8 Chapter 8

Torsion
8.1 Introduction
Structural members in reinforced concrete may be subjected to torsional loading.
Distinction should be made between:
- structural members whose torsional resistance is mandatory for the static
equilibrium of a structure; this may be called “a primary torsion effect”;
- structural members in which torsion arises from compatibility considerations
only, because the member acts in the context of a statically indeterminate
structure; this may be called “a secondary torsion effect”.
The following text is composed on the basis of LAMBOTTE (1989) and WIGHT
(2009).

8.1.1 The primary torsion effect: torsional equilibrium

Figure 8.1.1-1 presents some examples of structural members which are loaded by
torsional moments and where the torsional resistance of the member is of vital
importance for the static equilibrium of the structure. The figure shows eccentrically
loaded beams and a tubular bridge girder or box girder; the last example is met in the
context of large motorway bridges which are composed of one central box girder,
supported by centrally positioned piles. Traffic loads may lead to important torsional
moments in the box girder which has to transfer the load to the columns and the
abutments without deformations that would cause perturbation of the traffic.

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 Figure 8.1.1-1
Examples of primary torsional effects: (a) and (b) eccentrically loaded beams; (c)
torsional loading of a beam with cantilever; (d) tubular bridge girder or box girder

8.1.2 Secondary torsional effect caused by compatibility considerations

Figure 8.1.2-1 presents typical examples of members which are subjected to
“parasitical” or secondary torsional loads caused by compatibility considerations; the
secondary effects are caused by the fact that the beam is connected to other structural
members and is subjected to imposed deformations.
Figure 8.1.2-1(a) represents the peripheral beam of a slab; due to the hogging moments
(fixed edge for the slab!), the slab imposes a rotation to the beam, which is hindered by
the bending stiffness of the supporting columns and walls that are rigidly connected to
the beam; this gives rise to a “parasitical” torsional moment in the peripheral beam.
Figure 8.1.2-1(b) represents a frame structure in which the main girder is connected to a
transverse beam. Again, the connection (compatibility considerations) leads to
secondary torsional loading of the main girder.
The main characteristic of the members loaded by a secondary torsional effect is that
neglecting the parasitical torsion moment does not have a major influence on the static
equilibrium; the safety of the member in ULS is not in danger. However, when the
stiffness of the connections and the secondary torsional moments are not taken into
account, problems may arise in SLS with the appearance of unacceptable crack widths.

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 Figure 8.1.2-1
Examples of secondary torsional effects due to compatibility considerations in statically
indeterminate structures; (a) the slab is fixed to the peripheral beam; (b) a main girder is
connected to a secondary beam in a frame structure

8.2 Reminder from the strength of materials course: basic formulas

for torsional loading

8.2.1 Unreinforced plain cross-section

In the strength of materials course, the basic formulas for members subjected to
torsional loads are typically developed for a prismatic beam with circular plain cross-
section, loaded by the torsional moment T.
An important result of that theory is the expression of the shear stress in a cross-section:

(8.2.1-1)

where
T = the torsional moment (figure 8.2.1-1);

Ip = the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section: ;

ρ = the radius.

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Consequently, the maximum stress is given by:

(8.2.1-2)

Figure 8.2.1-1
Summary of results for a cylindrical bar with plain cross-section loaded by torsion

The relationship between stress and strain is given by:

where (see figure 8.2.1-1):

and
α = the torsion angle per unit length (or angle of twist), which is given by:

(8.2.1-3)

The principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are oriented with an angle ±45° with respect to the
longitudinal axis of the prismatic bar; the stresses are perpendicular to each other.
Moreover: σ1 = -σ2 = -τ. Because of the principal tensile stress, helicoidally cracks
appear on the surface of a cylindrical bar composed of a brittle material (chalk,
unreinforced concrete).

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The formula of DE SAINT- VENANT allows calculating the maximum shear stress for
various cross-sections:

(8.2.1-4)

where WT = the “torsional modulus".

Table 8.2.1-1 presents values of τmax for several cross-sections.

Table 8.2.1-1
Torsion modulus WT and the maximum shear stress for torsional moments
(LAMBOTTE, 1987)

Cross-section

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8.2.2 Tubular cross-section with variable shape and limited thickness of the walls of
the tube
Figure 8.2.2-1(a) presents a tubular cross-section with variable shape. The thickness t of
the wall of the tube may be variable but it is assumed that t is small with respect to the
mean radius of the cross-section. The torsional moment T generates the shear stresses τ1
and τ2 in the sections 1 and 2 respectively. It may be assumed that the shear stresses are
constant over the wall thickness (because of its small value). Figure 8.2.2-1(b)
represents an elementary part of the tube, isolated from the rest of the tube; the
elementary volume is situated between the planes 1 and 2 and between two cross-
sections with distance h between them.

Figure 8.2.2-1
Auxiliary figure for the development of the formula of BREDT for tubular cross-
sections

Exploitation of the reciprocity of the shear stresses and the expression of the vertical
equilibrium of the elementary volume, leads to:

(8.2.2-1)

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The product τ.t is called “the shear flow” q; q is constant along the circumference of the
tube.
The expression of the rotation equilibrium (see figure 8.2.2-1(a)), leads to:

(8.2.2-2)

where Ak is the area enclosed by the centre-line of the wall, including the inner hollow
area.
Expression (8.2.2-2) may be rewritten as follows:

(8.2.2-3)

 Note:
As τ.t = q is constant, the maximum shear stress corresponds to the minimum
thickness tmin ; this leads to the formula of BREDT:

(8.2.2-4)

The torsional modulus WT is thus:

(8.2.2-5)

8.3 Members in reinforced concrete loaded by pure torsion:

fundamental aspects for design calculations

8.3.1 Some interesting experimental observations

8.3.1.1 Plain or tubular cross-section?
Experimental tests with torsional loading of prismatic beams in reinforced concrete
have been realized, in order to observe damage patterns and failure modes. The
reinforcement was composed of longitudinal bars and stirrups.
In general, it was observed that after the formation of inclined helicoidally cracks (with
inclination angle 45ο), the torsional resistance was assured only by a thin-walled tubular
shell at the surface of the member. This phenomenon is confirmed by the comparative
testing of reinforced concrete members with plain and with tubular cross-sections with
the same outer dimensions and the same reinforcement: after the cracking phase, both
members show the same rotational angle and the strains in the reinforcement are also
the same. In the case of the plain cross-section, the stirrups are put under stress only
when the cracks appear; the strain in the outer shell increases significantly which leads
to the dislocation of the shell from the core of the member: see figure 8.3.1-1. From that

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point on, the contribution of the core to the torsional stiffness is negligible; torsional
stiffness is determined by the outer shell.
Conclusion: these experimental results show that the ULS design of structural members
loaded in torsion, should be based on the model of the tubular cross-section.

Figure 8.3.1-1
After cracking (dislocation of the outer Shell, containing the reinforcement, from the
core), torsional resistance is determined by the outer shell

8.3.1.2 Truss models

The observed cracks are arranged according to the helicoidally pattern of the principal
tensile stress trajectories in the theoretical strength-of-materials-model. In analogy with
the shear verification philosophy, a truss model may be identified in the outer tubular
shell: the truss model is composed of
- compressive struts with an inclination angle of 45° with respect to the
longitudinal axis, and
- ties which correspond to the reinforcement.
The theoretical principal tensile stress trajectory leads to the observation that the ideal
reinforcement should follow the helicoidally pattern. Although helicoidally
reinforcement is possible in the form of spiral-like windings, the more practical solution
is composed of longitudinal bars and transversal links or stirrups. It should be stressed
that in many cases, the sign of the torsional moment is variable, which explains the
necessity to use orthogonal reinforcement meshes.

 Note:
In the case of shear verification, it is possible to make beneficial use of the
“arch-effect”: one can take into account that the uncracked compression concrete
is able to withstand a certain shear load (VRd,c). This is not possible for torsion,
because the member is cracked all around its axis. This also means that the
design can be performed according to the “pure” truss system. This is confirmed
experimentally: measurements of the strains in the stirrups show that the stress
in the stirrups after cracking, indeed reaches the stress values calculated with the
theoretical truss-system.

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8.3.1.3 Torsional stiffness in uncracked and cracked phase
Experimental results show that the torsional stiffness in the cracked phase is only 10%
of the stiffness in uncracked phase. As soon as the cracked phase is reached,
deformations increase drastically.
For structural members where torsional stiffness is needed (SLS conditions), it may be
necessary to increase the cracking moment to exceed the maximum imposed moment.
This may be realized by means of prestressing.
Deformations may also be limited by the choice of a cross-section with large torsional
rigidity: see figure 8.3.1-2.

Figure 8.3.1-2
Typical cross-sections with increasing torsional rigidity

8.3.2 1st truss model: rectangular tubular member with helicoidally arranged
reinforcement

The arrangement of reinforcement along a helical line is rather theoretical for girders
with rectangular cross-sections. Figure 8.3.2-1 presents the model on the basis of which
design formulas may be worked out. This theoretical solution is not further developed in
the present notes.

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 Figure 8.3.2-1
1st (theoretical) truss model for the design calculation of rectangular tubular members,
subjected to a torsional moment T

8.3.3 2nd truss model: rectangular tubular member with orthogonal reinforcement
mesh
8.3.3.1 The truss model
Figure 8.3.3-1 represents a tubular member with rectangular cross-section. The
reinforcement cage is composed of longitudinal bars and stirrups which are
perpendicular to the longitudinal bars. The spacing between the stirrups is s.

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 Figure 8.3.3-1
Tubular member with rectangular cross-section and orthogonal reinforcement mesh

Figure 8.3.3-2 shows one face of the tubular member; the compression struts are
characterized by the inclination angle θ; the reinforcement bars in the orthogonal mesh
are characterized by the angles θ and with respect to the struts.

Figure 8.3.3-2
One face of the tubular member; the truss model is composed of compression struts
between inclined cracks and an orthogonal mesh of reinforcement bars

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8.3.3.2 The stress in the compression struts
Figure 8.3.3-3(a) shows the unit length AB = 1 and the imposed shear flow q. The
equilibrium of forces is considered for the triangle ABC. The force acting on the side AB
is equal to:

Taking account of the reciprocity of the shear stresses, one finds the forces acting on the
side BC:

τ.t.BC = q.BC = q.AB.cotgθ = q.cotgθ

The side AC is cracked (no loads applied). Consequently, the equilibrium of forces for
the triangle ABC leads to the expression of the force Fc in the compression strut (see
figure 8.3.3-3(b)):

or also:
(8.3.3-1)

Figure 8.3.3-3
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the stress in the compression struts;
(a) isolation of the triangle ABC; (b) equilibrium of forces

The compression stress in the strut is thus given by:

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where D is identified in figure 8.3.3-3(a);
With BD = AB.cosθ = cosθ and expression (8.3.3-1), one finds:

With the shear flow , the expression is finally written as:

(8.3.3-2)

 Note 1:
with θ = 45°, expression (8.3.3-2) turns into:

(8.3.3-3)

 Note 2:
It may be shown that the use of an orthogonal reinforcement mesh leads to the
doubling of the stress in the compression struts with respect to the case where
helicoidally reinforcement (θ = 45°) is used.

8.3.3.3 The reinforcement to withstand torsional loading

Starting from figures 8.3.3-2 and 8.3.3-3, the equilibrium of forces for the triangle ABC,
leads to the identifications of the forces that have to be taken up by the longitudinal
reinforcement (index l) and by the transverse reinforcement (index w - notations EC2).

1. Transverse reinforcement (stirrups or links):

With s = the spacing between the stirrups and Asw = the cross-sectional area of one
stirrup (one leg only!), the number of stirrups that cross the corresponding part of a
crack with an inclination angle θ is equal to (see figure 8.3.3-4):

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 Figure 8.3.3-4
Auxiliary figure for the determination of the number of stirrups needed

The force Fsw has thus to be taken up by n stirrups distributed over the length
BC = cotgθ . With the assumption that the steel of the stirrups is loaded up to the
design yield strength fywd , one finds:

(8.3.3-4)

With and , expression (8.3.3-4) may be rewritten as

the formula that allows to determine the necessary transverse reinforcement per unit
length Asw/s :

(8.3.3-5)

 Note:
With θ = 45°, expression (8.3.3-5) leads to:

(8.3.3-6)

2. Longitudinal reinforcement

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 The equilibrium of forces for the triangle ABC in figure 8.3.3-3, allows to
determine the tensile force Fsl that should be taken up by the longitudinal
reinforcement per unit length AB = 1 along the circumference of the cross-section:

For the complete circumference uk along the centre-line of the thin-walled tubular
cross-section (uk is thus the circumference of the area Ak), one finds the total tensile
force:

(8.3.3-7)

where .

The total reinforcement area Asl of the longitudinal reinforcement which has to be
distributed along the circumference uk, is deduced from expression (8.3.3-7), taking
account of:
• the assumption that the stress in the steel rises up to the design yield strength fyld:

(8.3.3-8)
• and

Consequently:

(8.3.3-9)

 Note:
With θ = 45°, expression (8.3.3-9) leads to:

(8.3.3-10)

8.4 Design procedure

Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.3.

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8.4.1 Principal recommendations
Where the static equilibrium of a structure depends on the torsional resistance of
elements of the structure, a full torsional design covering both ULS and SLS shall be
made.
Where in statically indeterminate structures, torsion arises from consideration of
compatibility only, and the structure is not dependent on the torsional resistance for its
stability, then it will normally be unnecessary to consider torsion at the ULS. In such
cases, a minimum reinforcement in the form of stirrups and longitudinal bars should be
provided in order to prevent excessive cracking.

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8.4.2 Notations and definitions used in the EC2 prescriptions
The torsional resistance of a cross-section may be calculated on the basis of a thin-
walled closed section. Solid cross-sections may be modelled by equivalent thin-walled
sections; see figure 8.4.2.-1.

Figure 8.4.2-1
The calculation model for solid members loaded in torsion is composed of a thin-walled
closed cross-section (figure 6.11 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

The cross-section is composed of several walls i. The centre-lines of all the connecting
walls form together the centre-line of the tubular cross-section.
EN 1992-1-1:2004 introduces the following notations:
TEd : design value of the imposed torsional moment;
Ak : area enclosed by the centre-lines of the connecting walls, including inner
hollow areas; see figure 8.4.2-2;
A : total area of the cross-section within the outer circumference, including
inner hollow areas; see figure 8.4.2-2;
u : outer circumference of the cross-section; see figure 8.4.2-2;
uk : circumference of the area Ak; see figure 8.4.2-2;
zi : side length of wall i, measured along the centre-line;
tef,i : effective thickness of wall i;
τt,i : torsional shear stress in wall i.

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 Figure 8.4.2-2
Thin-walled closed cross-section: definitions of the areas A and Ak
and of the circumferences u and uk

In the case of solid cross-sections, EN 1992-1-1:2004 proposes to determine the

effective wall thickness for wall i as:

(8.4.2-1)

but should not be taken as less than twice the distance between the outer edge and the
centre of the longitudinal reinforcement.

8.4.3 Design calculation of a single cross-section

The design procedure in EN 1992-1-1:2004 is based on a truss model. Figure 8.4.3-1
presents the truss model for a rectangular section. Two types of reinforcement bars may
be identified: stirrups and longitudinal bars. The concrete compression struts are
helicoidally arranged all around the section and show an inclination angle θ with respect
to the longitudinal axis.

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 Figure 8.4.3-1
Truss model for the design calculation of a prismatic member with rectangular cross-
section, subjected to torsional loading

As it was also the case for shear load verification (chapter 7 in these course notes), the
inclination angle of the struts is limited to the following:

1 ≤ cotg θ ≤ 2,5 (8.4.3-1)

which corresponds to:

45,0° ≥ θ ≥ 21,8° (8.4.3-2)

The design is based on the shear force VEd,i, which is generated by the torsional moment
TEd in wall i:

(8.4.3-3)

where τt,i.tef,i is the shear flow qi in wall i:

(8.4.3-4)

Thus:

(8.4.3-5)

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8.4.3.1 Design of the transverse reinforcement (stirrups)
The design of the necessary stirrups takes place in the same way as for the shear load
verification (see 7.3.4 in these course notes).

The shear force VEd,i in wall i has to be taken up by the following area of transverse
reinforcement per unit length (defined by expression (7.3.4-7)):

(8.4.3-6)

where α is the inclination angle of the stirrups. EN 1992-1-1:2004 recommends using

the angle α = 90°; equation (8.4.3-6) then becomes:

(8.4.3-7)

For wall i, a first approximation for the depth z is zi; consequently:

(8.4.3-8)

8.4.3.2 Design of the longitudinal reinforcement

The total longitudinal reinforcement area ΣAsl is given by:

(8.4.3-9)

In the case of combined actions (torsion with bending):

- for the walls loaded in tension, the longitudinal reinforcement for torsion is
superimposed to the longitudinal reinforcement for bending;
- for the walls loaded in compression, the longitudinal reinforcement for torsion
may be reduced in proportion to the applied compression force.

8.4.3.3 Verification of the compression struts

The compression force in the concrete struts is in general the result of the combination
of torsion and shear. The maximum resistance of a member subjected to torsion and
shear is limited by the capacity of the concrete struts.

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Where a section is loaded at the same time by the design torsional moment TEd and by
the design transverse force VEd, the following condition should be satisfied in order not
to exceed the strut resistance:

(8.4.3-10)

VRd,max is the maximum design shear resistance (the formula is developed in chapter 7 in
these course notes).
TRd,max is the design torsional resistance moment, given by:

(8.4.3-11)

where
- ν is the reduction factor which takes account of the fact that the struts are not
loaded in uni-axial compression:

(with fck in MPa) (8.4.3-12)

- αcw is a coefficient taking account of the state of the stress in the compression
strut:

for non-prestressed structures

for prestressed structures

for 0 < σcp ≤ 0,25.fcd

for 0,25.fcd < σcp ≤ 0,5.fcd

for 0,5.fcd < σcp < 1,0.fcd

 Note:
For approximately rectangular solid sections, only minimum reinforcement is
required provided that the following condition is satisfied:

(8.4.3-13)

where:
VRd,c : see chapter 7;
TRd,c : torsional cracking moment, which may be determined by setting
τT,i = fctd.

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8.4.4 Design calculation of complex cross-sections
Complex shapes, such as T-sections, may be divided into a series of sub-sections, each
of which is modelled as an equivalent thin-walled section. The torsional resistance is
taken as the sum of the capacities of the individual elements.
The distribution of the acting torsional moment TEd over the sub-sections, should be in
proportion to their uncracked torsional stiffnesses. This is in fact the expression of the
compatibility of deformations in torsion of the different sub-sections: all sub-sections
are subjected to the same rotation angle.
Each sub-section may be designed separately.

Figure 8.4.4-1 presents the application of the method to the example of a T-section. The
original cross-section (figure 8.4.4-1(a)) is subdivided into two simple sub-sections
(figure 8.4.4-1(b)): the flange with uncracked torsional stiffness G.IP1 and the web with
uncracked torsional stiffness G.IP2. The imposed torsional moment TEd is subdivided
among the two sub-sections according to the following:

Each sub-section is then replaced by an equivalent thin-walled closed tubular section

(figure 8.3.3-1(c)), as was explained in paragraph 8.4.2 in these course notes. The
design of each sub-section may be performed separately.

Figure 8.4.4-1
Calculation of the torsional resistance of cross-sections with complex shapes; example
of a T-section: (a) the full cross-section; (b) subdivision into two sub-sections;
(c) model with equivalent thin-walled closed tubular sections

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8.4.5 Detailing of reinforcement
Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 9.2.3.

- The torsion links (or stirrups)

- should be closed and be anchored by means of laps or hooked ends; see
examples in figure 8.4.5-1;
- should form an angle of 90° with the axis of the structural element.

Figure 8.4.5-1
Examples of shapes for torsion links
(figure 9.6 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

- The minimum quantity of torsion links required, is determined by the same

provisions as for shear verification (see paragraph 7.6.2 in these course notes); a
minimum geometrical transverse reinforcement ratio is recommended in the
following way:

(8.4.5-1)

where fck and fywk are in MPa.

- The longitudinal spacing of the torsion links should not exceed:

• u/8, where u is the outer circumference of the cross-section;
• sl,max = 0,75.d.(1 + cotg α) (see paragraph 7.6.3.1, shear reinforcement);
• the lesser dimension of the beam cross-section.

- The longitudinal bars should be arranged that there is at least one bar at each corner.
The other bars are distributed uniformly around the inner periphery of the links, with
spacing not greater than 350 mm.

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