Leadership and Managerial Skills

Phase 1 Notes: Use of leadership and managerial skills
WHAT IS ASSERTIVENESS?
• Assertiveness is about self confidence which means having a positive attitude towards yourself
and others.
• Assertiveness is form of behaviour characterized by a confident declaration or affirmation of a

statement without need of proof; this affirms the person's rights or point of view without either
aggressively threatening the rights of another (assuming a position of dominance) or
submissively permitting another to ignore or deny one's rights or point of view.
1-It depends on expressing yourself

2-Showing respects to others rights
3-Being honest
4-Indirect and certain
5-Mutual equilibrium and benefit is important in a relationship
6-It is expressing emotions, rights, realities, thoughts and boundaries by words
7-Using non-verbal communication for sending the message
8-It is not universal; it depends on the position and the individual
9-It is getting social responsibility
10-It is not the nature of the mankind, it can be learned
Being Assertive means:
1-Being assertive is focusing on your goals

2-Being assertive is being self-aware
3-Being assertive is being true to yourself
4-Being assertive is building self esteem
5-Being assertive is nurturing yourself.
Assertive
types:
Ed. 2015/Rev 0 Compiled by Capt. Naveen Sharma Page 1 of 46

Negative attitude and passive behaviour
 Lack of self confidence and low self esteem

 Lack of self respect
 Self putdowns
 Negative feelings and thoughts about yourself
 Feeliings of inferiority compared to others
 Like others to be in control of people and situations
 Feel guilty towards others
 demotivated
Negative attitude and manipulative behaviour

 Lack oself respect and lack of respect for others
 Mistrus f tful and suspicious of others’ motives
 Negative feelings and thoughts about self and others
 Feel very wary towards others
 Dishonest and indirect
 Twist what others have said
 Undermine others’ self esteem
 Depressed and demotivated
Negative attitude and aggressive behaviour

 Lack of respect towards others
 Put others down
 Feelings of superiority
 Like to be in control of people and situations
 Disinterested in others’ thoughts and feelings
 Feel angry towards others and are quick to blame them
 Don’t listen to or ask questions
 Dismissive of feedback
Positive attitude and assertive behaviour
 Self confidence and high self esteem

 Respect for self and towards others
 Take responsibility for self
 Motivated to do a good job
 İnterested in others’ feelings and thoughts
 Ask questions

 Honest and direct

 Listen to others
 Ask others for feedback
Principles of Controlling Subordinates and maintaining good relationships include:
 being calm and even in temperament when giving orders and dealing with offenders
 being honest and fair in all matters, and being firm when necessary
 treating all staff on the same basis,
 avoiding causing disappointment to staff
 avoiding making promises,
 having a proper attitude towards spokesmen or representatives of trade unions
 making allowances for differences in nationality, language, religion and other cultural matters
affecting behaviour and attitude
 ensuring that all staff feel that their services on board are appreciated
Staff Attitudes
Reasons why people work:
 need to earn money

 need to be a useful member of society

 need for security of their standard of living

 need to use their manual and mental skills and to derive satisfaction from them, and need to
achieve their ambitions and improve their status
Exercise of Authority
 the appointment of a person to a higher rank gives authority

 the real authority is achieved when the person concerned demonstrates that he knows the
work, is decisive, decisions are generally correct, orders are clear and are quickly carried out
without argument, seeks advice when necessary and helps others, accept orders from superiors
and carry them out and accepted by those with whom he works.
Types of Influence Tactics:
Consequences of Influence Tactics:

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory
It was in 1943 a Psychologist Mr. Abraham Harold Maslow suggested his Theory of Human Motivation.
His theory is one popular and extensively cited theory of motivation. Maslow's theory is based on
the Hierarchy of Human Needs. According to Maslow, human behavior is related to his needs. It is
adjusted as per the nature of needs to be satisfied. In hierarchy of needs theory, Maslow identified five
types / sets of human need arranged in a hierarchy of their importance and priority. He concluded that
when one set of needs is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivating factor. Thereafter, the next set of needs
in the hierarchy order takes its place. These needs in hierarchy can be compared to a pyramid. At the
lowest level, there will be first set of needs which can be described as basic needs and are universal in
character. This will be followed by other sets of needs.
Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs is shown in the following diagram.

The Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs is explained below:
1. Physiological Needs: Physiological needs are the basic needs for sustaining human life. These
needs include food, shelter, clothing, rest, air, water, sleep and sexual satisfaction. These basic
human needs (also called biological needs) lie at the lowest level in the hierarchy of needs as
they have priority over all other needs. These needs cannot be postponed for long. Unless and
until these basic physiological needs are satisfied to the required extent, other needs do not
motivate an employee. A hungry person, for example, is just not in a position to think of
anything else except his hunger or food. According to Maslow, 'man lives by bread alone,' when
there is no bread. The management attempts to meet such physiological needs through fair
wages.
2. Security / Safety Needs: These are the needs connected with the psychological fear of loss of
job, property, natural calamities or hazards, etc. An employee wants protection from such types
of fear. He prefers adequate safety or security in this regard i.e. protection from physical
danger, security of job, pension for old age, insurance cover for life, etc. The safety needs come
after meeting the physiological needs. Such physiological needs lose their motivational potential
when they are satisfied. As a result, safety needs replace them. They begin to manifest
themselves and dominate human behavior. Safety needs act as motivational forces only if they
are unsatisfied.
3. Social Needs: An employee is a human being is rightly treated as a social animal. He desires to
stay in group. He feels that he should belong to one or the other group and the member of the
group should accept him with love and affection. Every person desires to be affiliated to such
groups. This is treated as basic social need of an individual. He also feels that he should be loved
by the other members. He needs friends and interaction with his friends and superiors of the
group such as fellow employees or superiors. Social needs occupy third position in the hierarchy
of needs.

4. Esteem Needs: This category of needs include the need to be respected by others, need to be
appreciated by others, need to have power and finally prestigious position. Once the previous
needs are satisfied, a person feels to be held in esteem both by him and also by others. Thus,
esteem needs are two fold in nature. Self-esteem needs include those for self-confidence, self-
respect, competence, etc. The second groups of esteem needs are those related to one's status,
reputation, recognition and appreciation by others. This is a type of personal ego which needs to
be satisfied. The Organisation can satisfy this need (ego) by giving recognition to the good work
of employees. Esteem needs do not assume the motivational properties unless the previous
needs are satisfied.
5. Self-actualization Needs: This is the highest among the needs in the hierarchy of needs
advocated by Maslow. Self-actualization is the desire to become what one is capable of
becoming. It is a 'growth' need. A worker must work efficiently if he is to be ultimately happy.
Here, a person feels that he should accomplish something in his fife. He want to utilise his
potentials to the maximum extent and desires to become what one is capable of becoming. A
person desires to have challenges and achieves something special in his life or in the area of his
specialization. Though everyone is capable of self-actualization, many do not reach this stage.
This need is fully satisfied rarely.
Limitations of Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Maslow's theory of motivation (Hierarchy of Needs Theory) is very popular all over the world and
provides guidelines to managers / managements for motivating employees. However, Maslow's theory
has many limitations.
Limitations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory are noted below :-
1. Maslow's theory is over simplified and is based on human needs only. There is lack of direct
cause and effect relationship between need and behavior.
2. The theory has to refer to other motivating factors like expectations, experience and perception.
3. Needs of all employees are not uniform. Many are satisfied only with physiological needs and
security of employment.
4. The pattern of hierarchy of needs as suggested by Maslow may not be applicable uniformly to
all categories of employees.
5. Maslow's assumption of 'need hierarchy' does not hold good in the present age as each person
has plenty of needs to be satisfied, which may not necessarily follow Maslow's need hierarchy.
6. Maslow's theory is widely accepted but there is little empirical evidence to support it. It is
largely tentative and untested. His writings are more philosophical than scientific.

Importance of Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Although Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory has been criticised on above grounds, still it holds many
advantages or merits. It helps the managers to understand the behaviour of their employees. It also
helps the managers to provide the right financial and non-financial motivation to their employees. This
overall helps to increase the efficiency, productivity and profitability of the organisation.
Frederick Herzberg Theory of Human Motivation
is also called 'Two Factor Theory', 'Dual Factor Theory' and 'Hygiene / Maintenance Theory of
Motivation'. This theory is based on the information collected by him and his associates (in the USA in
1959) by interviewing two hundred engineers and accountants. The information collected relates to the
attitude of people towards work. This attitude towards work depends on two sets of factors namely
hygiene or maintenance factors and the motivating factors.

Hygiene Factors of Two Factor Theory
According to Frederick Herzberg, the Hygiene Factors do little contribution to provide job satisfaction.
He called them "dissatisfiers' as their absence cause dissatisfaction but their presence is not motivating
but only prevent dissatisfaction. The hygiene factors meet man's needs to avoid unpleasantness but do
not motivate them to take more interest in the work. Hygiene factors (when provided) create a
favorable environment for motivation and prevents job dissatisfaction. They are not an intrinsic part of a
job, but they are related to the conditions under which a job is performed. When employer is unable to
provide enough of these factors to his employees, there will be job dissatisfaction. However, if they are
provided, they will not necessarily act as motivators. They will just lead employees to experience no job
dissatisfaction.
Motivating Factors of Two Factor Theory
Motivating Factors act as forces of job satisfaction. They create positive and a longer lasting effect on
employee’s performance and are related to work itself. Adequate provision of such factors called are
'Satisfiers'. They make people happy with their jobs because they serve man's basic needs for
psychological growth. In addition, they also motivate employees in their work. Such factors are five and
are called motivators by Herzberg.
Motivating factors motivate subordinates to take more interest in the work. They raise efficiency and
productivity of employees. According to Frederick Herzberg, motivating factors are essential in order to
provide job satisfaction and in order to maintain a high level of job performance. Employees will not
have job satisfaction if the motivating factors are not provided in sufficient quality by the employer.
According to Frederick Herzberg, these two sets of factors are quite independent of each other. It may
be noted that hygiene factors, when satisfied, tend to eliminate dissatisfaction but do not motivate an
individual employee for better performance. The motivating factors will permit an individual to grow
and develop in a natural way. In brief, hygiene factors affect an individual's willingness to work while
motivating factors affect his ability and efficiency to work.
Herzberg's two factor theory has made a significant contribution towards improving manager's basic
understanding of human behaviour. His theory is simple to grasp, based on some empirical data and
guides managers to improve employee motivation. Herzberg provided stimulus to other researchers to
develop alternative theories of motivation.
Comparison of Maslow and Herzberg Theory
Basis of Theory
Maslow's theory is based on the hierarchy of human needs. He identified five sets of human needs (on
priority basis) and their satisfaction in motivating employees.
Hertzberg refers to hygiene factors and motivating factors in his theory. Hygiene factors are dissatisfiers
while motivating factors motivate subordinates. Hierarchical arrangement of needs is not given.

Applicability of Theory
Maslow's theory is most popular and widely cited theory of motivation and has wide applicability. It is
mostly applicable to poor and developing countries where money is still a big motivating factor.
Herzberg's theory is an extension of Maslow's theory of motivation. Its applicability is narrow. It is

applicable to rich and developed countries where money is less important motivating factor.
Motivators
According to Maslow's model, any need can act as motivator provided it is not satisfied or relatively less
satisfied.
In the dual factor model of Hertzberg, hygiene factors (lower level needs) do not act as motivators. Only
the higher order needs (achievement, recognition, challenging work) act as motivators.
Theory X
According to this theory, type X individuals are inherently lazy and unhappy with their jobs. Therefore,
an authoritarian management style is required to ensure fulfillment of the individuals' objectives. These
workers need close supervision with comprehensive systems of control and a hierarchical structure is
needed with tight controls at every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition
without an enticing incentive program, and will avoid responsibility. According to Dr. Kumi Mark, if
organizational goals are to be met, 'Theory X' managers must rely heavily on the threat of punishment
to gain employee compliance. When practiced this theory can lead to mistrust, highly restrictive
supervision and a punitive atmosphere. The 'Theory X' manager believes that all actions can be traced,
and the responsible individual needs a direct reward or a reprimand according to the action's outcomes.
This managerial style is more effective when used to motivate a workforce that is not inherently
motivated to perform. It is usually exercised in professions where promotion is infrequent, unlikely or
even impossible and where workers perform repetitive tasks. One major flaw of this management style
is that it limits employee potential and discourages creative thinking.
Theory Y
'Theory Y' managers assume employees can be ambitious, self-motivated and exercise self-control.
Employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties and for them, work is as natural as play. They
possess creative problem solving abilities, but their talents are underused in most organizations. 'Theory
Y' managers believe that given the proper conditions, employees will learn to seek out and accept
responsibility, exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing their objectives. A 'Theory Y'
manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work. They believe
that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret 'Theory Y' as a
positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of 'The Human Side of Enterprise' reveals that
McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the
possibilities that this creates. He thinks that 'Theory Y' managers are more likely than 'Theory X'
managers to develop a climate of trust with employees required for employee development. This would

include managers communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the tension in superior-
subordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and
use their abilities. This environment would include sharing of decision-making so that subordinates have
a say in decisions that influence them.
Theory X Theory Y


Training Methods
Training should be based on:
 attitude
 skills and
 knowledge

Purpose of on-board training
On-board training for seafarers is a vital component of competency development necessary for superior
performance. Real life experience in the work environment is a very effective leaning methodology. The
STCW 2010 Code as also the ISM Code recognize the value of such training and have placed the
responsibility of conducting such training on the Management Level staff on board.
Components of on-board training
 Regulatory requirement for onboard training.

 Learning process and factors affecting it.
 Learning blockages and learning styles.
 Training needs analysis.
 Designing and developing a Training module.
 Training delivery - Use of various training aids & training methods.
 Assessment and Evaluation.
 Mentoring.
Conducting a training session
Following components will need to be considered when planning a training session:
 Purpose,
 Objective,
 Contents,
 Mode of training,
 Briefing and Debriefing
- Importance of group activity, demonstration and hands-on experience

Task and workload management
The Human Memory takes in information, processes that information and stores it for later use.
There are three memory stores that the information passes through:
 Sensory Memory
 Working Memory
 Long-term Memory
The sensory memories are your senses:
 Sight
 Smell
 Sound
 Taste
 Touch
The sensory memories take in the data.
The working memory is the thinking center, the center of consciousness. The working memory
processes the information that the sensory data collected.
Features of the working memory:
 Limited capacity for data storage

 Can store approximately 7 "chunks" of data
 Data only lasts about 12 seconds without elaborate rehearsal
Think back to the last time you tried to remember a phone number, you had to say it over and
over again until you dialed it right? Phone numbers are usually 7 digits long and you probably
only had to remember it for about 12 seconds. Can you recall that telephone number now?
The long-term memory takes the processed information and stores it for later use.
Features for the long-term memory:
 Permanent storage of information

 Large capacity for storing data
 Contains specialized memory structures called schema to help network new information to

prior knowledge.
Think the long-term memory as a filing cabinet. You use the schema to help file the information
into categories. When you need the information, you get it out of the filing cabinet and bring it
to your desk or workspace, which is your working memory.
Cognitive overload occurs primarily in the working memory. The working memory is a powerful
processor, but doesn't have a large capacity for storing data. If the information is not moved
from the working memory to the long-term memory fast enough, it builds up to create
overload.
Body language is a big clue to noticing cognitive overload. Some easy to recognize indicators
include:
 Frustration
 Glazed over eyes
 Look of boredom
Fatigue:
Fatigue can be defined as a progressive loss of mental and physical alertness that can end in
sleep.
Physical fatigue usually occurs after strenuous physical activity or very long periods of activity.
You feel weaker, have less endurance, and may find that your muscles become cramped, stiff,
and sore.
Lack of sleep, sleeping at different times of the day, mental stress, or high mental workload will
quickly result in mental fatigue. You become increasingly inattentive while trying to concentrate
on your tasks. As fatigue increases, your short-term memory becomes less effective and you
may forget vital information. Your creativity and decision-making abilities start to wane and you
have more difficulty dealing with novel situations. This means you have to work harder to avoid
errors.
Fatigue and Memory:
Total sleep loss leads to deterioration in memory and decision making. In fact creative thought
and problem solving become increasingly difficult as lack of sleep accumulates.
By the 18th hour, a marine pilot will have great difficulty remembering things he has said/done a
few moments ago and his reaction time will have almost doubled in duration.
By the 24th hour his ability to think creatively and make decisions will be low.

When fatigued marine pilots can still do simple tasks and follow procedures but if they are faced
with a novel situation or having to respond quickly to a problem they are very susceptible to
making errors and are more likely to give an incorrect command or misjudge distances and
duration.
Vigilance tasks such as monitoring radar and traffic will be more error prone when the marine
pilot works over 18 hours without sleep.
The performance of someone who is sleep deprived can be as bad as the performance of
someone who is intoxicated!
Example of Degraded Performance
Figure below shows the performance for a single

cognitive test presented as a function of time
awake. Tests were given hourly starting at 08:00
after a normal night sleep and ended at 13:00 the
following day. Note that performance drops off
rapidly after approximately 17 hours awake. This
situation can be compared to the situation where
a marine pilot takes an evening or night
assignment after being off duty and spending the
day awake waiting for the assignment to begin. If
the same data were collected for a shift that
started at night and continued into the second
night, the degradation would begin sooner and be
more severe. Similar results can be obtained for
several other cognitive tests including: vigilance,
sensory comparison, and psychomotor.
Effects of Fatigue:
Long before people reach a stage where they actually fall asleep, fatigue will start to affect their
performance. It can cause:
 Poor work performance
 Lack of attention and concentration
 Inability to make good decisions
 Poor short term memory
 Slow reactions
 Educed competence
 Mood / attitude change
Signs of Fatigue

Most people who are fatigued do not realize how tired and impaired they are. We often
disregard the warning signs of fatigue. The following list may help you realize when you are
drowsy. If you experience one major indicator or three of the other indicators, getting more
sleep should be a priority.
Major indicators of severe fatigue Other indicators of severe fatigue
 Eyes go out of focus or close for a  Heavy and burning eyes

moment  Headaches, stomach aches
 Slowed, slurred speech  Drowsiness
 Blurred vision, seeing mirages ahead  Inattention to minor, but potentially
 Wandering and disconnected important details
thoughts  Reduced morale and motivation
 Constant yawning  Degraded mental abilities (including
 Head nodding memory, decision-making, and
 Forgetting to communicate with perception)
crew  Increased distractibility and
 Incorrect reading of equipment irritability
 Forgetting to check ship position on  Reluctance to initiate tasks and take
regular basis command
 Missing a reference point  Reduced sense of humour
 Not remembering the last command  Tendency to exaggerate
given  Tendency to take unnecessary risks
 Missing radio calls  Degraded sense of balance
 Giving wrong commands
Managing Fatigue:
It is not possible to eliminate fatigue entirely from seafarer’s lives but it can be minimized and
performance maximized.
Essential Strategies
 Know your sleep needs and limitations

 Pay attention to your biological rhythm.
 Make sleep a priority.
 Start your work with zero or minimal sleep debt.
 Watch for the signs of fatigue.
 Use alerting strategies at work.
 Eat healthy foods and exercise regularly.

 Consult your physician if you think you have a sleep disorder.
Napping Tips
 Use a longer nap (over 90 minutes) to decrease your sleep debt.

 Use a short nap (10 to 40 minutes) to increase your alertness when tired.
 Time your naps to your body clock.
 Beware of the effects of sleep inertia.
 Don’t nap if you have insomnia.
Food Tips
 Eat healthy meals at regular times.

 Avoid high-fat and spicy foods at night.
 Limit caffeine.
 Avoid caffeine, alcohol, and heavy meals prior to sleep.
 Eat a light snack at night.
 Drink water (but not just before bedtime).
Foods to Avoid on the Night Shift
 High-fat food
o Fried food
o Pastries
o Potato and corn chips
o Subs and pizza
o Whole-milk dairy products
o Fatty meat
 Foods that promote stomach irritation

o Spicy food
o Excessive coffee or tea (including decaffeinated)
o Tomato juice
Tips to Improve Family and Social Issues
 Be flexible.
 Manage your time while on your “tour de role”.
 Plan sleep as well as other activities when not on your “tour de role”.
 Educate the family on fatigue issues.
Sleep practices
We can do many things to help prepare ourselves for sleep. Developing a before-sleep routine
can help trigger our sleep mechanism. Relaxation, reading, or listening to soothing music can

help us get ready for sleep. If the day’s troubles are on your mind just before you want to sleep,
make a list of them and decide on another time to deal with them. Make sure that any
medications you may be taking, such as cold remedies, do not contain caffeine, alcohol, or other
stimulants. Avoid having any caffeine, nicotine, or alcohol for at least two to four hours before
going to bed. These substances will disrupt your sleep and prevent you from getting the proper
amounts of slow wave and REM sleep that you need to function properly. Avoid heavy, high-
aerobic exercise for at least two hours before bed, since it has a stimulating effect on your body,
and increases your metabolism. Finally, if you are hungry, it is wise to eat something light before
going to bed.
 Establish a bedtime routine  Drink too much liquid

 Relax  Exercise vigorously before bed
 Read  Consume alcohol, nicotine or
 Inspect labels on cold caffeine before bed (2-4 hrs)
medications  Go to bed hungry
 Nap

Personnel Assignment
Personnel assignment depends upon knowledge, skill, experience, competence, attitude, ship design,
manning arrangements, external environmental conditions, reliability of equipment and machinery, and
operational conditions.
Time and resource constraints
 The work should be planned, allocated, delegated, keeping in mind the time and resource
constraints
 It is important to use all the available resources, with proper planning to obtain optimum results
Prioritization
Prioritization is about focus—where to assign resources and when to start the work. It is not about
scoring methods and ranking mechanisms. Without defining priorities, it is difficult to effectively
distribute personnel to carry out the highest valued projects. Project priorities enable management to
assign their employees to the most important projects.
Prioritizing enables organizations to make the best use of company resources. Without a clear and
shared picture of what matters most, lower-value work can move forward at the expense of high-value
work. Again, prioritization is about focus—WHERE to assign resources and WHEN to start the work.
Prioritization and resource allocation go hand in hand.
In the diagram above we see that prioritization relates to resource priority and schedule priority.

Effective communication on board and ashore
Many of the problems that occur in a organization are the direct result of people failing to
communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a
good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to
another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver.
Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the
sender intended to transmit.
Types of Nonverbal Symbols
 The eyes
 The face and head
 Gestures

 Touch
 Posture
 Territory
 Walking
 Status symbols
Types of Communication
 Formal and informal

 Upward, download and horizontal
 Spoken and written
 Electronic
Types of communication
 Formal – the official communication that travels through the structured (formal) organization
 Informal (grapevine) – rumors, statements, o reports whose truth any known authority cannot
verify and which may not pertain to the functioning of the organisation.
 Upward communication – is the flow of communication from managers to mangers
 Downward communication – is the flow of communication from managers to managers or from
upper management to middle management or lower management.
 Horizontal communication – is the flow of communication moving laterally or at the same level
in the organisation.
Listening
is divided into two main categories: passive and active. Passive listening is little more that hearing. It
occurs when the receiver or the message has little motivation to listen carefully, such as music, story
telling, television, or being polite.
The following are a few traits of active listeners:
 Spends more time listening than talking.

 Do not finish the sentence of others.
 Do not answer questions with questions.
 Are aware of biases. We all have them...we need to control them.
 Never daydreams or become preoccupied with their own thoughts when others talk.
 Lets the other speaker talk. Does not dominate the conversation.
 Plans responses after the other person has finished speaking...NOT while they are speaking.
 Provides feedback, but does not interrupt incessantly.
 Analyzes by looking at all the relevant factors and asking open-ended questions. Walks the
person through your analysis (summarize).

 Keeps the conversation on what the speaker says...NOT on what interests them.
 Takes brief notes. This forces them to concentrate on what is being said.
 Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It signals interest in others
and increases the speaker's credibility. People who make eye contact open the flow of
communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.
 Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth,
and liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm
and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and people will react favorably. They will be
more comfortable around you and will want to listen more.
 Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking you may be perceived as boring and stiff. A
lively speaking style captures the listener's attention, makes the conversation more
interesting, and facilitates understanding.
 Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you talk
and move. Standing erect and leaning forward communicates to listeners that you are
approachable, receptive and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and the
listener face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling
should be avoided as it communicates disinterest.
 Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with others. You
should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading the other person's space. Some of
these are: rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze aversion.
 Vocal: Speaking can signal nonverbal communication when you include such vocal elements
as: tone, pitch, rhythm, timbre, loudness, and inflection. For maximum teaching
effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms of
many speakers is that they speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of
speaker as boring and dull.
Barriers to Effective communication
 Lying (Facial indicators, General indicators)

 Perceptions
 Over-eagerness to respond
 Closed words
 Judging
 Credibility gap
 Noise
 Wasting the though-speech differential

 Emotions
 Snap judgment
 Attacking the individual
 Rank
 Gatekeepers
 Poor Listening
Importance of Listening
 Time
 Good relationship
 Prevent misunderstanding and rumors
 People perform better
 Prevents complaints from blossoming
 Good decision making
 Prevents haste conclusions
 Requires full attention
Developing Listening skills
 Listening responses
a) Nod-nodding the head slightly and waiting
b) Pause-looking at the speaker, but without doing or saying anything.
c) Casual remark – “I see,” “uh-huh,” or “is that so?”
d) Echo-repeating the last few words the speaker said.
e) Mirror – Showing you understand by reflecting what has just been said : “you feel that.........”
f) Phrasing questions
i. Open
ii. Closed
Break down Communication barriers
 Encourage upward communication

 Have an open-door policy
 Use face-to-face communication when possible
 Avoid credibility gaps.
 Write for understanding
 Watch your timing

 Be sensitive to needs and feelings of others

 Identify and manger conflict
Do’s of listening
 Eliminate distractions by holding telephone calls and choosing a quiet place to talk.
 Allow adequate time f discussion.
 Take note of nonverbal cues.
 When you are unsure of what was said, restate what you think you heard in the form of a
question.
Do’s of listening
 Show interest
 Express empathy
 Be silent when silence is needed
 When you think that something is missing, ask simple, direct questions to get the necessary
information.
Don’ts of listening
 Argue
 Interrupt
 Engage in other activities
 Pass judgment too quickly
 Jump to conclusions
 Let the other person’s emotions act too directly on your own.
Importance of Feedback:
Feedback is the result of a deliberate, ongoing questioning process engaged in by the sender. Feedback
must be given so that the person receiving it can hear it in the most objective and least distorted way
possible. To make team members open to TIMELY feedback, the feedback must have the following
characteristics:
 Descriptive, not Evaluative
 Well Intended, not Hurtful
 Specific not General
 Well timed not Delayed
 Balanced not One-sided
It is important to provide both positive and negative feedback::

Positive feedback:
Focuses on what an individual or team does well. Positive feedback lets the person know what they
should continue to do.
Negative feedback:
Focuses on problems that one or more members perceive. Negative feedback lets the person know
what they should start or stop doing, or change. Negative feedback is not punishment, it is constructive
criticism.
Feedback is vital, because between each step in the communication process, are barriers that act as
filters. Feedback will let you know whether your message was received and understood or lost in the
filtering process. The quality of an officer’s communication skills depend on how well this process is
understood.
Officers must learn how to listen, because their own bias gets in the way and they hear what they want
to hear. It is often necessary to create a favorable listening climate for our communication to be
effective.
Always choose the right moment to make your point and invite participation by the other person leaving
enough time for a response.

Obtaining and maintaining situational awareness, Decision-making techniques and risk assessment
Decision making is based on information. Decision making in the case of an emergency relies heavily on
risk/benefit analysis. Too little information results in poor risk assessment by the decision maker and
results in errors, injury and death. Too much information overloads the decision maker and makes it
difficult to make effective decisions. CRM training concentrates on giving and receiving information so
appropriate decisions can be made.
Good decision making involves risk identification and assessment, information processing and problem
solving.

 Judgment is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information on a
particular situation, a rational evaluation of alternative actions in response to it and a timely
decision on which action to take.
 Poor judgment chain is a series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident. One bad
decision often leads to another. As a string of bad decision grows it reduces the number of
subsequent alternatives.
 In conventional decision making the need for a decision is triggered by recognition that
something has changed or an expected change did not occur. Recognition of the change or no
change in the situation is a vital step in any decision making process. Not noticing the change in
the situation can directly lead to a mishap. The change indicates that an appropriate response or
action is necessary in order to modify the situation. Therefore situational awareness is the key
to successful and safe decision making.
People tend to make decisions reactively when confronted with emergency situations or when a disaster
unfolds. In these circumstances the best decisions tend to be those that have been thought through and
rehearsed ahead of time.
Decision making styles:
Decision making can be divided into two general categories — life threatening and non-life threatening.
Non-life threatening decisions are typically made when a decision maker has time to evaluate options in
an unhurried manner and chooses the best option. Life-threatening decisions do not offer such leisurely
reflection.
Making decisions, regardless of threat, depends on four factors: Information, experience, knowledge
and urgency.
Making rapid, correct decisions requires that the information avalanche and information be rapidly
processed and formulated into an action plan.
Decision making of those more experienced is characterized by intuitive / recognition primed decision
making. (Recognize the type of situation encountered and from previous experience knows what course
of action to take). Experienced persons show more adaptive reactions to stress:
 Selection of simpler decision strategies.
 Focused attention
 Increased conservatism
 Rapid closure on a course of action

The ability to make a correct decision in a safe and timely manner depends on getting appropriate
information quickly, accurately assessing the information, judging the probability of events, and
assessing risk based on the three previous elements. This process must sometimes occur in seconds.
Accident data suggests that most mishaps result from a series of poor decisions, known as the poor
judgment chain. One erroneous decision increases the probability of another and as the poor judgment
chain grows, time becomes the force that increases the probability of an accident.
Making decisions, regardless of threat, depends on four factors: Information, experience, knowledge
and urgency. As humans we are all prone to make mistakes. Mistakes typically fall into two categories,
omissions and commissions.
 Omissions are unintentional. They occur when the decision maker misses a
step in a procedure, mixes up the steps in a procedure or order or cannot
remember the steps in a procedure
 Commissions are deliberate actions that result from misapplication of an

accepted rule/policy/procedure (the captain of the Grandcamp battening
down the hatches to control a fire in a hold full of ammonium nitrate while the
ship laid at anchor in Texas City, 1947), lack of knowledge about the gravity of
a situation, purposely violating policy to save time.
Risk management is an orderly, progressive way of viewing a very complex situation. It helps individuals
make appropriate decisions in order to accomplish the mission safely. Risk management is not limited to
pre-duty planning or formal leadership positions. Although leaders (watch supervisors) are responsible
and accountable for running their
shifts and crews, safe voyage depends
on individual crewmembers accepting
responsibility for risks. An organization
can function as safely and efficiently
as possible when every individual
crewmember makes proper decisions
to manage risks as they occur during
the shift.

Group Decision-Making
When arriving at a decision, it is important to effectively utilize all the

resources available to the crew to achieve agreement – ensuring the team’s
effort is greater than the sum of the individual efforts. Synergy is easier to
achieve in an environment of good communication and good leadership. By
working together as a group, facilities can achieve an effect or reach a goal
unobtainable by any one individual. Normally there is enough time to make a
good decision, but there may not be enough time to recover from a bad
decision.
The intent of the team concept is not to hold the team accountable for the
action of individual members, in the event of an operational
accident/incident. It is intended to bring together individuals, or positions,
responsible for specific operations, in order to maximize operational
effectiveness. Learning and practising successful decision-making models will also improve a leader’s
skill. Ludwig Benner developed one of the most successful models. Dr. Benner’s model, known as
“DECIDE,” provides a six-step process for reaching a decision. The intent of the team concept is not to
hold the team accountable for the action of individual members, in the event of an operational
accident/incident. It is intended to bring together individuals, or positions, responsible for specific
operations, in order to maximize operational effectiveness.
What are different methods for team decision The DECIDE Model:
making?
Many types of decision making models can be

Determine the problem
studied and used by teams. Understanding
decision making models allows teams to make Evaluate the scope of the problem
intentional choices about which model might be
most appropriate for the various decisions that Consider available options for mitigating the
they confront. problem
Individuals benefit from understanding decision models by becoming aware of how cognitive and
affective biases can both positively and negatively impact how we work to influence our team on making
a decision. Being aware of our biases can limit any negative impact from our biases. The models below
describe how we work to affect and manipulate the team decision-making process, sometimes in
productive ways and at times in detrimental ways for team decisions.
As a team, understanding decision-making models so that the team can make the best decision is
valuable. The “best decision” is described as a decision that (1) would not have been thought of by an
individual alone, (2) is a sound solution to the problem, (3) is a decision based upon input, as unbiased

as possible, from each team member, and (4) addresses the team’s goal for the decision-making
process.
Stress and Decision making
The need to make decisions is one of the sources of stress. This stress is a significant cause of errors
during decision making. The immediate and long term effects of acute stress can be positive or negative
and individuals may experience a mixture of both. Performance enhancing effects include:
 Alertness
 Faster reactions
 Increased energy
 Accelerated thinking skills
If the level of demand increases, or the individual has already started to experience a negative reaction,
the effects resemble physiological and psychological symptoms of anxiety and fear and a detrimental
impact on performance and decision making will ensue. Typical problems include:
 Tunnel vision
 Failure to prioritize
 Freezing
 Loss of concentration
Situational awareness can be seen as maintaining control over a range of information sources. You do
that by looking at each source through a “scan” pattern that you control. Time is the critical variable.
You need time to get a reading from an instrument, time to look at places of interest, time to build the
picture. Just like fuel, time is a resource. Sensible rationing of your time resource can represent the
difference between “losing the plot” and staying with it.

Precious time: When you want information, you look at each source for a finite length of time. But some
‘readings’ take longer than others. Controlling where you look – situation management or ‘control’
function – also takes finite allocations of time.
Minimize the amount of time you spend looking at each information source to just that amount needed
to get the reading (heading) , or complete the task (radio call) , no more. You know from experience that
you may need to look at an instrument, say, for longer than you might wish to get a confident reading. A
series of glances can be used to ‘accumulate’ readings from multiple sources when you need to keep
track of many issues.
You will also have had experience with inefficient use of time in information gathering

Most pilots will have experienced total breakdown of the situational awareness scan
The attention you pay to each single information source has a finite time length. That is the basis of
your situational awareness scan. It is managed by the time allocation function. There are two ‘switches’:
An ‘on switch’ causing you to look at an information source
An ‘off switch’, to stop you looking at that information source
Knowing you need to know something, you will look at the instrument, until your craving for what it can
tell you, is satisfied. The ‘lock-on’ problem occurs when you find the information unwelcome, but you
keep gazing at it until the correction has taken effect. The first trick in your scan pattern is not so much
when you start to look at each information source – your ‘need to know’ will take care of that. The trick
is about when to stop looking. For the optimum situational awareness scan, you need to control not only
when you look, but when you cease to look at each of your information sources.
In other words, you must learn to ‘actively manage’ your situational awareness scan. Every time you run
through a checklist, you are positively controlling where you direct your attention, when you look at
something, and when you move on.
What checklists get you to do is to manage time as a resource. The better you have learned your checks,
the less time you use in ‘running’ them.
The impact of stress on decision making may depend on the type of decision process used. A range of
thinking skills can be used to reach a decision. First, the decision making of those experienced in
managing crises is characterized by intuitive or recognition primed decision-making. (Klein, 1997). This is
where the individual recognizes the type of situation encountered and, from previous experience, knows
what course of action is appropriate. Klein argued that the fast intuitive decision style is less affected by
stress than the more intellectually demanding analytical approach.

To help decision makers and avoid potential disruption due to stressors, it may be useful to train them
to better manage time pressure, distracting levels of noise and high workload.
Secondly there are situations where the person may have to spend more time thinking about the
situation to remember the appropriate rule or procedure to use. A third style is most mentally labour
intensive, analytical decision making, where the individual must consider several possible courses of
action and then select the best option. This is the style which should be used during operational
planning phases.
Vigilance is a conscious mental process that is alert to potential problems. It gives you the time and
information needed to optimize decisions. Individuals who are vigilant have:
 A constant belief that sufficient time exists to solve the problem.
 High confidence in ability to find a solution to the problem.
 A number of alternatives to decide from based on careful search and appraisal.

Evaluation of outcome effectiveness
Explain
- Need to evaluate the outcome effectiveness
What is a Performance Appraisal?
Performance Appraisal is a formal system that evaluates the quality of an individual’s performance. An
appraisal should not be viewed as an end in itself, but rather as an important process within a broader
performance management system that links:
 Company / organizational objectives
 Day-to-day performance
 Professional development
 Rewards and incentives
Competency-based appraisal:
Competencies are behavioral skills which can be observed, evaluated and modified by developmental
activities. They are not about personality or character traits. Competencies are clearly identified and
defined. Performance is appraised against them.
More and more organizations are developing competency frameworks. Competencies identify the
skill/performance needed, and then define the standard of competence required. Competencies help to
measure skills, abilities and performance factors objectively, enabling appraisals and reviews to be more
consistent.
Benefits of a performance management appraisal system:
 Enhances staff communication / morale and encourages better relationships with employees

 Encourages feedback on situations and concerns, provides an opportunity to highlight problems

in advance.
 Obtains more objective information on performance results for use in planning, promotion and
remuneration decisions.
 Systematizes work through clear expectations for employee performance. Clarifies

responsibilities so he can perform as expected
 Increases confidence in overall team performance
 Allows for improved performance reviews from his appraiser
 Can be used to make employment decisions such as determining pay and promotions
 Identify professional development needs
 Identify factors in the work environment that help or hinder performance effectiveness.
Fundamentals of an Appraisal System:
Ensure commitment at a senior level:
In order for any appraisal system to succeed it must be driven from the top down. This requires full
support, involvement and implementation by directors and senior managers.
Involvement and Responsibility:
This is based on the commitment made by directors and senior managers in their minimum
organizational appraisal policy.
Reasons Performance Programs Fail:
 Lack of top-management information and support
 Unclear performance standards
 Rater Bias
 Too many forms to complete
 Use of the appraisal program for conflicting purposes
Performance Assessments:
During the rating process, supervisors should guard against anything that could distort their perception
such as:

Over-Emphasis:
 Exaggerating the importance of excellent or poor performance on one or two tasks, that could
lead to an unbalanced evaluation of the overall responsibility.
 Relying on impressions rather than facts
 Holding the employee responsible for the impact of factors beyond his control.
Rating Errors:
It is the appraiser’s responsibility to ensure the Performance Appraisal accurately reflects the
performance of the employee. Rating employees on their performance alone is not easy. Most raters
make many common mistakes. If you are going to have an effective rating system, you must avoid
making any of the following rating errors:
Halo This occurs when the rater allows his assessment of one trait or
characteristic to influence the assessment of the same person or other
traits or characteristics.
Allowing perceptions of performance on one rating dimension to affect

the rating of all performance dimensions. An appraisee who has
difficulty working with others may rate very high in dependability or
job knowledge.
Leniency / Severity This error occurs when the appraiser consistently evaluates all
appraisees at the high end of the rating scale (or low end of the rating
scale). The effects of this error are: to force ratings so drastically
toward the top of the rating scale that they are valueless. To create
unrealistic employee confidence when improvement in performance is
really needed and quite possible.
Rating easy or harsh regardless of performance. This is usually done

with individuals we usually like or individuals we may not like so much.
Be sure to rate the performance, not how we feel personally about the
person.
Central Tendency This is the error of rating all individuals at about the center (average)
point of the scale either because the rater fails to look at enough
detailed performance data to differentiate, or simply because it’s
‘easier’ to rate everyone at the middle of the scale.
Rating everyone average regardless of performance. This takes a lot of

responsibility off the rater’s shoulders as it is difficult for any one to

complain since no one got either a very good or a very bad rating. It
could also mean rating the same employee average in all behaviours or
job elements.
Contrast Effect Comparing employees with one another. Remember that you rate each
person’s performance against the job description – not how they
compare with other employees.
Primacy / Recency First impression and memory errors. We remember best what we see
either first or last. This is a good reason to keep an event record / log.
Using this method should eliminate this error along with others
mentioned above.
Escalation of As familiarity increases, commitment increases. Once we have made up

Commitment our mind about an employee – good or bad – it is difficult to change
our opinion. We look for good behaviour in good employees and we
look for bad behavior in bad employees. We continue to look for and
only see behaviour that supports our opinion.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy Managers who hire employees usually want them to succeed. It is a
good reflection on the good manager. At the same time, managers may
not expect success from an employee that someone else selected. It is
also easy to put too much credence in what others have told you about
this employee. We continue to look for performance that supports our
beliefs and disregard performance that is contrary
Bias Value systems affect opinions. For example, it may be difficult to

consider someone of a different religion or ethnic group as being a
good person, and so it may be difficult to rate them as a good
employee.
Stereotyping If we consider a certain group of people as hard working then we may

tend to rate anyone in that group as being highly productive even if
they are not.
Glass Ceiling Effect The rater may sometimes decide when an employee has reached their
peak performance and stop challenging the employee to continue to
improve.
Similarity This is a bias in favor of individuals who the rater perceives to have
similar personal characteristics to himself, or a bias against those the
supervisor perceives to be different from himself.

Appraisal Forms – Best Practice:
The form needs to include three main elements:
1. A review of past performance - from which lessons can be learnt. Also, to monitor results, skills,
attributes and competencies.
2. A preview of the future – to plan for maintaining and improving future performance; agree
actions, set objectives, standards and targets; identify development needs, support and training
required.
3. An action planning session:
a. Action planning by the individual and manger to support implementation; a
b. Personal development plan, including support, training and development.
The Appraisal Interview:
The Performance Appraisal Interview offers an opportunity to discuss and compare perceptions of an
employee’s job performance. Through open communication, an appraiser and appraisee can assess job
performance, measure actual results against expected results, and plan for the future. The interview
should not be used a vehicle to bombard the appraisee with criticisms, failures, faults and/or errors.
The two central purposes of the appraisal interview are to:
 Reflect on past performances to identify major achievements, areas for further improvement
and barriers / facilitators to effective performance.
 Identify goals and strategies for future work practice.
Preparing for the Performance Appraisal Interview:
Careful planning is central to conducting effective performance appraisal interviews. Conscientious

preparation enables both the appraiser and appraisee to realistically assess performance.
Conducting the Performance Appraisal interview:
 As discussed below, supervisors and managers can use a range of strategies to ensure that the
appraisal interview is positive, constructive and of greatest benefit for workers’ effectiveness.
 Preparation questions for the worker
 To help workers prepare for their appraisal interview it may be useful to ask them to consider
the following types of questions:
 What do you feel are your major contributions to the organization?

 What would you identify as your most significant accomplishments over the past X months?
 In what areas of your work do you feel you could improve?
 What have been the barriers to working effectively in your job?
 How would you change your job to increase your effectiveness?
 What can the organization do to support your performance at work?
 What can the organization do to support your wellbeing at work?
 What can I do as your supervisor to support you?
 What area(s) of your work practice would you like to develop over the next appraisal period?
PRACTICALTIP
Before the interview
 Both the appraiser and the appraisee should have a copy of the Appraisal From and each should,
prior to the interview, review the job responsibilities and assess performance levels. Thus, both
the supervisor and employee should enter the interview as active participants in the
Performance Appraisal process.
 Help workers to become familiar and comfortable with talking about their performance by
engaging in regular, informal communication on work progress, potential obstacles and issues,
possible solutions and assistance
 Encourage workers to prepare – workers should be encouraged to review their own

performance before the interview
 Do your own preparation – plan ahead. Draft a list of the issues that you want to address with
the worker (i.e., strengths and weaknesses of performance, strategies to improve performance).
Give specific examples of the worker’s performances that you want to highlight.
 The appraiser and appraisee should be prepared to discuss individual concerns or questions
during the interview regarding
 Major responsibilities that the employee is performing successfully
 Areas for improvement
 Recommendation for future goals
 Any other concerns

During the interview
 Encourage worker participation – start by inviting the worker to share their views about their
performance
 Begin with positive feedback to put the worker at ease
 Make it a two-way discussion
 Set goals mutually – ensure workers participate in determining specific, challenging but
attainable goals for future work performance6, 9
 Ensure that there is a clear agreement on performance objectives and the evaluation criteria for
the next year
 Keep written records of the appraisal interview on which both parties have “signed off”
After the interview
 Coach workers regularly – provide frequent feedback to help workers improve their
performance
 Assess progress towards goals frequently – periodic reviewing of progress towards goals helps
keep behaviour on track and enhances commitment to effective performance
 Relate rewards to performance – by linking appraisal results to employment decisions such as

promotions and salaries, workers are more likely to prepare for, participate in, and be satisfied
with the appraisal system.
Providing Good Feedback:
Giving feedback can be difficult. It is a skill that needs to be developed with proper training.
The following are some helpful hints for providing good feedback:
1. Create a positive context for feedback
 Develop the feedback system in consultation with workers (i.e., negotiate issues such as
frequency of feedback, format (e.g., face-to-face, written) and focus (e.g., process and / or
outcomes of performance)
 Feedback needs to be timely – it should be given as close as possible to the occurrence of the
behaviour in question to have maximum impact
 Clarify the purpose of the feedback session (i.e., it should be designed to assist the worker to
improve their performance, not to punish or belittle).

2. Use constructive and positive language
 Avoid sweeping statements – words such as “always” or “never” can make people angry and
defensive (e.g., “You always avoid difficult cases” or “You never deliver on time”)
 Avoid destructive criticism – it can breed resentment, intensify conflict, and may have a negative
impact on workers’ confidence and motivation.
3. Focus on behaviours and strategies
 Be specific. Give feedback that includes specific examples of behaviours or actions
 Discuss observed behaviour or results, not personality – feedback that focuses on traits can be
seen as a personal attack (e.g., “You are too passive”)
 Coach rather than judge – suggest strategies for how to do the job better rather than focusing
only on what went wrong
 Focus on aspects of work performance and outcomes over which workers have control (i.e.,
things they can change).
4. Tailor feedback to the needs of the individual worker
 Adjust the frequency and depth of feedback to the individual – some people may need more
feedback than others, depending on their experience and self-awareness
 Provide individual feedback privately (i.e., one-to-one), and group or team feedback publicly
(i.e., with all team members present).
.5. Make feedback a two-way communication process
 Feedback needs to be understood by the receiver – ask the worker to rephrase your feedback to
ensure that he / she has understood you clearly
 Feedback should be followed up with an action plan that is formulated together with the
worker.
 Ensure that there is mutual agreement about deadlines and deliverables, and schedule a
meeting to review progress.
PRACTICALTIP
Conducting the Performance Appraisal Interview:
a) Opening the interview:

The climate of the interview is essential to its outcome. The supervisor should set a tone for the
interview that exhibits openness and support. Once this tone has been set, an employee will be more
likely to share assessments of his or her performance, discuss strengths and weaknesses, and commit to
the development plans that are set in the interview. To set the tone, a supervisor should:
1) Review the purpose of the meeting. Clarify any questions the employee has and reaffirm that the
interview serves to promote employee development through identifying job responsibilities, reviewing
performance roles, overall rating of performance, and preparing a plan for improved or enhanced
performance.
2) Regard the employee as an individual. Special concerns should be given to the employee’s
communication style, new assignments, increased job responsibilities, and performance standards.
These considerations should guide the supervisor as he or she deals with the employee
Discussing Performance.
The second component of a performance interview is the actual discussion of an employee’s job
performance. Recommendations for an effective discussion include:
1) Come prepared. Both the supervisor and employee should prepare objectives
ahead of time and be able to cite specific examples to support observations
and recommendations.
2) The employee should present his or her self-assessment first. The employee’s
objective is to present information regarding his or her job performance,
pointing out strengths, and seeking assistance in areas where problems exist.
This promotes openness and provides insight on how the employee views his
or her responsibilities and performance.
3) The supervisor should present his or her assessment of the employee’s

performance after hearing the employee’s assessment. Areas of agreement
should be discussed first, followed by areas of disagreement. Finally, any
pertinent topics which were not brought up by the employee should be
mentioned. The supervisor’s objective is to help the employee improve
performance or develop skills to become a more productive employee.
4) Communication should be two-way. A dialogue should occur between the

employee and the supervisor, with neither participant dominating the
discussion.
5) Tips for active listening
 Listen first. Plan to report or reflect the employee’s feelings later in the discussion.

 Be a “whole-body” listener. Listen with your ears, your eyes, your intuition, and your
mind. – Avoid the tendency to day-dream.
 Ask open-ended questions. These are questions which cannot be answered with a “yes” or
a “no”. Responses to these questions serve to clarify.
 Ask for specific details to issues you are unfamiliar or unsure about.
6) Seek agreement on each point. If opinions differ when discussing individual responsibilities,
performance roles, or ratings, both the employee and the supervisor should express their ideas. Again,
focus on behaviors relevant to performance.
1)
2) 7) Setting training and development goals. Employee should be prepared to

state his or her future plans for development. Discuss these plans realistically
and set up appropriate goals and timetables. Supervisors should feel
comfortable adding or suggesting development goals with the approval of the
employee.
b) Closing the Interview.
An important aspect of the entire process is how the interview ends. The following actions should be
included in the closing portion of the interview.
1) Summarize what has been discussed and agreed upon, making sure of
consensus on all important points. Do this positively and enthusiastically.
2) Give the employee an invitation to react, question, and share additional ideas
and suggestions.
3) Make arrangements to follow up on specific points if needed.
4) Set a date for the next performance review session. (Semi-annual or quarterly)
5) Thank each other for the time and energy that went into the review and end
the interview on a positive or encouraging note.
6) Complete and disseminate the appraisal form as earlier described.

“How To” Conduct a Productive Performance Appraisal
Dos DONTs
Give the appraisee at least one week notice Rate performance artificially high to ‘encourage’ the
employee or because you don’t like to give negative
feedback
Be honest and objective about the appraisee’s Base ratings or comments on non-job related factors
performance such as personal friendship, outside activities, race,
sex, etc.
Provide specific examples to back up comments Comment on poor performance without telling the
and ratings appraisee specific steps that he should take to
improve that performance and setting a schedule for
completion of those steps.
Make the appraisal session two-way, giving the Forget to give the appraisee the opportunity to
appraisee opportunities to comment on his comment on any work or performance related issues
performance and aspirations, and how you can during the appraisal session or in an attachment to
help him improve performance and meet goals the appraisal form.
and aspirations.
Encourage appraisees to give feedback about work Focus only on short-term performance, especially the
processes, your management style and other month or two immediately preceding the formal
work-related matters appraisal session.
Comment and provide examples of the appraisee’s Set unrealistic or unmeasurable objectives.
good performance as well as areas that need
improvement.
Evaluate performance continuously throughout

the year so formal appraisal is not a surprise.

Leadership and Managerial Skills

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Leadership and Managerial Skills

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Phase 1 Notes: Use of leadership and managerial skills

• Assertiveness is form of behaviour characterized by a confident declaration or affirmation of a

1-It depends on expressing yourself

Being Assertive means:

1-Being assertive is focusing on your goals

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Negative attitude and passive behaviour

 Lack of self confidence and low self esteem

Negative attitude and manipulative behaviour

 Lack of self confidence and low self esteem

Negative attitude and aggressive behaviour

 Lack of self confidence and low self esteem

Positive attitude and assertive behaviour

 Self confidence and high self esteem

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 Honest and direct

Principles of Controlling Subordinates and maintaining good relationships include:

Reasons why people work:

 need to earn money

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 need for security of their standard of living

 the appointment of a person to a higher rank gives authority

Consequences of Influence Tactics:

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs is shown in the following diagram.

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The Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs is explained below:

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Limitations of Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Limitations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory are noted below :-

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Importance of Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Frederick Herzberg Theory of Human Motivation

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Hygiene Factors of Two Factor Theory

Motivating Factors of Two Factor Theory

Comparison of Maslow and Herzberg Theory

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Herzberg's theory is an extension of Maslow's theory of motivation. Its applicability is narrow. It is

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Training should be based on:

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Purpose of on-board training

Components of on-board training

 Regulatory requirement for onboard training.

Conducting a training session

Following components will need to be considered when planning a training session:

- Importance of group activity, demonstration and hands-on experience

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Task and workload management

The sensory memories are your senses:

The sensory memories take in the data.

Features of the working memory:

 Limited capacity for data storage

Features for the long-term memory:

 Permanent storage of information

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Fatigue and Memory:

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Example of Degraded Performance