Police Strategies &
Become a Police Officer in a Legitimacy Management 32 no. 1 (2009): 56-74,
Crisis,” Women & Criminal Justice 27 no. doi:10.1108/13639510910937111.
4 (2017): 250-270, doi:10.1080/08974454. 19. Although the largest number of
2016.1256804. participants ranked this question as a
12. Timothy M. Maher, “Police Sexual priority, there was some discussion as
Misconduct: Female Police Officers’ to whether part of the limited research
Views Regarding Its Nature and Extent,” funding should be used to explore it,
Women & Criminal Justice 20 no. 3 given that some participants felt many
(2010): 263-282, doi:10.1080/08974454.2 of the barriers are well-known. They
010.490480. suggested that research might be more
13. Josie Francesca Cambareri and impactful if it focuses on promising
Joseph B. Kuhns, “Perceptions and practices for overcoming barriers and/
Perceived Challenges Associated or how these barriers compare to those
With a Hypothetical Career in Law in other fields.
Enforcement: Differences Among Male
and Female College Students,” Police
Quarterly 21 no. 3 (2018): 335-357,
doi:10.1177/1098611118760862.

Attendees
Carol Archbold Joan Fiesta

North Dakota State University University of Illinois Police Department
Catherine Ashcraft Heather Foust Cummings

National Center for Women & Information Catalyst
Technology
Erin Freidline
Carmen Best Riley County (KS) Police Department
Seattle (WA) Police Department
Tammy Fryer
Amy Bonney Windsor (Ontario) Police Service
Prescott (AZ) Police Department
Glendaly Garcia
Vera Bumpers State of Connecticut Department of
Houston (TX) METRO Police Department Public Health
Tara Coffey Laura Goodman

New York City Police Department Education for Critical Thinking
Christine Cole Aimee Haley

Crime and Justice Institute Columbus (OH) Police Department
AnnMarie Cordner Natalie Holder

Kutztown University of Pennsylvania U.S. Capitol Police
Marilyn Corsianos Meghan Hollis

Eastern Michigan University Texas Department of Health and Human
Services
Kym Craven
National Association of Women Law Aimee Jackson Oberon
Enforcement Executives Milwaukee (WI) Police Department
Julie Duncan Nola Joyce

Queensland (Australia) Police Service Philadelphia (PA) Police Department,
retired

Hyun Jung Jeon Danielle Outlaw

American University Portland (OR) Police Bureau
Kristy Kamarck Glennis Polanco

Congressional Research Service Ocean Township (NJ) Police Department
Sandra Karsten Linda Pololi

Missouri Department of Public Safety Brandeis University
Tracie Keesee Nicole Powell

New York City Police Department New Orleans (LA) Police Department
Anne Kirkpatrick Cara Rabe-Hemp

Oakland (CA) Police Department Illinois State University
Anne Kringen Ivonne Roman

University of New Haven (CT) Newark (NJ) Police Department
Emily Kuhn Richard Rosa

International Association of Chiefs of Police Hispanic American Police Command
Officers Association
Claudia Leyden
Redlands (CA) Police Department Kaye Ryan
New Zealand Police
Leah McFadden
Windsor (Ontario) Police Department Catherine Sanz
Women in Federal Law Enforcement
Sara McFann
Florida International University Dana Schrad
Virginia Association of Chiefs of Police and
Heavan Mitchell Foundation
Asheville (NC) Police Department
Amie Schuck
Renee Mitchell University of Illinois at Chicago
Sacramento (CA) Police Department
Cynthia Shain
Karin Montejo Louisville (KY) Police Department, retired,
Miami-Dade (FL) Police Department, and Southern Police Institute
retired
Marisa Silvestri
Brenda Moore University of Kent (England)
University at Buffalo, SUNY
Nicola Smith-Kea
Carolyn Naoroz Laura and John Arnold Foundation
Richmond (VA) Police Department
Alexis Smollok
Rebecca Neusteter Federal Air Marshal Service
Vera Institute of Justice
Madison Soltys
Emma O’Flanagan American University
Rutgers University Police Department

Kathy Spillar Jessica Toliver

National Center for Women in Policing Police Executive Research Forum
Wendy Stiver Cynthia Turcios

Dayton (OH) Police Department American University
Stephanie Stoiloff Paige Valenta

Miami-Dade (FL) Police Department Madison (WI) Police Department
Natalie Todak Chelsea Van Horne

University of Alabama at Birmingham American University
Rachel Tolber LaTesha Watson

Redlands (CA) Police Department Henderson (NV) Police Department

DOJ Participants
Geoff Alpert Matt Scheider

National Institute of Justice Office of Community Oriented
Policing Services
Trisha Chakraborty
National Institute of Justice Jennifer Scherer
Brett Chapman
National Institute of Justice Donellen Schlosser
Office of the Inspector General
Billie Coleman
Community Oriented Policing Services Steve Schuetz
Gary Cordner
National Institute of Justice Kevin Scott
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Joel Hunt
National Institute of Justice Cornelia Sigworth
Bureau of Justice Assistance
Shelley Hyland
Bureau of Justice Statistics Kristin Silver
Nancy Kolb
Bureau of Justice Assistance Erica Smith
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Maureen McGough
National Institute of Justice Rianna Starheim
Contractor for National Institute of Justice
Angela Moore
National Institute of Justice Veronica Taylor

NCJ 252963

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE SPECIAL REPORT WOMEN IN POLICING: BREAKING BARRIERS AND BLAZING A PATH July 2019

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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE SPECIAL REPORT WOMEN IN POLICING: BREAKING BARRIERS AND BLAZING A PATH July 2019

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U.S.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE SPECIAL REPORT

David B. Muhlhausen, Ph.D.

National Institute of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

■■ Maureen McGough, Senior Policy Advisor

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path i

Despite efforts to increase representation, the percentage of women in law enforcement1

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path iii

■■ What practices in other industries ■■ What are the experiences of women

■■ What is the most effective business case

iv Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path v

THEME 5: PROMOTION crisis (i.e., the glass cliff)? If so, what

vi Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Executive Summary ................................................................................................iii

Guiding Principles .................................................................................................. 1

Research Agenda ..................................................................................................... 3

Field Priorities ....................................................................................................... 23

Promising Practices and Next Steps ..................................................................... 24

DOJ Participants .................................................................................................... 33

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path vii

National Institute of Justice Research

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 1

2 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

How have the representation and

Although she wasn’t able to join in person,

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 3

4 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

What practices in other industries How can we increase diversity in policing?

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 5

6 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

parity in policing focused on a broad

“We need research on how to empower

What role can/do men play in improving

Men will be important partners in the

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 7

8 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 9

10 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 11

12 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

What experiences and skills are necessary

The field needs a better understanding

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 13

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day-to-day.” Another attendee stressed the

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 15

16 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 17

18 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

“The biggest obstacle for women in

How can departments better help women

There was consensus among attendees that

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 19

“At a hostage rescue training, I Do women face discrimination in the

20 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 21

22 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path

in positive ways?’ I’d love to see the

“When I was promoted to sergeant, I

Does mentoring work? What does

Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path 23

24 Women in Policing: Breaking Barriers and Blazing a Path