RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

INSTITUTE OF ORIENTAL STUDIES

ABU ERTEILA
EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS

THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Eleonora KORMYSHEVA
 RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

INSTITUTE OF ORIENTAL STUDIES

ABU ERTEILA
EXCAVATIONS IN PROGRESS

Eleonora KORMYSHEVA, Maksim LEBEDEV,

Svetlana MALYKH, Sergey VETOKHOV

Moscow
2019
 63.3(0)31
902

Recommended for printing by the Academic Council

of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences

.E., . ., . ., . .
. / . .
. . ; .– .: , 2019. – 394 ., .
( . .).

Kormysheva E., Lebedev M., Malykh S., Vetokhov S.

Abu Erteila. Excavations in Progress / Ed. by E. Kormysheva; Institute of Oriental
Studies RAS. – Moscow: IOS RAS, 2019. – 394 p., ill.

The book contains the publication of the excavations and finds of the joint
international project (Italy–Russia) in Abu Erteila (Republic of the Sudan), where the
Natakamani Temple dated in the 1st century AD was found. The material on the
architecture of the temple, the original designs of individual rooms, and the reconstruction
of the temple is presented here. The book contains the description of the altar, sacral stand
for the bark or statues, columns with reliefs, the system of the ancient water drainage
system, including prototypes of medieval gargoyles, pedestals of statues, and fragments of
cult and household pottery. The publication may be of interest to archaeologists, historians,
university professors and all interested in ancient civilizations of the Nile Valley and the
desert areas of the upper Nile.

ISBN 978-5-89282-915-1

All rights reserved, including the rights to translate or to reproduce

this book or parts thereof in any form

© The Authors, 2019

© IOS RAS, 2019
 CONTENTS

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7

INTRODUCTION (Eleonora Kormysheva) 9

I. EXCAVATION OF TEMPLE ROOMS 24–27 AND 34–37 (Maksim Lebedev) 13

I.1. Room 26 (naos) 13
I.2. Room 25 (pronaos) 16
I.3. Room 27 (hypostyle hall) 23
I.4. Room 36 (room with sacred stands) 31
I.5. Room 35 (room with brick altar) 34
I.6. Room 34 36
I.7. Room 37 38
I.8. Room 24 40
I.9. Area to the east of temple pylon 44
I.10. Conclusion 48

II. DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF ARCHITECTURE 57

(Eleonora Kormysheva & Sergey Vetokhov with contribution by Negood Hassan Bashier)
II.1. Sanctuary (naos, room 26) 58
II.2. Pronaos (room 25) 59
II.3. Passage from the pronaos to the hypostyle hall 59
II.4. Hypostyle hall (room 27) 59
II.5. Pylon 62
II.6. Uprising road 63
II.7. Barque room (room 36) 63
II.8. Room 35 64
II.9. Room 34 64
II.10. Room 37 65
II.11. The premises attached to the northern and southern parts of the temple 65
II.12. Premises of the “second” row adjacent to rooms 28, 29, 33 66
II.13. Premises 23, 24, joined to the barque room (36) from the west 66
II.14. Premises of the “second” row adjacent to rooms 23, 38, 39 66
II.15. Comparative analysis 67
II.16. Water spouts and water drainage system 75
II.17. Reconstruction of Natakamani Temple by surviving remains 79

III. SACRED STANDS AND ALTAR (Eleonora Kormysheva) 111

III.1. The sacred stand from the room 26 (AE15/II-R26/st1) 112
III.2. The sacred stand from the room 36 (AE17/II-R36/st1) 114
III.3. The sacred stand AE17/II-R36/st2 116
III.4. Comments 119

5
 CONTENTS

III.5. Comparison of the inscription on the sacred barques from Abu Erteila 123
and Wad Ben Naga
III.6. Decoration of the stands 126
III.7. Sacred stands from Egypt and Meroe 127
III.8. Rites performed in the temple 129
III.9. Altar (AE15/II-R26/st2) 131
III.10. Gods in the Natakamani temple 134

IV. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PAINTINGS (Valeria Kuvatova) 141

IV.1. Battle scene painting 141
IV.2. The stone veneer imitation paintings 148
IV.3. Interpretation 154
IV.4. Conclusions 156

V. FINDS (Eleonora Kormysheva) 157

V.1. Sanctuary (room 26) 157
V.2. Pronaos (room 25) 159
V.3. Hypostyle hall (room 27) 160
V.4. Pylon and the territory in front of it 164
V.5. Rooms adjacent to the bark room and pylon 166
V.6. Rooms adjacent from the south 167
V.7. Rooms of the second row adjacent from the south 167
V.8. Rooms adjacent from the north 168
V.9. Finds outside the temple 169

VI. POTTERY FROM THE TEMPLE (Svetlana Malykh) 173

VI.1. Pottery from naos (room 26) 173
VI.2. Pottery from pronaos (room 25) 175
VI.3. Pottery from hypostyle hall (room 27) 179
VI.4. Pottery from room 36 183
VI.5. Pottery from room 35 184
VI.6. Pottery from room 34 187
VI.7. Pottery from room 24 188
VI.8. Pottery from the area to the east of temple pylon 190
VI.9. Pottery manufacturing and clay fabrics of Abu Erteila 193
VI.10. Conclusions 196

VII. EXCAVATION OF BURIALS (Maksim Lebedev) 207

VII.1. Burials excavated by the Russian team 207
VII.2. Burials excavated by the Italian team 211
VII.3. Discussion 211

VIII. PALEOANTHROPOLOGICAL MATERIALS (Irina Reshetova) 221

CONCLUSION (Eleonora Kormysheva) 227

BIBLIOGRAPHY 231

ABBREVIATIONS 247

INDEX 248

COLOR PLATES I–CXL 253

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 EXCAVATION OF BURIALS

VII. EXCAVATION OF BURIALS559

VII.1. BURIALS EXCAVATED BY THE RUSSIAN TEAM

BURIAL 22 (fig. 53, pl. CXXVa)
Location: grid reference 38, room 25.
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave, slightly curved (length 1.62 m, width 0.33–037 m, preserved depth
0.90 m). Shaft fill contained a grey loamy sand with fragments of red and mud-bricks, some pottery
sherds, and charcoals; animal burrows at the bottom of the pit; mud crust over bones.
Burial: undisturbed burial of adult male, dorsally extended, head to east, face to north, palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: some tissue on bones (over the neck, over the chest, under the skull), decayed
textiles (under the back of the skeleton) and animal skin (over the skull and stuck to the northern wall of
the grave shaft).
Comments: the grave shaft was cut through the southern wall of room 26 (19W); grave shaft was partly
destroyed by pit 45P.

BURIAL 23 (fig. 54, pl. CXXVb)

Location: grid reference 39, room 25.
Period: Post-Medieval (Muslim burial).
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.90 m, width 0.40 m, preserved depth 0.80 m) filled with
a packed grey loamy sand with interlayers of yellow sand; mud crust over bones.
Burial: undisturbed burial of adult male, dorsally extended, head 42 south of east, face upwards and to
north-east, palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: some tissue on bones and decayed textiles under the skeleton.
Comments: the grave shaft damaged the eastern face of wall 47W. Orientation of the skeleton suggests
that the burial probably belonged to the Muslim tradition (although the body seems to have been
dorsally extended).

559 The study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR, project No. 17-06-00726 “Scientific
methods in the study of physical conditions of life, economic activities, and cult practices of the population of the Nile Valley
in antiquity and early medieval times”).
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BURIAL 24 (fig. 55, pl. CXXVI)

Location: grid reference 39, room 35.
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.75 m, width 0.45 m, preserved depth 0.65 m) filled with a
brown loamy sand with fragments of red and mud-bricks, some desert pebbles and pottery sherds.
Burial: undisturbed burial of young woman, dorsally extended, head 27 north of east, face to south-
east, palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: some remains of soft tissue over and under bones; hair on the skull; the body was
wrapped in woollen fabric (shroud); the upper part of the body was additionally wrapped in an animal
skin and matting.
Comments: the grave shaft was cut through walls 26W and 172W.

BURIAL 30 (fig. 56, pl. CXXVII)

Location: grid reference 40, rooms 27 and 35.
Period: 15th–17th century AD.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 2.02 m, width 0.66 m, depth 1.15 m) filled with plant macro
remains in the lower and middle parts of the fill, and a brown loamy sand with fragments of fired bricks
and desert pebbles in the upper part of the fill; a concentration of brick rubble was found over the plant
macro remains that covered the feet and legs.
Burial: undisturbed burial of adult male, dorsally extended, head 34 east of north, face to south-east,
palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: numerous plant macro remains, ephemeral traces of decayed tissue.
Comments: the grave shaft was cut through the south-western corner of room 27 and damaged wall
105W. The burial is a distinctive one due to the extensive use of plant macro remains in the fill of the
grave shaft. Most of the plant remains were desiccated fragments of Cymbopogon schoenanthus subsp.
proximus (lemongrass). The herb is typical for Upper Egypt and the Sudan being known among local
people as mahareb. 560 The lemongrass contains a bitter oleo resin, a toxic volatile oil, and a saponin. In
indigenous medicine, as recorded since Antiquity and Early Middle Ages, the herb is used as an
antispasmodic, antiseptic, antipyretic, and diuretic remedy. Muslim tradition gives evidence that
lemongrass was used in funerary rites associated with the burial of the Prophet Mohamed;561 lemongrass
is also said to have been used for covering the lower part of the body of one of Mohamed’s fallen
companions-in-arms. 562 In the Sudan, mahareb is used in the blend of herbs, spices, resins, and other
aromatic ingredients called takhriga. Burning of the takhriga accompanied by magical spells is supposed
to expel evil powers. In the burial context, the herb may have been used for magical purposes or
because of its strong aroma (mahareb is also utilized in traditional perfumery and cosmetics). It is
probably noteworthy that lemongrass was found in a box left in a cache with Egyptian royal mummies
at Deir el-Bahari. 563
In the necropolis of Abu Erteila, lemongrass was also found at the bottom of the grave shaft of
burial 21. In addition, extensive use of plant macro remains was recorded in the fill of the grave shaft of
burial 9 which has not been completely excavated yet (according to preliminary observations, unlike
burial 30, the body in burial 9 was oriented westwards).
C14 date for the plant macro remains from the fill of the grave shaft suggests that the lemongrass
utilized in the burial was collected in the period between 1456 and 1660 AD (95.4 % probability).

560 Boulos 1983, p. 94; Boulos 2005, p. 337–339.

561 Duke 2008, p. 169.
562 Muhsin Khan 1997, p. 213 (1276).
563 Germer 1985, p. 226–227.

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BURIAL 31 (fig. 57, pl. CXXVIII)

Location: grid references 40 and 56, room 34.
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 2.20 m, width 0.40 m, preserved depth 0.80 m) filled with
a brown loamy sand which contained fragments of fired bricks and lime plaster as well as a few pottery
sherds.
Burial: undisturbed burial of adult female, lateral position on the right side, body was slightly flexed,
head to east, face upwards, palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: remains of soft tissue on bones; decayed textiles over and under bones, especially
well preserved on feet; remains of matting all over the skeleton.
Comments: the grave shaft was cut through walls 105W and 165W.

BURIAL 32 (fig. 58, pl. CXXIXa)

Location: grid reference 44, room 27.
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.66 m, width 0.20–0.42 m, preserved depth 0.80 m) filled
with a brown loamy sand which contained fragments of fired bricks and lime plaster.
Burial: almost undisturbed burial of young female, 564 dorsally extended, head 27 east of north, face to
north-west, palms on pelvis. Left shoulder was lying on a big red brick fragment; one complete fired
brick was lying on the right arm; a big brick fragment was also found on the right shoulder opposite the
skull.
Organic materials: decayed textiles over bones, under bones and around the skeleton; remains of
matting over the whole skeleton, but under bricks. Decayed wood near the left elbow.
Comments: grave shaft damaged the southern face of wall 114W.

BURIAL 33 (fig. 59, pl. CXXIXb)

Location: grid reference 56, southern pylon (138W).
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.95 m, width 0.30–0.42 m, preserved depth 1.28 m) filled
with a brown loamy sand which contained fragments of fired bricks, mud-bricks and lime plaster.
Burial: undisturbed burial of adult male, dorsally extended, head 11 north of east, face to north-west,
palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: none were preserved.
Comments: this is one of the deepest grave shafts recorded in the necropolis of Abu Erteila. Since the
burial was made in one of the most elevated areas of Kom II and the shaft was carefully dug through
the core of the southern pylon (138W), one may assume that the interred person had a prominent social
standing.

BURIAL 34 (fig. 60, pl. CXXXa)

Location: grid references 44 and 48, room 33.
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces were preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.40 m, width 0.20–0.33 m, preserved depth 0.65 m) filled
with a brown loamy sand which contained fragments of fired bricks and lime plaster.

564 Tibiae, fibulae, and feet were disturbed by an animal tunnel and Italian colleagues who dug the trench to the west.
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Burial: undisturbed burial of teenage girl, dorsally extended, body oriented precisely along east-west
axis, head slightly inclined towards south, face upwards, palms on pelvis.
Organic materials: none were preserved.
Comments: grave shaft damaged northern face of wall 71W.

BURIAL 36 (fig. 61, pl. CXXXb)

Location: grid reference 54, northern pylon (137W).
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.73 m, width 0.30–0.46 m, preserved depth 0.35 m) filled
with a brown loamy sand.
Burial: disturbed burial, dorsally extended, body oriented 12 south of east, head was destroyed, palms
on pelvis.
Organic materials: none were preserved.
Comments: grave shaft disturbed the basement of the northern pylon 137W. The upper part of the
skeleton was damaged by pit 145P and, probably, some animals that dug their tunnels avoiding brick
masonry. Fragments of the skull from the burial were found in the eastern part of pit 145P.

BURIAL 37 (fig. 62, pl. CXXXIa)

Location: grid reference 38, rooms 34 and 36.
Period: Post-Medieval (Muslim burial).
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.53 m, width 0.56 m, preserved depth 1.13 m) filled with a
brown loamy sand with fragments of bricks and lime plaster as well as desert pebbles.
Burial: undisturbed burial of young male, lateral position slightly flexed on the right side, head 42
south of east, face to north; right hand was extended along the body, left hand and right leg were flexed.
Organic materials: some ephemeral traces of decayed soft tissue on bones.
Comments: the grave shaft damaged the paved floor in the north-western corner of room 36. Since it
was difficult to extend the length of the shaft surrounded by ferricrete sandstone flagstones, the grave
appeared to be too short for the body. Although the face of the interred person was found turned to
north, this happened, most probably, due to the lack of space. Other than that, the orientation of the
skeleton suggests that the burial belonged to the Muslim tradition.

BURIAL 39 (fig. 63, pl. CXXXIb)

Location: grid reference 61, platform 175W and wall 225W.
Period: from Medieval to Post-Medieval.
Superstructure: no traces preserved.
Grave structure: simple slot grave (length 1.20 m, width 0.30 m, preserved depth 0.43 m) filled with a
brown loamy sand that contained gravel and fragments of red bricks.
Burial: undisturbed child burial, lateral position slightly flexed on the right side, head 15 south of east,
face to north, palms opposite pelvis.
Organic materials: decayed textiles over bones, under bones and around the skeleton.
Comments: grave shaft disturbed wall 225W and rubble fill of platform 175W.

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VII.2. BURIALS EXCAVATED BY THE ITALIAN TEAM

Information on burials studied by the Italian team in the temple territory discussed in this
volume, including the total number of graves, is not available for this publication. For the time being, it
is known that two more burials (T 226 and T 227) were excavated by our Italian colleagues in room 27,
at least one burial (T 236) was cleaned in room 35, and another one (T 239) was found, presumably, in
the territory of room 34.

VII.3. DISCUSSION
The main Meroitic structures of Abu Erteila were damaged in the course of dismantling, and
activities of sebakheen, as well as due to natural weathering and bioerosion. However, the most crucial
factor that affected preservation of early strata on Kom II was the development of the necropolis. In
this respect, Abu Erteila is far from being unique among other Meroitic sites of the region. Multi-period
cemeteries seem to be quite common for the mouth of Wadi el-Hawad565 and Meroe Island in general.
As in other similar cases, including Hamadab 566 and Awlib 567 in the area of the mouth of Wadi
el-Hawad, the Meroitic ruins of Abu Erteila created elevated mounds which dominated the surrounding
landscape, providing a convenient place for a burial ground.
The necropolis on the three main mounds of Abu Erteila contained at least one hundred burials
of different periods, most of which remained undisturbed. Since the excavation of the necropolis is still
ongoing (fig. 64), the discussion here will concentrate only on interments recorded by the Russian team
in the territory of the eight rooms published in this volume, i. e. the 11 burials described above.
Although this selection is imposed by chance, it does retain some logic as we will discuss a series of
burials excavated in the most elevated part of Kom II.
Superstructures. No traces of superstructures have been recorded in association with any of
the burials published in this volume. Absence of superstructures is common for many ancient burial
sites excavated in the Sudan. 568 However, since burial traditions of both post-Meroitic and medieval
times usually implied some markers over burials, 569 one may assume that despite the lack of preserved
formal superstructures, most of the graves had been defined on the surface with at least mounds of sand
and brick rubble, which than disappeared or changed their appearance to the point where it was
impossible for excavators to recognize them.
Grave structures. There have been three main types of grave shafts attested so far at
Abu Erteila: 1) slot graves; 2) side-niche graves; 3) and bottom-niche graves. As in many other
contemporary cemeteries, 570 slot graves with no structural elaboration are the most common grave style
at Abu Erteila. All the shafts excavated on the territory of the temple rooms published in this volume
belong to this type.
Body orientation. Variants of orientation of burials towards east or west are equally common at
Abu Erteila. However, in the most elevated part of Kom II all burials were oriented roughly eastwards.
One may discern three main groups of burials:
1) Burials oriented towards true east or with some inclination to north or south (not more than
11–15) (burials 22, 24, 31, 33, 34, 36, 39). Unlike other burials in this group inclined to north, burials 36
and 39 were oriented with a slight inclination to south from true east which was probably because the
ones who dug these grave shafts simply followed the masonry of existing Meroitic walls oriented in
accordance with the Nile north.
2) Burials oriented towards north-east (burials 30, 32);

565 Wolf, Nowotnick, Wöß 2014, p. 110–112.

566 Wolf et al. 2011, p. 227.
567 Borcowski, Paner 2005, p. 58.
568 Welsby, Daniels 1991, p. 120–121; Edwards 1998, p. 194; Adams 1998, p. 33; Adams et al. 1999, p. 16, 30; Wolf,

Nowotnick 2006, p. 21; Ginns 2007, p. 21.

569 But see: Adams 1998, p. 19.
570 Adams 1998, p. 26.

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3) Presumably early Muslim burials oriented to south-east with face to north-east (Mecca)
(burials 23 and 37).
Medieval graves with dorsal or lateral burials oriented eastwards are sometimes found in the
region of the Fourth cataract, 571 and are common in cemeteries of the Shendi Reach. The position of
these tombs within burial grounds, shrouding and grave structures suggest that they have to fall within
what is called the Christian Period. However, the interpretation of their orientation is disputable.
Edwards, for example, suggests avoiding any “Christian” associations and classifies graves oriented
towards east as simply medieval. 572 Medieval graves oriented towards east with and without
superstructures were found among tumuli and cairns at el-Hobagi 573 and Jebel Makbor a few kilometres
away from Abu Erteila. 574
It is noteworthy that all the burials with the head toward what was locally regarded as west and,
thus, associated with the common Christian tradition, were made to the south of the ruins of the main
Meroitic temple that formed the most elevated part of Kom II. On the contrary, burials oriented
roughly towards east were situated, as a rule, in the territory of the Meroitic temple. In this regard, three
assumptions may be proposed: 1) burials with western orientation were made when the ruins of the
main temple were still too pronounced for using them as a burial ground; the ruins of the main temple
became reasonably flat probably by late medieval or early modern times when the mouth of Wadi el-
Hawad witnessed ethnic and religious changes; 2) and the ‘Christian’ population of the area preferred
not to use the territory of the pagan temple for interring their dead; 3) the most elevated part of the
mound over the ruins of the temple was reserved for a certain (more prestigious?) ethnic group which
oriented burials towards east.
Body position. Dorsally extended burials are traditional for Nubian medieval cemeteries. 575
Most of skeletons excavated at Abu Erteila were found lying on their backs as well. Dorsal burials at
Abu Erteila do not correlate with any particular position of the head of interred people.
Burials on the right side are twice as common as burials on the left side at Abu Erteila. As in
many other contemporary cemeteries, choice of a lateral or a dorsal position does not correlate reliably
with particular body orientation or type of shaft. As was previously noted, 576 position of the body, as
well as type of grave shaft, was probably very much a matter of individual preference.
Position of limbs. Most of burials excavated at Abu Erteila demonstrate the usual Nubian
practice of placing both palms on the pubis or pelvis; legs are usually extended. Despite the common
tradition, as in other contemporary cemeteries, 577 there has been some variety attested at the site. In the
territory of the published temple rooms, there was one such example: in burial 37, the right hand was
extended along the body, and the left hand and right leg were flexed.
Body coverings, shrouding. In some grave shafts excavated at Abu Erteila we recorded
separate bricks left near the skull or over the skeleton. In the territory of the published temple rooms,
there was one such case: in burial 32, one brick fragment was found under the left shoulder, another
brick fragment was lying over the right shoulder, and a complete brick was lying on the right arm.
Remains of matting were found in three burials published in this volume (burials 24, 31, and 32).
As a rule, matting was found at Abu Erteila over, and sometimes under, the upper part of the body. In
burials 31 and 32, however, decayed traces of matting were found all over the skeletons. It is possible
that matting was used instead of brick coverings to protect, above all, faces of the interred persons.
In two cases, there were also remains of animal skin found over the upper part of the body (burials 22
and 24). In burials outside the territory of the published temple rooms, animal skins were found only in
one case (burial 17). 578

571 Ginns 2007, p. 20; urawski 2014, p. 146.

572 Edwards 1998, p. 208.
573 Lenoble et al. 1994, p. 65–66, pl. 18.
574 Lenoble 1987b.
575 Adams 1998, p. 28.
576 Adams et al. 1999, p. 45.
577 Adams 1998, p. 28–29.
578 Lebedev, Reshetova 2017.

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In six burials published in this volume, it was possible to trace remains of shrouds which give
evidence for the well-known custom attested in many medieval cemeteries of the Sudan. The bodies
were wrapped in textile from head to feet and then tightly bound around. No traces of textiles were
found in five other burials which were situated either close to the surface in shallow graves or,
conversely, in deep shafts surrounded by brick masonry that complicated drainage of rainwater.
There is no positive correlation at Abu Erteila between variants of body covering, position of
body, and grave construction.
Position of graves within Meroitic ruins. All burials excavated by the Russian team in the
territory of the eight temple rooms published in this volume damaged the Meroitic walls to some extent.
In some cases, cutting of walls may have happened by chance (burials 23, 32, 34). In all other cases,
shafts were probably excavated through Meroitic walls on purpose: in contrast to loose, sandy fill, brick
masonry provided stable walls for grave shafts.
Shaft fill. In all but one case shaft fill was homogeneous and consisted of mixed material from
different strata disturbed in the course of digging the shaft. However, the lower and upper parts of the
shaft of burial 30 were filled with plant macro remains which covered the body for some unknown
ritual, magical or technical reason. So far there has only been one direct analogy in the territory of the
necropolis of Abu Erteila recorded (unexcavated burial 9).
Chronology. Burials at Abu Erteila demonstrate significant variability in grave constructions,
body position and orientation which might be evidence of the heterogeneous nature of the local
population(s) that buried people in the Meroitic ruins. However, this variability remains within the
common mixed nature of medieval burial tradition. For how long did the people who lived or visited the
mouth of Wadi el-Hawad inter their dead on Kom II at Abu Erteila? To all appearances, the necropolis
under discussion was a multi-period cemetery.
The earliest excavated interment is probably contracted burial 16, which may be dated to the
Post-Meroitic or early medieval times. The burial was made outside the main Meroitic ruins and may
give evidence for the existence of an earlier burial ground to the west or around Kom II. Some of the
burials oriented towards the east may be tentatively dated to the early Christian Period, 579 although a
later date is also quite possible since a small cemetery with burials oriented eastwards, excavated at el-
Geili, may be ascribed to late medieval times, as suggested by radiocarbon dates from a number of
graves. 580
Due to the poor preservation of collagen in bones, only three C14 dates have been obtained from
the necropolis of Abu Erteila. The first date comes from one of the burials on Kom I, it falls within
12th–13th century AD. 581 The second date comes from a poorly preserved organic covering of burial 40:
650–1250 AD (95.4 % probability). The third date comes from plant macro remains in the shaft of
burial 37: 1456–1660 AD (95.4 % probability). Radiocarbon dates for similar burials at Jebel Makbor
with heads towards west fall within 11th–13th century AD. 582 Burials in supine position with no specific
orientation and without grave goods were excavated at the nearby Awlib. Preliminary results of
radiocarbon analysis carried out on human bone samples from Awlib dated this necropolis to the
Medieval Period. 583 A similar necropolis was found in the ruins of Meroitic Muweis. As at Abu Erteila,
bodies interred at Muweis were oriented either towards west or east. Two bodies have been dated by the
radiocarbon method to the 13th–14th century AD. 584
If the necropolis of Abu Erteila continued to develop in the Late Medieval and Early Post-
Medieval Period, which is quite possible considering the orientation of bodies and available C14 dates,
this cemetery would be a relatively rare example of a late burial ground excavated near Meroe. 585

579 Salah Mohamed Ahmed 2011, p. 299–301.

580 Caneva 1988, p. 209, 212.
581 Fantusati, Kormysheva, Malykh 2014, p. 88.
582 Lenoble 1987, p. 235.
583 Borcowski, Paner 2005, p. 58.
584 Baud 2015, p. 102.
585 Adams 1998, p. 32–33.

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