Bending

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For other uses, see Bending (disambiguation).

Bending of an I-beam
Continuum mechanics

Laws[show]

Solid mechanics[hide]

 Deformation
 Elasticity
o linear
 Plasticity
 Hooke's law
 Stress
 Finite strain
 Infinitesimal strain
 Compatibility
 Bending
 Contact mechanics
o frictional
 Material failure theory
 Fracture mechanics

Fluid mechanics[show]

Rheology[show]

Scientists[show]

 v
 t
 e

In applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a

slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis
of the element.
The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a small fraction,
typically 1/10 or less, of the other two.[1] When the length is considerably longer than the width and
the thickness, the element is called a beam. For example, a closet rod sagging under the weight of
clothes on clothes hangers is an example of a beam experiencing bending. On the other hand,
a shell is a structure of any geometric form where the length and the width are of the same order of
magnitude but the thickness of the structure (known as the 'wall') is considerably smaller. A large
diameter, but thin-walled, short tube supported at its ends and loaded laterally is an example of a
shell experiencing bending.
In the absence of a qualifier, the term bending is ambiguous because bending can occur locally in all
objects. Therefore, to make the usage of the term more precise, engineers refer to a specific object
such as; the bending of rods,[2] the bending of beams,[1] the bending of plates,[3] the bending of
shells[2] and so on.

Contents

 1Quasi-static bending of beams

o 1.1Euler–Bernoulli bending theory
o 1.2Extensions of Euler-Bernoulli beam bending theory
 1.2.1Plastic bending
 1.2.2Complex or asymmetrical bending
 1.2.3Large bending deformation
o 1.3Timoshenko bending theory
 2Dynamic bending of beams
o 2.1Euler–Bernoulli theory
 2.1.1Free vibrations
o 2.2Timoshenko–Rayleigh theory
 2.2.1Free vibrations
 3Quasistatic bending of plates
o 3.1Kirchhoff–Love theory of plates
o 3.2Mindlin–Reissner theory of plates
 4Dynamic bending of plates
o 4.1Dynamics of thin Kirchhoff plates
 5See also
 6References
 7External links

Quasi-static bending of beams[edit]

A beam deforms and stresses develop inside it when a transverse load is applied on it. In the quasi-
static case, the amount of bending deflection and the stresses that develop are assumed not to
change over time. In a horizontal beam supported at the ends and loaded downwards in the middle,
the material at the over-side of the beam is compressed while the material at the underside is
stretched. There are two forms of internal stresses caused by lateral loads:

 Shear stress parallel to the lateral loading plus complementary

shear stress on planes perpendicular to the load direction;
 Direct compressive stress in the upper region of the beam, and
direct tensile stress in the lower region of the beam.
These last two forces form a couple or moment as they are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. This bending moment resists the sagging deformation characteristic of a beam
experiencing bending. The stress distribution in a beam can be predicted quite accurately when
some simplifying assumptions are used.[1]
Euler–Bernoulli bending theory[edit]
Main article: Euler–Bernoulli beam equation

Element of a bent beam: the fibers form concentric arcs, the top fibers are compressed and bottom fibers
stretched.

Bending moments in a beam

In the Euler–Bernoulli theory of slender beams, a major assumption is that 'plane sections remain
plane'. In other words, any deformation due to shear across the section is not accounted for (no
shear deformation). Also, this linear distribution is only applicable if the maximum stress is less than
the yield stress of the material. For stresses that exceed yield, refer to article plastic bending. At
yield, the maximum stress experienced in the section (at the furthest points from the neutral axis of
the beam) is defined as the flexural strength.
Consider beams where the following are true:
  The beam is originally straight and slender, and any taper is slight
 The material is isotropic (or orthotropic), linear elastic,
and homogeneous across any cross section (but not necessarily
along its length)
 Only small deflections are considered

In this case, the equation describing beam deflection ( ) can be approximated as:

where the second derivative of its deflected shape with respect

to is interpreted as its curvature, is the Young's

modulus, is the area moment of inertia of the cross-section,

and is the internal bending moment in the beam.

If, in addition, the beam is homogeneous along its length as well,
and not tapered (i.e. constant cross section), and deflects under an

applied transverse load , it can be shown that:[1]

This is the Euler–Bernoulli equation for beam bending.

After a solution for the displacement of the beam has been

obtained, the bending moment ( ) and shear force ( ) in

the beam can be calculated using the relations

Simple beam bending is often analyzed with the Euler–

Bernoulli beam equation. The conditions for using simple
bending theory are:[4]

1. The beam is subject to pure bending. This means

that the shear force is zero, and that no torsional or
axial loads are present.
2. The material is isotropic (or orthotropic)
and homogeneous.
3. The material obeys Hooke's law (it is linearly elastic
and will not deform plastically).
4. The beam is initially straight with a cross section
that is constant throughout the beam length.
5. The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of
bending.
 6. The proportions of the beam are such that it would
fail by bending rather than by crushing, wrinkling or
sideways buckling.
7. Cross-sections of the beam remain plane during
bending.

Deflection of a beam deflected symmetrically and principle of

superposition
Compressive and tensile forces develop in the direction of
the beam axis under bending loads. These forces
induce stresses on the beam. The maximum compressive
stress is found at the uppermost edge of the beam while
the maximum tensile stress is located at the lower edge of
the beam. Since the stresses between these two
opposing maxima vary linearly, there therefore exists a
point on the linear path between them where there is no
bending stress. The locus of these points is the neutral
axis. Because of this area with no stress and the adjacent
areas with low stress, using uniform cross section beams in
bending is not a particularly efficient means of supporting a
load as it does not use the full capacity of the beam until it
is on the brink of collapse. Wide-flange beams (I-beams)
and truss girders effectively address this inefficiency as
they minimize the amount of material in this under-stressed
region.
The classic formula for determining the bending stress in a
beam under simple bending is:[5]

where

 is the bending stress

 – the moment about the neutral axis

 – the perpendicular distance to the neutral

axis

 – the second moment of area about the

neutral axis z.

 - the Resistance Moment about the neutral

axis z.
Extensions of Euler-Bernoulli beam
bending theory[edit]
Plastic bending[edit]
Main article: Plastic bending

The equation is valid only when the stress at the

extreme fiber (i.e., the portion of the beam farthest from
the neutral axis) is below the yield stress of the material
from which it is constructed. At higher loadings the
stress distribution becomes non-linear, and ductile
materials will eventually enter a plastic hinge state
where the magnitude of the stress is equal to the yield
stress everywhere in the beam, with a discontinuity at
the neutral axis where the stress changes from tensile
 to compressive. This plastic hinge state is typically
used as a limit state in the design of steel structures.
Complex or asymmetrical bending[edit]
The equation above is only valid if the cross-section is
symmetrical. For homogeneous beams with
asymmetrical sections, the maximum bending stress in
the beam is given by

[6]

where are the coordinates of a point on the

cross section at which the stress is to be
determined as shown to the

right, and are the bending moments

about the y and

z centroid axes, and are the second

moments of area (distinct from moments of inertia)

about the y and z axes, and is the product of

moments of area. Using this equation it is possible
to calculate the bending stress at any point on the
beam cross section regardless of moment
orientation or cross-sectional shape. Note

that do not change from one point to another

on the cross section.
Large bending deformation[edit]

For large deformations of the body, the stress in

the cross-section is calculated using an extended
version of this formula. First the following
assumptions must be made:

1. Assumption of flat sections – before and

after deformation the considered section of
body remains flat (i.e., is not swirled).
 2. Shear and normal stresses in this section
that are perpendicular to the normal vector
of cross section have no influence on
normal stresses that are parallel to this
section.
Large bending considerations should be

implemented when the bending radius is

smaller than ten section heights h:

With those assumptions the stress in large

bending is calculated as:

where

is the normal force

is the section area

is the bending moment

is the local bending radius (the radius of bending at the

current section)

is the area moment of inertia along the x-axis, at

the place (see Steiner's theorem)

is the position along y-axis on the section area in which

the stress is calculated.

When bending

radius appro
aches infinity

and , the
original formula is
back:

.
Timoshenk
o bending
theory[edit]
Main
article: Timos
henko beam
theory

Deformatio
n of a
Timoshenk
o beam.
The normal
rotates by
an
amount

whic
h is not
equal

to .
In
1921, Timosh
enko improve
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Euler–
Bernoulli
theory of
beams by
adding the
effect of shear
into the beam
equation. The
kinematic
assumptions
of the
Timoshenko
theory are:

 normals
to the axis
of the
beam
remain
straight
after
deformati
on
 there is
no
change in
beam
thickness
after
deformati
on
However,
normals to the
axis are not
required to
remain
perpendicular
to the axis
after
deformation.
The equation
for the
quasistatic
bending of a
linear elastic,
isotropic,
homogeneous
beam of
constant
cross-section
beam under
these
assumptions
is[7]
where

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the area
moment
of
inertia of
the cross-
section,

is
the cross-
sectional
area,

is
the shear
modulus,

is
a shear
correctio
n factor,

and
is an
applied
transvers
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materials
with Poiss
on's
ratios (

)
close to
0.3, the
shear
correction
factor for
a
rectangul
ar cross-
section is
approxim
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1st lateral bending

2nd lateral bending

 hide

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