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COMMUNICATION
ETEC 405
Syllabus
Wireless Communication
(ETEC 405)
UNIT I
Protective Relays, CTs and PTs: Classification of Relays: Electromechanical, static
and numerical relays: Construction, operating characteristic and their applications.
Constructions and Characteristic of CTs and PTs, capacitance voltage transformer.
[T1,T2][No. of Hrs.: 10]
UNIT II
Protection of Generators and Transformers: Differential Protection, protection of
stator windings, rotor earth fault protection, protection against unbalanced loading, loss
of excitation and prime mover failure; Protection of motors (induction and synchronous)
and bus bars. [T1,T2][No. of Hrs.: 10]
UNIT III
Protection of Transmission lines: Over current protection, Grading of over current
relays, distance protection, types of distance relays and their characteristics, carrier current
protection, protection against surges, surge diverters, surge absorbers, use of ground
wires on transmission lines, methods of grounding.
[T1,T2][No. of Hrs. 12]
UNIT IV
Fuses and Circuit Breakers: Types & Applications of Fuse and MCB, Current
interruption theories, types of Circuit Breakers: Air, air-blast, Oil, SF6 and Vacuum
circuit breakers-Principle, ratings and applications.
[T1,T2][No. of Hrs.: 10]
FIRST TERM EXAMINATION
[B.Tech.]
Wireless Communication (ETEC 405)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note:
Question 1. _______________________________________________________
(a) List a few advantages and limitations of wireless communication systems.
(b) Why hexagonal shape is preferred over other cell shapes in cellular mobile radio?
(c) In what ways does the recieved signal get affected by multipath propagation in
mobile communications ?
(d) Breifly explain speech coding in GSM.
Solution:
(a) Advantages :
1. Mobility
2. Improved Reliability
3. Easier and Faster Installation
4. Reduced Cost
Limitations :
1. Signal Interference
2. Spectrum Limitations
3. Low Bandwidth Availability
4. Security Issues
5. Health Concerns
(b) In a cellular System a land area is divided into regular shaped cells, which can be
hexagonal, square, circular or some other irregular shapes, although hexagonal cells
are convetional.
This is becuase there are some criteria for the cell shape, which are
1. Geometric shape
2. Area without overlap
3. Area of the cell
And the eligible shapes for these criteria are Square, circle, equilateral triangle and
hexagon.
The Geometric shape and Area without overlap is satisfied by a hexagon, square,
equilateral triangle as they can be fitted in a manner where there is no area of overlap. The
circle on the other hand would overlap (which implies interference of signals) or leave gaps
(which means loss of coverage in those areas) when not overlapping. When the area factor is
considered a circle has the highest area however it does not satisfy the second criteria of
overlap. Therefore we have to consider a shape which fits correctly and also has maximum
area. For this purpose we shall compare the area of the remaining shapes to the area of circle
to see which has the maximum area.
The area of an equilateral traiangle to a circle approx = 17.77%
3
4 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
• Primarily intended for voice they also support fax and email services at low bit-rate (8
to 9 kbps).
• The higher 2G systems use GSM (Global System For Mobile Communication) and
low-tier system is intended for lo\v-cost, low-power, low-mobility.
• Digital transmission offer several benefits over analog:
(i) Voice, data such as email and fax can be integrated into a single system.
(ii) Better compression can lead to a better channel utilization.
(iii) Error correction code can be used for better quality,
(iv) Sophisticated encryption can be used.
Differences Between First and Second Generation Systems :
• Digital traffic channels : First generation systems are almost purely analog: second-
generation systems are digital.
• Encryption : All second generation systems provide encryption to prevent
eavesdropping.
• Error detection and correction : Second generation digital traffic allows for
detection and correction, giving clear voice reception.
• Channel access : Second-generation systems allow channels to be dynamically shared
by a number of users.
(b) If the cell size and the power transmitted at the base stations are same then CCI will
become independent of the transmitted power and will depend on radius of the cell
(R) and the distance between the interfering co-channel cells (D). If D/R ratio is
increased, then the effective distance between the co-channel cells will increase 34
and interference will decrease. The parameter Q is called the frequency reuse ratio
and is related to the cluster size. For hexagonal geometry
D
Q= = 3N ...(i)
R
From the above equation, small of 'Q' means small value of cluster si/e 'N' and increase
in cellular capacity. But large 'Q' leads to decrease in system capacity but increase in
transmission quality. Choosing the options is very careful for the selection of 'N'. the
proof of which is given in the first section.
The Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors the
forward channel can be calculated as
S S
= i0 ...(ii)
I
∑ Ii
i–1
where i0 is the number of co-channel interfering cells. S is the desired signal power
from the baseband station and Ii is the interference power caused by the i-th interfering
co-channel base station. In order to solve this equation from power calculations, we
need to look into the signal power characteristics. The average power in the mobile
radio channel decays as a power law of the distance of separation between transmitter
and receiver. The expression for the received power Pr at a distance d can be
approximately calculated as
6 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
–n
d
Pr = P0 d ...(iii)
0
and in the dB expression as
d
Pr(dB) = P0(dB) – 10n log ...(iv)
d0
where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field region at a
small distance do from the transmitting antenna, and ‘n’ is the path loss exponent.
Let us calculate the SIR for this system. If Di is the distance of the i-th interferer
from the mobile, the received power at a given mobile due to i-th interfering cell is
proportional to (Di)–n (the value of ‘n’ varies between 2 and 4 in urban cellular
systems).
Let us take that the path loss exponent is same throughout the coverage area and the
transmitted power be same, then SIR can be approximated as
S R–n
= i0 ...(v)
I
∑ Di – n
i =1
where the mobile is assumed to be located at R distance from the cell center.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Mention differences between FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) and TDD
(Time Division Duplexing).
(b) A mobile subscriber travels at a uniform speed of 60 km/h. Compute the time
between fades if the mobile uses
(i) a cellphone operating at 900 MHz
(ii) a PCS phone operating at 1900 MHz
Comment on the results obtained.
Solution:
(a) FDD : Duplexing may be done using frequency or time domain technique. Frequency
division duplexing (FDD) provides two distinct hands of frequencies for every user.
The forward hand provides traffic from the base station to the mobile, and the reverse
hand provides traffic from the mobile to the base station. In FDD. any duplex channel
acutally consists of two simplex channels (a forward and reverse), and a device called
a duplexer is used is used inside each subcriber unit and base station to allow
simultaneous bidirectional radio transmission and reception for both the subscriber
unit and the base station on the duplex channel pair. The frequency separation between
each forward and reverse channel is constant throughout the system, regardless of the
particular channel being used.
TDD : Time division duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to provide
both a forward and reverse link. In TDD. multiple users share a single radio channel
by lakiing turns in the time domain. Individual users are allowed to access the channel
in assigned time slots, and each duplex channel has both a forward time slot and a
reverse time slot to faciliated bidirectional communication. If the time separation
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 7
between the forward and reverse time slot is small then the transmission and reception
of data appears simultaneous to the users at both the subscriber unit and on the base
station side. Figure illustrates FDD and TDD techniques. TDD allows communication
Question 4. _______________________________________________________
(a) Draw the DAMPS network model. List a few the services provided by this system.
(b) Consider a Rayleigh fading signal experiencing a maximum Doppler frequency
of 20 Hz. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz compute
(a) the positive going level crossing rate for ρ = 1
(b) maximum velocity of the mobile for the given Doppler frequency
Solution:
A wide range of basic and supplementary services are supported by D-AMPS or USDC.
Some of them are listed below :
• basic speech and asynchronous data services
• group 3 fax
• short message services (SMS)
• emergency services
• on-the-air activation (OTA)
• sleep mode
• message encryption
• supplementary services
– Call forwarding
– Call waiting
– Do not disturb
– Voice mail
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 9
Question 1.
(a) Explain the funcitonality of BSS GPRS protocol ?
(b) What are the 3G QoS classes ?
(c) Give the Technical Requirements of WLL Systems.
Solution:
(a) The BSS Gateway protocol (BSSGP) operates between the BSS and the SGSN
relaying the LLC packets from the MS to the SGSN. Many MS LLCs can be
multiplexed over one BSSGP. Its primary function is to relay radio related, QoS,
and routing information between the BSS and SGSN and paging requests from SGSN
to the BSS. It supports flushing of old messages from BSS. The data transfer is
unconfirmed between BSS and SGSN.
(b) Four QoS classes have been defined for 3G :
• Conversational class: It is defined for applications such as traditional voice
calls i.e., the most delay-sensitive applications. In this, the transfer delay is
strictly limited.
• Streaming class: It is defined for one-way real time video/audio such as video-
on-demand.
10 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
– 4800 bps
– Initiate communication
– Respond to paging channel message
• Reverse voice traffic channel
– 9600, 4800, 2400, 1200 bps
• Very similar to forward link, but there are important differences.
(b) GERAN (GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network)
The GERAN or GSM EDGE radio access network architecture is similar to the one
used in GPRS. The architecture consists of GSMs base station system (BSS) and its
interfaces. The MSs are in contact with the GERAN via the Um-interface. BSS
communicates with MSCs (GSM entity) via A interface and with SGSN (GPRS entity)
via Gb interface. It also provides connection to UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (UTRAN) developed in context of the standardization activities of the 3rd
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) for the Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System (UMTS). Thus, GERAN can use Gb, A, and Iu interfaces to contact the GSM
and UMTS trunk networks, as shown in Figure 1.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Compare GEO, MEO and LEO.
(b) What is meant by tunneling? Explain how tunneling works for mobile IP using
IP-in-IP.
Solution: (a)
Parameter LEO MEO GEO
Satellite Height 500-1500 km 5000-12000 km 35800 km
Orbital Period 10-40 minutes 2-8 hours 24 hours
Number of Satellites 40-80 8-20 3
Satellite Life Short Long Long
Number of Handoffs High Low Least (None)
Gateway Cost Very Expensive Expensive Cheap
Propagation Loss Least High Highest
Delay (ms) Low (15) Medium (70) High (280)
12 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
(b) Tunneling and Encapsulation : A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets
between a tunnel entry and a tunnel end point. Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded
inside the tunnel and leave the tunnel unchanged tunneling i.e. sending a packet
through a tunnel, is achieved by using encapsulation. Encapsulation is the mechanism
of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data and putting it into the data
part of a new packet. The reverse operation, taking a packet out of the data part of
another packet, is called decapsulation.
Encapsulation and decapsulation are the operations typically performed when a packet
is transferred from a Higher protocol layer to a lower layer or from a lower to high
level respectively and describe exactly what the HA at the tunnel entry does. The
HA takes the original packet with the MN as destination, puts it into the data part of
a new packet and sets the new IP header in such a way that the packet is routed to the
CoA. The new header is also called the outer header for obvious reasons.
Additionally, there is an inner header which can be identical to the original header as
this is the case for IP-in-IP encapsulation.
Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Standard Communications
protocol that is designed to allow mobile device users to move from one network to
another while maintaining their permanent IP address.
Mobile IP provides an efficient, scalable mechanism for node mobility when, the
Internet, using Mobile IP, nodes may change their, point of attachment to the internet
without changing their IP address.
Thus allows them to maintain transport and longer layer connections while moving.
Node mobility is realized without the need to propagate host specific routes throughout
the routing fabric.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Write a short note on GPRS. What services are offered ?
(b) Give a comparison of primary 802.11x standards.
Solution:
(a) GPRS : General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service
on the 2G and 3G cellular communication system's global system for mobile
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 13
❒❒❒
END TERM EXAMINATION
[B.Tech.]
Wireless Communication (ETEC 405)
Time : 3 hours Maximum Marks : 75
Note:
Question 1. _______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the term mobility.
(b) Diagramcally explain cell splitting and explain how it increases system capacity.
(c) Discuss about the multiple access techniques used in 2nd generation mobile systems.
(d) What are the five IMT 2000 technologies ?
Solution:
(a) Mobility simply means ability to move. Three types of mobility have to be considered
in wireless communication systems: terminal mobility, personal mobility, and service
mobility (also called service portability).
(i) Terminal Mobility: From the user's viewpoint, it is the ability of a mobile and
wireless terminal to access communication services from different locations
while in motion. From the service Provider's viewpoint, it is the ability of the
network to identify, locate, and track the mobile terminals.
(ii) Personal Mobility: Personal mobility also has two layers of meaning. From
the user's viewpoint, it is the ability of a user to access communication services
based on a personal identification code on any terminal irrespective of wireless
or wireline connection. From the service-provider's viewpoint, it is the ability
of the network to locate the terminal associated with the user and provide those
services according to the user's service profile.
Once the terminal associated with one user is located, the network needs to do
addressing, routing, and charging about the user's calls.
(iii) Service Mobility: It can be seen as a combination of terminal mobility and
personal mobility, is related to service profile.
(b) Cell Splitting : Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna
height and transmitter power. Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system
since it increases the number of times that channels are reused. By defining new
cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells and by installing these smaller
cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases due to the
additional number of channels per unit area. The consequence of the cell splitting is
that the frequency assignment has to be done again, which affects the neighboring
cells. It also increases the handoff rate because the cells are now smaller and a mobile
is likely to cross cell boundaries more often compared with the case when the cells
are big. Because of altered signaling conditions, this also affects the traffic in control
channels. A typical example of cell splitting is shown in Figure. Here, it is assumed
that the cell cluster is congested and as a result, the call blocking probability has
risen above an acceptable level. Imagine if every cell in the cluster was reduced in
14
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 15
such a way that the radius, R of every cell was cut in half, (R/2). In order to cover the
entire service area with smaller cells, approximately four times as many cells would
be required. The increased number of cells would increase the number of clusters
over the coverage region, which in turn would increase the number of channels, and
thus capacity, in the coverage area. In the example shown in Figure, the smaller cells
were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency reuse plan of the system. In
this case, the radius of each new microcell is half that of the original cell.
(c) Cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells here a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The goal in the design of cellular systems is to be
able to handle as many calls as possible (this is called capacity in cellular terminology)
in a given bandwidth with some reliability. There are several different ways to allow
access to the channel. These include the following:
• frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
• time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• Space division multiple-access (TDMA)
• code division multiple-access (CDMA)
– frequency-hop CDMA
– direct-sequence CDMA
FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems. In this technique
a user is assigned a pair of frequencies when placing or receiving a call. One frequency
is used for downlink (base station to mobile) and one pair for uplink (mobile to
base). This is called frequency division duplexing. That frequency pair is not used in
the same cell or adjacent cells during the call. Even though the user may not be
talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as call is in place. Two second
generation cellular systems. (IS-54, GSM) use time/frequency multiple-access
whereby the available spectrum is divided into frequency slots (e.g., 30 kHz bands)
but then each frequency slot is divided into time slots. Each user is then given a pair
of frequencies (uplink and downlink) and a time slot during a frame. Different users
can use the same frequency in the same cell except that they must transmit at different
times. This technique is also being used in third generation wireless systems (e.g.,
EDGE).
(d)
16 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
The rapid increase of demand for data services, primarily IP have been a key driver
for the evolution of wireless technologies. The third generation is the enabler of
high-speed data wireless mobility, and it is defined in ITU lMT-2000 including
specifications for high quality, global roaming, multimedia applications, flexibility for
evolution, and high-speed data.
• IMT-DS (Direct Spread) : This technology comprises wideband CDMA
(WCDMA) systems and used by all European providers and some Japanese
providers for 3G wide area services.
• IMT-MC (Multi-Carrier) : This included multi-carrier technology, the cdma2000,
standardized by 3GPP2 (Third generation partnership project 2, 3GPP2, 2002).
• IMT-TDD (or TC, Time Code) : This technology contained only the UTRA-
TDD system which uses time-division CDMA (TD-CDMA). After a while, the
Chinese proposal, TD-synchronous CDMA (TD-SCDMA) was added.
• IMT-SC (Single Carrier) : This included the single carrier technology, UWC-
136, which is the enhancement of the US TDMA systems.
• IMT-FT (Frequency Time) : It included an enhanced version of the cordless
telephone standard DECT.
Question 2. _______________________________________________________
(a) Give a comparative analysis of 1G and 2G systems.
(b) Explain various types of handoffs or handovers ?
Solution:
(a) First Generation :
• First-generation cellular networks were introduced in the 1980s are primarily intended
lor voice.
• These networks are very slow less than 1 kilobits per sec (kbps).
• The key idea of 1G cellular networks is that the geographical area is divided into
cells, each served by a base station. Cells are so small that frequency reuse is possible
in the near by cells.
• They are primarily based on analog communications.
• Each phone has 32 bit serial number and 10 digit phone number in its PROM.
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 17
Intra-BSC handover
2. Handover command - After the activation the BSC comments the MS to change
to the new channel. The message is sent on FACCH and will contain a full
description of the new channel and the HO ref. no.
3. Handover bursts - The MS will tune in to the new channel and send handover
burst on the new channel. The information content is the HO ref. no.
4. Handover complete - Now the MS is ready to continue the traffic and will send
a handover complete message addressed to the BSC.
5. Release of old channel - When the BSC receives the handover complete from
the MS. The BSC will know that the handover was successful. The BSC orders
the old BTS to release the TCH and the BTs will acknowledge.
Intra-BSC Handover : In this case BSC 1, (old BSC) does not control the better
cell which is the target for the handover. This means that the MSC will be part of the
link procedure between BSCI and BSC2 (new BSC).
Inter-BSC handover
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 19
Inter-MSC handover
1. (a) Handover request - BSC1 will use the MSC to send a handover requirest to
BSC2. The MSC will know which BSC controls that coil.
(b) Activation of new channel - BSC2 will allocate a TCh in the targer cell and then
order then BTS to activate it. The chosen HO ref. no. will be part of the activation
message. The BTS will knowledge that the activation has been made.
2. Handover command - After the activation the new BSC commands the MS to change
to the new channel. The message is sent on FACCH via the old channel and will
contain a full description of the new channel and the HO ref. no.
3. Handover bursts - When the MS has changed to the new channel, it will send handover
burst on the new channel. The information content, it will send handover bursts on
the new channel. The information content is the HO ref. no. The bursts are as short
as the access bursts. This is because the MS does not know the new Timing Advance
(TA) value yet. On teh detection of the handover bursts, and check of HO ref. no.,
the new BTS will send the new TA.
4. Handover complete - Now the MS is ready to continue the the traffic and will send
a handover complete message, which will be addressed to the old BSC as a clear
command.
5. Release of old channel - When the old BSC receives the clear command from the
MSC. the BSC knows that the handover was successful. The BSC orders the BTS to
release the TCH and the BTS will acknowledge.
Inter- MSC Handout : In this case the old BSC is connected to a different MSC
than the BSC that controls the target cell. This means that a new MSC w ill he part of
the procedure. The old MSC will he called anchor-MSC and the new MSC will be
called the target MSC
1. a. Handover request - The old BSC will use the anchor-MSC to send a request to the
new BSC for a handover to the target cell. The anchor-MSC knows which MSC to
contact, and the target-MSC in turn knows which BSC that controls the target cell.
20 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
b. Activation of new channel - The new BSC allocates a TCH in the target cell and
order the BTS to activate it. The chosen HO rel. no. will be part of the activation
message. The BTS will acknowledge that the activation ha.s been made.
2. Handover command - After the activation the new BSC commands the MS to change
to the new channel. The message is sent on FACCH via the old channel and will
contain a full description of the new channel and the HO ref. no. In order to reroute
the call, the target-MSC will also send a handover number, similar to the MSRN. to
the anchor-MSC.
3. Handover bursts - When the MS has changed to the new channel, it will send handover
bursts on the new channel. The information content is the HO ref. no. The bursts are
as short as the access bursts as the MS does not know the new Timing Advance (TA)
value yet. On the given a cellular system with a total bandwidth of 30 MHz which
use to 25 kHz simplex channel to provide full duplex voice and control channels.
Assuming that the system uses a nine-cell reuse pattern and 1 MHz of the total
bandwidth is allocated for control channels.
(i) Calculate the total available channels.
(ii) Determine the number of control channels.
(iii) Determine the number of the voice channel per cell.
(iv) Determine an equitable distribution of control and voice channel in each cell.
Solution : Given that
Total bandwidth = 30 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz × 2 = 50 kHz/duplex channel
30000
(i) Total number of available channels = = 600.
50
1000
(ii) The number of control channels = = 20.
50
1000
(iii) The number of the voice channel per cell = = 20.
50
(iv) Since. only a maximum of 20 channel can be used as control channel for N = 9,
one way to allocate is 7 cells with two control channels and 64 voice channels
each, and 2 cells with 3 control channels and 66 voice channels each.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Discuss in details the features of FDMA and TDMA based systems.
(b) Define the terms fade rate, average fade duration, dpth of fading.
Solution:
(a) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) : We have seen that FDM A assigns
individuals channel to individual users. These channels are assigned on demand to
users who request service. When user using the specified channel to him. no other
user cannot share that channel as shown in figure.
The features of FDMA aie as follows
1. The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
2. If an FDMA channel is not in use. mean due to any technical reason it is not
given to the user, then it canot he used by other users to increase or share capacity.
It is essentially a wasted resources.
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 21
3. After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit
simultaneously and continuously.
4. The complexity of FDMA system is lower, when it is compared to a TDM A
systems
5. Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits are needed for
overhead purposes (Such as synchronization and framing bits) as compared to
TDMA.
6. The bandwidth of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz in AMPS I as
each channel supports only one circuit per carrier so FDMA is generally
implemented in anrrow-band system.
7. The symbol tim of a narrow-band is large as compared to the average delay
spread. This implies that the amount of intersymbol interference is low and thus,
little or no equalization is required in FDMA narrow-band systems
8. FDMA requires very good RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.
9. FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate
at the same lime. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber unit
and bass stations.
• TDMA uses different time slots tor transmission and reception, thus duplexers are
not required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rathre than a duplexer inside the subscriber
unit is all that is required to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.
(b) Fade rate is defined as the number of times that the received signal enevelope crosses
the threshold vaue in a positive-going direction per unit time.
Average fade duration is defined as the average period of time for which the received
signal is below a specified received signal level.
Depth of fading is defined as the ratio between the mean square value and the
minimum value of the fading signal.
Consider a base-station transmitter operating at 900 MHz carrier frequency. For a
mobile moving at a speed of 72 km/h, calculate the received carrier frequency if the
mobile is moving
(a) directly away from the base-station transmitter
(b) directly towards the base-station transmitter
(c) in a direction which is 60 degrees to the direction of arrival of the transmitted
signal
(d) in a direction perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal
(c) Carrier frequency of base station transmitter
fc = 900 MHz (given)
Speed of the mobile, Vm = 72 km/h (given)
Or, Vm = (72 × 103)/3600 = 20 m/s
(a) To calculate received carrier frequency when the mobile is moving directly away
from the base-station transmitter
Step 1. In the given case, θ = 180º, cosθ = 180º = –1
So the Doppler shift is negative.
Step 2. Doppler frequency, or Doppler shift is given by
fd = (1/λc) Vm where λc = (c/fc)
or fd = (fc/c) Vm = (900 × 106 Hz/3 × 108 m/s) × 20 m/s
or, fd = 60 Hz
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 23
Mobile station : Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (MH) or as they are most
widely known, cell or mobile phones arc the section of a GSM cellular network that
the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the
level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time
between charges has significantly increased.
There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements
are the main hardware and the SIM.
The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the
display, case, hatters, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the
data receiver and to be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at
manufacture and “cannot” be changed. It is accessed by the network during registration
to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen.
Base Station Subsystem : GSM is a cellular network, which means that cell phones
connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different
cell sizes in a GSM network — macro, micro, pico. femto. and umbrella cells. The
coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro
cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or
a building above average rooftop level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is
under average rooftop level: they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are
small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres: they are mainly used
indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service provider's network via a broadband internet
connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and
fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) : The GSM system architecture contains a
variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It provides the
main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements
within the core network include:
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 25
• Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC) : The main element within the core
network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching
Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a
PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to enable the
requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration,
authentication, call location. inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile
subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed
from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other
MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks.
• Home Location Register (HLR) : This database contains all the
administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known
location. In this way. the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base
station lor the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers
with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it
communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even
when the phone is not active (but switched on) it reregisters periodically to
ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR
per network. although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to tor
operational reasons.
• Visitor Location Register (VLR) : This contains selected information from
the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be
provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity. but it is commonly
realised as an integral part of the MSC. rather than a separate entity. In this way
access is made faster and more convenient.
• Equipment Identity Register (EIR) : The EIR is the entity that decides whether
a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Kach mobile
equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity.
This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked
by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the
EIR. the mobile may be allocated one of three states allowed onto the network,
barred access, or monitored in case its problems.
• Authentication Centre (AuC) : The AuC is a protected database that contains
the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication
and for ciphering on the radio channel.
• Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC) : The GMSC is the point to which
a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's
location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station
Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN
number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct
visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway
operation does not require any linking to an MSC.
• SMS Gateway (SMS-G) : The SMS-C. or SMS gateway is the term that is
used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined
in the GSM standards. The two gateways handle messages directed in different
directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching
Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The SMS-IWMSC (Short
Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for short
26 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
• The Message Transfer Part or simply MTP consists of three levels corresponding
to the three lower layers of OSI model; physical layer, data link layer, and network
layer. The MTP level 1 defines the physical, electrical, and functional characteristics
of the signaling links. The MTP level 2 provides reliable transfer of signaling messages
between two signaling points. The MTP level 3 provides the functions and procedures
related to message routing and network management.
• The Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) provides additional functions such
as global title translation (GTT) to the MTP whihc is used for transferring of signaling
information such PCS registration and cancelation.
• The Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) enables the exchange of
information between applications using non-circuit-related signaling.
• The Integrated Services Digital Network User Part (ISUP) enables establishment
of circuit-switched network connections (e.g., for call setup).
• The Operations, Maintenance, and Administration Part (OMAP) is an application
of TCAP.
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 27
Question 5. _______________________________________________________
(a) Explain RAKE receivers
(b) Explain call setup and delivry process in roaming management.
(c) Compre 3G and 4G systems.
Solution:
(a) Unlike FDMA and TDMA systems which can only employ time and frequency
diversity for mitigating the effects of fading, CDMA system can employ space or
path diversity also which significantly adds to its advantage. In space diversity,
multiple parallel correlators for the PN waveforms are used at the receivers in the
mobile and the cell sites. These receivers are known as Rake receivers.
A RAKE receiver collect the times shifted versions of the original signal by providing
a separate correlation receiver for each of the multipath signals.
There are four ‘RAKE’ receivers with in each base transceiver and three ‘RAKE’
receivers with in each mobile phone. These are so called because they resemble a
lawn RAKE receiver.
The main function of RAKE receiver at both ends (mobile and base station) is to
aggreagatethe mobile call.
The direct signal at the Rake receiver to form the composite signals that is used to
process the mobile call.
The multipath singals are additives to the direct signal to obtain the cleanest, strongest
signal possible. Therefore we can conclude that the signal to noise ratio (SNR) gets
improves by using RAKE receiver.
A RAKE revceiver circuitry is shown in with correlator 1 to correlator M and integrator.
(b) Whenever someone initiates a call to the roaming mobile phone, always the request
is first received by its home MSC. The steps which are followed are as follows:
• If someone attempts to call a mobile subscriber, then the call is intercepted by
the home MSC which queries the HLR for the current location of the MS.
• If the called subscriber is roaming, the HLR uses the visiting network
identification and queries the VLR in which the MS reside.
28 BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication
• The VLR returns the routable address to the HLR which informs the home MSC.
• Finally, the connection is setup from the home MSC to the visiting MSC and the
call setup is completed.
The call delivery process when the MS is outside the coverage of the home MSC
(roaming) is shown in Figure.
(c)
Attributes 3G 4G
Major Characteristic Predominantly voice-data Converged data and
as add-on Voll
Network Architecture Wide area cell based Hybrid integration of
Wireless Lan (WiFi) Blue
Tooth Wide Area
Frequency Band 16-25 GHz 2-8 GHz
Component Design Optimized antenna Smart antennas. SW
multiband adapters multi-band wideand radios
Bandwidth 5-20 MHz 100 + MHz
Data Rate 385 kbps-2 Mbps 100 Mbps- 1 Gbps
Access WCDMA/CDMA 2000 MC-CDMA or OFDM
Forward Error Correction Convolution code 1/2, 1/3, Concatenated Coding
Correction turbo
Switching Circuit Packet Packet
Mobile top Speed 200 kmph 200 kmph
IP Multiple versions AB IP (IPV6)
Operational 2003 2010
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 29
Question 6. _______________________________________________________
(a) Describe IMT 2000 vision.
(b) Draw GPRS architecture and explain the GPRS support nodes.
Solution:
(a) IMT-2000 was developed with a vision to provide capabilities which represent
significant improvements over the current mobile systems, especially enabling global
mobility for the users and support of services like high speed data, multimedia, and
Internet. Also, it was developed to be a family of systems rather than a single network.
Additionally, IMT-2000 service environments will include the complete range of
mobile and personal communication applications.
A serving GPRS support node SGSN is responsible for the delivery of data packets
from and to the mobile stations within its service area. Its tasks include packet routing
and transfer, mobility management (attach/detach and location management), logical
link management, and authentication and charging functions. The location register
of the SGSN stores location information (e.g., current cell, current VLR) and user
profiles (e.g., IMSI, address (es) used in the packet data network) of all GPRS users
registered with this SGSN.
A gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) acts as an interface between the GPRS
backbone network and the external packet data networks. It converts the GPRS
packets coming from the SGSN into the appropriate packet data protocol (PDP)
format (e.g., IP or X.25) and sends them out on the corresponding packet data network.
In the other direction, PDP addresses of incoming data packets are converted to the
GSM address of the destination user. The readdressed packets are sent to the
responsible SGSN. For this purpose, the GGSN stores the current SGSN address of
the user and his functions.
In general, there is a many-to-many relationship between the SGSNs and the SGSNs
and the GGSNs : A GGSN is the interface to external packet data networks for
several SGSNs; an SGSN may route its packets over different GGSNs to reach
different packet data network as defined by ETSI. The Gb interfaces, connects the
BSC with the SGSN. Via the Gn and the Gp interfaces, user data and signaling data
are transmitted between the GSNs. The Gn interface will be used if they are indifferent
PLMNs. All GSNs are connected via an IP-based GPRS backbone network. Within
this backbone, the GSNs encapsulate the PDN packets and transmit (tunnel) them
using the GPRS Tunneling protocol GTP.
BHAVYA BOOKS: Wireless Communication 31
Question 7. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain in detail about IEEE 802.11 standrad and protocols for WLAN.
(b) Explain WLL.
(c) Compare IPv4 and IPv6.
Solution:
(a) IEEE 802.11: IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE
802.11, which covers the physical and data link layers.
Architecture : The standards defines two kinds of services; the Basic Service Set
(BSS) and the Extended Service Set (ESS).
Basic Service Set (BSS) : IEEE 802.11 defines the bask service set (BSS) as the
building block of a wireless LAN. A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile
wireless stations and an optional central base station known as the access point (AP).
Fig. shows two sets in this standard. The BSS without an AP is a standalone network
and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is called an adhoc architecture. In this
architecture stations can form a network without need of an AP; they can locate one
another and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as
an infrastructure network.
❒❒❒
34 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
FIRS
FIRSTT TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], FEBRUARY 2015
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time: 1 hour Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q.No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from
remaining. Each question carries 10 marks.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
(a) Define: (1.5 × 4 = 6)
(i) Pico Cell
(ii) Cluster and Cluster Size
(iii) Base Station
(iv) Co-channel interference
(b) Choose the correct answer out of four given options (1 × 4 = 4)
(i) For i = 2, j = 2, the value of co-channel reuse ratio is
(a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 12
(ii) For cluster size of 12, if radius of cell is 4 km, then the frequency reuse
distance, D is
(a) 4 km (b) 12 km (c) 24 km (d) 48 km
(iii) For the cluster size of 12, the value of C/I for a hexagonal shaped cell
structure is
(a) 12 (b) 24 (c) 144 (d) 216
(iv) If number of calls in an hour are 49 and one call is dropped and 48 calls
are completed, then the call drop rate is
(a) 1 (b) 48/49 (c) 1/48 (d) 1/49
Solution.
(a) (i) Picocell is a small cellular base station typically covering a small area,
such as in-building (offices, shopping malls, train stations, stock exchanges,
etc.), or more recently in-aircraft. In cellular networks, picocells are
typically used to extend coverage to indoor areas where outdoor signals
do not reach well, or to add network capacity in areas with very dense
phone usage, such as train stations or stadiums.
(ii) It is a group of cell.No channel will be reused in a cell. size N = i2 + ij + j2
(iii) Small geographic unit which supports the frequency channel.
(iv) Refer to Question 2(b) of First Term 2011.
(b) (i) I -6
(ii) 24km
(iii) 144
(iv) 1/49
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) A cellular network has 5 cells and during the busy hour, the number of calls per
hour (Qi) for each cell are 1000, 500, 1200, 1800, 400. If 60% of cell phones
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 35
are used during this period and that one call is made per cell phone, find out
the number of customers in the systems. (3)
(b) On what basis the performance of the cellular system can be specified ? (4)
(c) What do you understand by frequency-reuse ? How it is helpful in capacity
expension of the cellular system ? (3)
Solution.
FG A IJ FG 1000 IJ
n 5
H n! K = H 5! K
(a) Erlang b formula =
F A I ∑ 1000
∑G J
i i
H i! K i!
Where I varies from 0 to 5.
= 500
Pl (b) Refer to Question 2(a) of First Term 2012.
check (c) Refer to Question 2(a) of First Term 2012.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) With the help of a suitable diagram, explain about the major components of a
basic cellular system. (5)
(b) Initially a radio communication service (mobile communication) is provided
to a city. The total available bandwidth is 50 MHz, and each user requires 50
kHz of bandwidth for duplex voice channel if one antenna is used to cover the
entire town, how many different users can be supported simultaneously ?
Later on a cellular topology is employed where 24 lower power antennas are
located to minimize the interference. If a cluster size of 4 cells is used, then find
out. (1 + 4 = 5)
(i) Bandwidth of a cell
(ii) Capacity of a cell
(iii) Capacity of the cluster
(iv) Overall capacity of the system.
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 1(b) of First Term 2012.
50 MHz
(b) Number of channel = = 1000
50 kHz
(i) Bandwidth of a cell = 50 kHz
(b) If minimum requirement of S/I ratio for hexagonal structure in a TACS system
for satisfactory performance is 18 dB, then find out the minimum cluster size
for the same system. (3)
(c) If in a mobile radio environment, the average cell-site antenna height is 50 m,
the mobile antenna height is 2 m, and the communication path length is 1 km,
find out the ground incident angle, and ground elevation angle. (3)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 1(b) of End Term 2013.
S
(b) If = 18 dB than…
I
S n
= sqrt (3N) where n = 4
I
18 dB = sqrt (3*N)4
Minimum should be N = 4
tan −1 (50 + 2 )
(c) Incident angel =
100
50
Elevation angle at ground = tan −1
2
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 37
SE
SECC OND TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], APRIL 2015
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time: 1½ hour Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
Explain (2 × 5 = 10)
(a) Turbo codes
(b) OFDM
(c) Distinguish between dropped calls and terminated calls ?
(d) Soft handoff.
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 1(a) of Second Term 2014.
(b) Refer to Question 1(c) of Second Term 2014.
(c) Refer to Question 1(a) of Second Term 2013.
(d) A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and
used for a whilein parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this case the
connection to the target is established before the connection to the source is
broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break. The interval, during
which the two connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial. For
this reason the soft handover is perceived by network engineers as a state of the
call, rather than a brief event. Soft handovers may involve using connections to
more than two cells: connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained
by one phone at the same time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the
signal of the best of all used channels can be used for the call at a given moment
or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal.
The latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both in
the downlink (forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover is termed
as softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells involved in the handovers
have a single cell site.
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) What are the different digital modulation techniques? Compare QPSK and
BPSK ? (5)
(b) How omnidirectional and directional antennas are arranged in system
configuration to reduce the interference ? (5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 7(b) of End Term 2011.
(b) Refer to Question 2(a) of Second Term 2013.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the Handoff process ? (5)
(b) Explain mobile high gain antennas and its applications. (5)
38 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 3(a) of Second Term 2013.
(b) Refer to Question 1(e) of Second Term 2012.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the principle of “Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)”
Modulation technique. (5)
(b) Mention differences between FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) and TDD
(Time Division Duplexing). (5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 6(b) of End Term 2014.
(b) FDD: Duplexing may be done using frequency or time domain techniques.
Frequency division duplexing (FDD) provides two distinct hands of frequencies
for every user. The forward band provides traffic from the base station to the
mobile, and the reverse band provides traffic from the mobile to the base station.
In FDD, any duplex channel actually consists of two simplex channels (a forward
and reverse), and a device called a duplexer is used is used inside each subcriber
unit and base station to allow simultaneous bidirectional radio transmission
and reception for both the subscriber unit and the base station on the duplex
channel pair. The frequency separation between each forward and reverse channel
is constant throughout the system, regardless of the particular channel being
used.
TDD: Time division duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to provide
both a forward and reverse link. In TDD, multiple users share a single radio
channel by taking turns in the time domain. Individual users are allowed to
access the channel in assigned time slots, and each duplex channel has both a
forward time slot and a reverse time slot to faciliated bidirectional
communication. If the time separation between the forward and reverse time slot
is small then the transmission and reception of data appears simultaneous to the
users at both the subscriber unit and on the base station side.
On a single channel (as opposed to requiring two separate simplex or dedicated
channels) and simplifies the subcriber equipment since a duplexer is not required.
There are several tradeoffs between FDD and TDD approaches. FDD is geared
toward radio communications systems that allocate individual radio frequencies
for each user. Because each transceiver simultaneously transmits and receives
radio signals which can vary by more than 100 dB, the frequency allocation
used for the forward and reverse channels must be carefully coordinated within
its own system and with out-of-band users that occupy spectrum between these
two bands. Furthermore, the\ frequency separation must be coordinated to permit
the use of inexpensive RF and oscillator technology. TDD enables each
transceiver to operate as either a transmitter or receiver on the same frequency
and eliminates the need for separate forward and reverse frequency bands.
However, there is a time latency created by TDD due to the fact that
communication is not full duplex in the truest sense and this latency creates
inherent sensitivities to propagation delays of individual users. Because of the
rigid timing required for timing slotting. TDD generally is limited to cordless
phone or short range portable access. TDD is effective for fixed wireless access
when all users are stationary so that propagation delays do not vary in time
among the users.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 39
F Ni * S I 1/ n
=
H IK
1/4 1.5 0.25
= (6 * 15 dB) = ( 6 * 10 )
= 3.711
q2
Cluster size = = 4.5 so cluster size should be 7.
3
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 41
F Ni * S I 1/ n
If n = 3 the frequency reuse ratio q is determined as
H IK
1/3 1.5 1/3
= (6 * 15 dB) = (6 * 10 )
= 5.646
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the uniqueness of mobile radio environment. Describe the role of
multipath propagation in mobile radio environment. (6.5)
(b) An antenna has a radiation resistance of 80 Ω and a loss resistance of 10 Ω
and a power gain of 20 dB. Determine the antenna efficiency and its directivity
in dB. (6)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 2(b) of End Term 2014.
Rrad
(b) Efficiency =
( Rrad + Rloss )
80 8
= = = 0.888
(80 + 10 ) 9
In dB 10 log 0.888 = –0.5 dB
Pmax
Efficiency =
Directivity
Pmax 20
D = = = –40 dB
Efficiency 0.5
UNIT-II
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Obtain the relation for free space propagation model of a mobile communication
system. (6.5)
(b) Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimensions of 1 m
and operating frequency of 900 MHz. (6)
Solution.
(a) Free space model predicts that the received power decays as negative square
root of the distance. Friis free space equation is given by
Pt Gt Gr λ 2
Pr(d) =
(4 π ) 2 d 2 L
Where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr(d) is the received power, Gt is the transmitter
antenna gain, Gr is the receiver antenna gain, d is the Tx-Rx separation and L is
the system loss factor depended upon line attenuation, filter losses and antenna
losses and not related to propagation. The gain of the antenna is related to the
effective aperture of the antenna which in turn is dependent upon the physical
size of the antenna as given below
42 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
4 πAe
G =
λ2
The path loss, representing the attenuation suffered by the signal as it travels
through the wireless channel is given by the difference of the transmitted and
received power in dB and is expressed as:
Pt
PL (dB) = 10 log
Pr
The fields of an antenna can broadly be classified in two regions, the far field
and the near field. It is in the far field that the propagating waves act as plane
waves and the power decays inversely with distance. The far field region is also
termed as Fraunhofer region and the Friis equation holds in this region. Hence,
the Friis equation is used only beyond the far field distance, df , which is
dependent upon the largest dimension of the antenna as
2 D2
df =
λ
Also we can see that the Friis equation is not defined for d = 0. For this reason, we
use a close in distance, do, as a reference point. The power received, Pr(d), is
then given by:
FG d IJ 2
Pr(d) = Pr ( d o ) HdK
o
2 D2
(b) Df =
λ
2 * 1 * 1 * 900 * 10 6
= = 6m
(3 * 10 8 )
Question 5. ______________________________________________________
(a) Discuss different types of handoffs and their characteristics. Explain dropped
call rates and their evaluation strategies. (6.5)
(b) Discuss about various mobile antennas with the help of neat diagram explain
umbrella pattern cell site antennas. (6)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 8(b) of End Term 2011 and also refer to Question 5(b) of
End Term 2015.
(b) Refer to Question 5(b) of End Term 2011 and also refer to Question 1(d) of End
Term 2010.
UNIT-III
Question 6. ______________________________________________________
(a) What is OFDM ? What are the application of OFDM ? (4)
(b) Consider the convolutional encoder with three one bit registers having three
outputs V1 = S2 ⊕ S3, V2 = S1 ⊕ S3, V3 = S1 ⊕ S2 ⊕ S3. Find the output sequence
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 43
if the input sequence is 1100101. Sketch the state diagram and trellis diagram
for this convolutional encoder. (8.5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 9(a)(i) of End Term 2011.
(b) Refer to Question 7(a) of End Term 2012.
State Diagram: A convolutional encoder may be defined as a finite state
machine. Contents of the rightmost (K – 1) shift register stages define the states
of the encoder. So, the encoder in figure, has four states. The transition of an
encoder from one state to another, as caused by input bits, is depicted in the
state diagram. Figure shows the state diagram of the encoder in Figure. A new
input bit causes a transition from one state to another. The path information
between the states, denoted as b/c1c2, represents input information bit ‘b’ and
the corresponding output bits (c1c2). Again, it is not difficult to verify from the
state diagram that an input information sequence b = (1011) generates an encoded
sequence c = (11, 10, 00, 01).
(b) Tree Diagram Representation: The tree diagram representation shows all
possible information and encoded sequences for the convolutional encoder.
Fig.shows the tree diagram for the encoder in Fig, The encoded bits are labeled
on the branches of the tree. Given an input sequence, the encoded sequence can
be directly read from the tree. As an example, an input sequence (1011) results in
the encoded sequence (11, 10, 00, 01).
44 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Question 7. ______________________________________________________
Write short notes on the following:
(a) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). (6)
(b) Turbo coding. (6.5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 9(a)(i) of End Term 2011.
(b) Refer to Question 9(a)(ii) of End Term 2011.
UNIT-IV
Question 8. ______________________________________________________
(a) List out the important features and technical specifications of D-AMPS second
generation mobile communication system. (8.5)
(b) Discuss about GSM Logical Control Channels. (4)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 9(b) of End Term 2010.
(b) Refer to Question 5(a) of End Term 2011.
Question 9. ______________________________________________________
(a) Give the overview of IS-95 Air Interface. Brief about IS-95 forward link and
IS-95 reverse link. (8.5)
(b) Discuss the properties of Pseudorandom Noise Sequences. (4)
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 45
Solution.
(a) The IS-95 air interface was very different to anything that had been previously
used as a result of the fact that CDMA was used. The IS 95 forward link and the
IS-95 reverse link are different in their construction in view of the fact that there
are different requirements for each. The IS-95 air interface is based around the
use of CDMA within a 1.25 MHz channel. Using this, the system can use the
same channel for a large number of signals, each one allocated a different code
to access the system.
The Forward IS95 Channel consists of several code channels:
• the Pilot Channel,
The Pilot tone is always transmitted by the base station on each active
Forward CDMA Channel. It is an unmodulated spread spectrum signal
(i.e., it does not contain spreading by the short Walsh Hadamerd code).
The pilot tone is a PN-sequence, which is used for synchronization.
• a Sync Channel, operating at a fixed rate of 1200 bit/s
• up to seven Paging Channels, (at a fixed rate of 9600 or 4800 bit/s.) and
• a number of Forward Traffic Channels (at 9600, 4800, 2400, and 1200
bit/s).
Reverse linkof IS-95:
• 824 to 849 MHz (each channel is 45 MHz away from the forward
counterpart)
• Access channel
o 4800 bps
o Initiate communication
o Respond to paging channel message
• Reverse voice traffic channel
o 9600, 4800, 2400, 1200 bps
• Very similar to forward link, but there are important differences.
(b) Properties of PN Sequence:
• In CDMA user signal is multiplied by pseudo random sequence.
This sequence must be known by the transmitter and also by the receiver
to be able to realize synchronisation and despreading. To be used in real
systems the sequence should be able to be constructed from a finite number
of randomly pre-selected parameters. On the other hand the PN sequence
should look like noise
• A PN sequence has three following properties:
• The number of ‘1’s and the number of ‘0’s in a PN sequence are only different
by one.
• Run lengths of zeroes or ones are the same as in a coin flipping experiment.
Half of the run lengths are unity, one-quarter are of length two, one-eighth
n
are of length three and a fraction 1/2 of all runs are of length n.
• If the sequence is shifted by any non-zero number of elements, the resulting
sequence will have an equal number of agreements and disagreements
with the original sequence.
46 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
FIRS
FIRSTT TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], FEBRUARY 2014
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
Explain:
(a) Hybrid channel assignment
(b) Foliage loss
(c) Co-channel interference reduction factor
(d) Isotropic radiator
(e) Radiation intensity and Radiation efficiency of antenna. (2 × 5 = 10)
Solution.
(a) Hybrid Channel Assignment: HCA schemes are the combination of both FCA
and DCA techniques. In HCA schemes, the total number of channels available
for service is divided into fixed and dynamic sets.
• The fixed set contains a number of nominal channels that are assigned to
cells as in the FCA schemes and, in all cases, are to be preferred for use in
their respective cells.
• The dynamic set is shared by all users in the system to increase flexibility.
(b) Foliage Loss: Foliage loss is the loss that occurs due to trees It includes many
parameters and variations pertaining to the size; the density; the distribution
of leaves, branches, trunks; the height of the trees relative to the antenna
height; and so on.The loss of leaves and forest is basically known as foliage
loss. Damage to forest canopies by wind, snow, or winter desiccation
significantly reduced stand leaf biomass and area below “steady-state” levels
in several western coniferous forests. Leaf biomass of 12 different western
conifer forests sampled for an average of 4 years was reduced by as much as
36.3, 34.5, and 42.2% by single wind damage, snow breakage, or winter
desiccation events, respectively, during the sampling interval. Foliage loss
exceeded annual foliage production as estimated from leaf litterfall in about
half the stands where damage occurred.
(c) Co-channel interference reduction factor: The co-channel interference can be
reduced by the following methods:
1. Increasing the distance (D) between two co-channel cells, D
2. Reducing the antenna heights
3. Using directional antennas.
4. Use of diversity schemes at the receiver.
(d) Isotropic radiator: An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point source of
electromagnetic or sound waves which radiates the same intensity of radiation
in all directions. It has no preferred direction of radiation. It radiates uniformly
in all directions over a sphere centered on the source.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 47
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) What are the propagation effects in the following areas:
(i) Over flat terrain, (ii) Over water, (iii) In an urban area (6)
(b) Explain the effect of antenna height on cell coverage area. (2)
(c) If Pt = 10 W, Gt = 0 dB, Gt = 0 dB, fc = 900 MHz, find Pt in watts at a free space
distance of 1 km. (2)
Solution.
(a) (i) Propagation Over Flat Terrain: If we consider the effect of the earth
surface, the expressions for the received signal become more complicated
than in case of free space propagation. The main effect is that signals
reflected off the earth surface may (partially) cancel the line of sight wave.
(ii) Propagation Over Water: Propagation over water is becoming a big
concern because it is very easy to interfere with other cells if we do not
make the correct arrangements. Interference resulting from propagation
over the water can be controlled if we know the cause. The permittivity’s
of seawater and fresh water are the same, but the conductivities of seawater
and fresh water are different.
Then (seawater) = 80 – j84 and (fresh water) = 80 – j0.021.
Based upon the reflection coefficients formula with a small incident angle,
both the reflection coefficients for horizontal polarized waves and vertically
polarized waves approach 1.
Because the 180° phase change occurs at the ground reflection point, the
reflection coefficient is –1.
(iii) Propagation in an Urban Area: The urban and suburban problems are
complicated because the fields inthe immediate vicinity of the portable or
mobile radio are a superposition of localized multipath scattering. The
signal strength varies from peak levels of afew decibels above the mean or
median level to tens of decibels below the peaksin deep fades.
Consequently, we rely on a statistical description of the signal levels in
the vicinity of the portable or mobile radio that states the local average
and a description of the variation. The signals in a local vicinity are
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 51
described in terms of: (1) a mean or median signal level, (2) a statistical
distribution of levels, and (3) a measure of temporal and frequency
spreading.
(b) Reducing antenna height is a good method to minimize the co-
channelinterference in some environment, e.g., on a high hill. In the cellular
system design effective antenna height is considered rather than the actual
antenna height. Therefore, the effective antenna height changes according to
the present location of the mobile unit in such a difficult terrain. When the
antenna is put up on top of the hill, the effective antenna height getsmore than
the actual antenna height. So, in order to minimize the co-channel interference,
antenna with lower height should be used without decreasing the received signal
strength either at the cell-site or at the mobile device. Similarly, lower antenna
height in a valley is very useful in minimizing the radiated powerin a far-off
high-elevation area where the mobile user is believed to be present. However,
reducing the antenna height does not always minimize the co-channel
interference, e.g., in forests, the larger antenna height clears the tops of the
longesttrees in the surrounding area, particularly when they are located very
close to the antenna. But reducing the antenna height would not be appropriate
for minimizing co-channel interference because unnecessary attenuation of the
signal would occur in the vicinity of the antenna as well as in the cell boundary
if the height of the antenna is below the tree top level.
(c) Using Friis free space equation: Pr (1000m) = (PtGt Grλ )/(4π) d
2 2 2
c
λ =
8
= 3 × 10 m/0.9 GHz = 0.333 m
f
2 2 2 –8
Pr (1000 m) = (10 × (0.333) )/(4π) (1000) = 7 × 10 W.
SE
SECC OND TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], APRIL 2014
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
Explain:
(a) Turbo Codes (2 × 5 = 10)
(b) Difference between dropped calls and blocked calls
(c) OFDM
(d) Dropped call rate formula
(e) Capacity of TDMA.
Solution.
(a) Turbo Codes: In information theory, turbo codes (originally in French Turbo
codes) are a class of high-performance forward error correction (FEC) codes
52 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
developed around 1990-91 (but first published in 1993), which were the first
practical codes to closely approach the channel capacity, a theoretical maximum
for the code rate at which reliable communication is still possible given a specific
noise level. Turbo codes are finding use in 3G mobile communications and (deep
space) satellite communications as well as other applications where designers
seek to achieve reliable information transfer over bandwidth—or latency-
constrained communication links in the presence of data-corrupting noise. Turbo
codes are nowadays competing with LDPC codes, which provide similar
performance.
(b) Blocked Call: A blocked call is a call, originated by a mobile station that fails
to reach the conversation state. A blocked call may be caused by different reasons,
such as no available services, channel assignment failure, etc.
Dropped Call: A call is logged as dropped when an active call that was just in
its conversation state ends for any reason, other than a local/remote call end.
A dropped call may be caused by different reasons, such as hand-off failure.
(c) OFDM: OFDM is a frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme used as a
digitalmulti-carrier modulation method. A large number of closely spaced
orthogonal sub-carrier signals are used to carry data on several parallel data
streams or channels. Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional modulation
scheme (such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying) at a
low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to conventional single-
carrier modulation schemes in the same bandwidth.
(d) Dropped Call Rate Formula: The dropped-call rate (DCR) is the fraction of
the telephone calls which, due to technical reasons, were cut off before the
speaking parties had finished their conversation and before one of them had
hung up (dropped calls) This fraction is usually measured as a percentage of all
calls.
(e) Capacity of TDMA: TDMA is a type of Time-division multiplexing, with the
specialpoint that instead of having one transmitter connected to one receiver,
there are multiple transmitters. In the case of the uplink from a mobile phone to
a base station this becomes particularly difficult because the mobile phone can
move around and vary the timing advance required to make its transmission
match the gap in transmission from its peers.
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain all setup channels in GSM architecture. (5)
(b) Explain different channel assignment strategies in GSM. (5)
Solution.
(a) GSM uses a variety of channels in which the data is carried. In GSM, these
channels are separated into physical channels and logical channels. The Physical
channels are determined by the timeslot, whereas the logical channels are
determined by the information carried within the physical channel. It can be
further summarised by saying that several recurring timeslots on a carrier constitute
a physical channel. These are then used by different logical channels to transfer
information. These channels may either be used for user data (payload) or
signalling to enable the system to operate correctly.
Common and dedicated channels: The channels may also be divided into
common and dedicated channels. The forward common channels are used for
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 53
points on the constellation diagram, equispaced around a circle. With four phases,
QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, shown in the diagram with Gray coding to
minimize the bit error rate (BER)—sometimes misperceived as twice the BER of
BPSK.
The mathematical analysis shows that QPSK can be used either to double the
data rate compared with a BPSK system while maintaining the same bandwidth of
the signal, or to maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halving the bandwidth
needed. In this latter case, the BER of QPSK is exactly the same as the BER of
BPSK—and deciding differently is a common confusion when considering or
describing QPSK. The transmitted carrier can undergo numbers of phase changes.
Given that radio communication channels are allocated by agencies such as
the Federal Communication Commission giving a prescribed (maximum)
bandwidth, the advantage of QPSK over BPSK becomes evident: QPSK transmits
twice the data rate in a given bandwidth compared to BPSK—at the same BER.
The engineering penalty that is paid is that QPSK transmitters and receivers are
more complicated than the ones for BPSK. However, with modern electronics
technology, the penalty in cost is very moderate.
As with BPSK, there are phase ambiguity problems at the receiving end,
and differentially encoded QPSK is often used in practice.
Implementation: The implementation of QPSK is more general than that of
BPSK and also indicates the implementation of higher-order PSK. Writing the
symbols in the constellation diagram in terms of the sine and cosine waves used
to transmit them:
2 Es F π I
sn(t) =
Ts H 4 K
cos 2 πf c t + ( 2 n − 1) , n = 1, 2, 3, 4
This yields the four phases π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 and 7π/4 as needed.
This results in a two-dimensional signal space with unit basis functions
2 2
φ1(t) = cos ( 2 πf c t ) and φ2(t) = sin ( 2 πf c t )
Ts Ts
The first basis function is used as the in-phase component of the signal and the
second as the quadrature component of the signal.
FG IJ
Hence, the signal constellation consists of the signal-space 4 points
Es Es
H
±
2
,±
2
. K
The factors of 1/2 indicate that the total power is split equally between the two
carriers.
Comparing these basis functions with that for BPSK shows clearly how QPSK
can be viewed as two independent BPSK signals.
LM1 0 1 1 1 0 0 OP
(b) We have H = M1 1 0 1 0 1 0 PP
MN0 1 1 1 0 0 1 Q
T
Which is of the form [A /I3]. Accordingly,
56 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
LM 1 0 1 1 OP LM 1 1 OP
0
= M1 PP so that A = M PP
0 1 1
MM 1
T
A 1 0 1
MN0 Q 0 1
PQ
N1
1 1 1
1 1
(i) So the generator matrix is G
LM 0 0 0 1 1 0 OP
LI O 1
=M P = M
0 0 0 1 1P
N A Q MM0 1P
3
N0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1Q
P
(ii) Code word that begins with 1101.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain CDMA and derive the expression for capacity in CDMA. (5)
(b) Explain different types of Hand off strategies in GSM. (5)
Solution.
(a) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by
various radio communication technologies.
CDMA is an example of multiple access, which is where several transmitters can
send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This
allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). To permit
this without undue interference between the users, CDMA employs spread-
spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is
assigned a code).
CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards such as
cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne), and WCDMA (the 3G
standard used by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA.
Capacity: A usual capacity equation for CDMA systems may be fairly easily
derived as follows (for the reverse link): first examine a base station
with N mobiles, its noise and interference power spectral density dues to all
mobiles in that same cell is ISC = (N – 1)Sα, where S is the received power density
for each mobile, and α is the voice activity factor. Other cell interferences IOC
are estimated by a reuse fraction β of the same cell interference level, such
that IOC = βISC; (usual values of β are around 1/2). The total noise and interference
at the base is therefore Nt = ISC(1 + β). Next assume the mobile signal power
density received at the base station is S = REb/W. Eliminating ISC, we derive:
W 1 1 1
N = 1+ . . . ...(1)
R Eb / N t α 1 + β
where
• W is the channel bandwidth (in Hz),
• R is the user data bit rate (symbol rate in symbol per second),
• Eb/Nt is the ratio of energy per bit by total noise (usually given in dB Eb/
Nt ≈ 7 dB),
• α is the voice activity factor (for the reverse link), typically 0.5,
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 57
• and β is the interference reuse fraction, typically around 0.5, and represents
the ratio of interference level from the cell in consideration by interferences
due to other cells. (The number 1 + β is sometimes called reuse factor, and
1/(1 + β) reuse efficiency)
This simple equation (1) gives us a number of voice channels in a CDMA
frequency channel.
We can already see some hints of CDMA optimization and investigate certain possible
improvement for a 3G system. In particular: improving α can be achieved with
dim and burst capabilities, β with interference mitigation and antenna down tilt
considerations, R with vocoder rate, W with wider band CDMA, Eb/Nt with better
coding and interference mitigation techniques.
Some aspects however are omitted in this equation and are required to quantify
other capacity improvements mainly those due to power control, and softer/soft
handoff algorithms.
(b) In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or handoff refers to the
process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected
to the core network to another channel. In satellite communications it is the
process of transferring satellite control responsibility from one earth station to
another without loss or interruption of service.
Types of Handoff:
• A hard handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is released
and only then the channel in the target cell is engaged. Thus the connection
to the source is broken before or ‘as’ the connection to the target is made—
for this reason such handovers are also known as break-before-make. Hard
handovers are intended to be instantaneous in order to minimize the
disruption to the call. A hard handover is perceived by network engineers
as an event during the call. It requires the least processing by the network
providing service. When the mobile is between base stations, then the
mobile can switch with any of the base stations, so the base stations bounce
the link with the mobile back and forth. This is called ping-ponging.
• A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained
and used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this
case the connection to the target is established before the connection to
the source is broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break.
The interval, during which the two connections are used in parallel, may
be brief or substantial. For this reason the soft handover is perceived by
network engineers as a state of the call, rather than a brief event. Soft
handovers may involve using connections to more than two cells:
connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained by one phone at
the same time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the signal of the
best of all used channels can be used for the call at a given moment or all
the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal. The
latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both
in thedownlink (forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover
is termed as softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells involved
in the handovers have a single cell site.
58 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
D
Q = = 3N
R
(c) Foliage loss is the loss that occurs due to trees. It includes many parameters and
variations pertaining to the size; the density; the distribution of leaves, branches,
trunks; the height of the trees relative to the antenna height; and so on. The loss
of leaves and forest is basically known as foliage loss. Damage to forest canopies
by wind, snow, or winter desiccation significally reduced stand leaf biomass
and area below “steady-state” levels in several wester coniferous forests. Leaf
biomass of 12 different western confier forests sampled for an average of 4 years
was reduced by as much as 36.3, 34.5, and 42.2% by single wind damage, snow
breakage, or winter desiccation events, respectively, during the sampling interval.
Foliage loss exceeded annual foliage production as estimated from leaf litterfall
in about half the stands where damage occurred.
(d) Soft Handover: Soft handover means that the radio links are added and removed
in a way that the UE always keeps at least one radio link to the UTRAN. Soft
handover is performed by means of macro diversity, which refers to the condition
that several radio links are active at the same time. Normally soft handover can
be used when cells operated on the same frequency are changed.
Hard Handover: Hard handover means that all the old radio links in the UE are
removed before the new radio links are established. Hard handover can be seamless
or non-seamless. Seamless hard handover means that the handover is not perceptible
to the user. In practice a handover that requires a change of the carrier frequency
(inter-frequency handover) is always performed as hard handover.
(e) Interleaving is a process or methodology to make a system more efficient, fast
and reliable by arranging data in a noncontiguous manner. There are many uses
for interleaving at the system level, including:
• Storage: As hard disks and other storage devices are used to store user
and system data, there is always a need to arrange the stored data in an
appropriate way.
• Error Correction: Errors in data communication and memory can be
corrected through interleaving.
• Multi-Dimensional Data Structures: Interleaving is also known as sector
interleave.
(f ) Block Coding: In coding theory, the linear block code generally referred as an
error correcting code for which the obtained resultant codeword is the linear
combination of any two codewords. In simple words, the linear block code
possesses the linearity property that is the sum of any two codewords is also a
codeword. These linear block codes are divided in to the block odes and
convolutional codes, even though turbo codes are the combination of these two
types. More efficient encoding and decoding algorithms are provided by the
linear codes when compared with the other codes.
Convolutional Coding: The main principle involved in the convolutional code
is the weighted sum of the various input message symbols is the resultant
codeword symbol. This resemblance the convolution used in the LTI systems
where we find the output of a system by knowing the impulse response and the
respective input. So hence the output of a convolutional encoder can be obtained
60 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
by the convolution of the input bits with the states of the convolution encoder
registers.
(g) As compared to 1G, the circuit complexity was increased here whereas thedelay
in handoff was reduced to 1-5 s. The value of ∆ was in the order of 0-5 dB.However,
even this amount of delay could create a communication pause. After 2G was
launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were retrospectively
dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G
networks are digital. Both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio
towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system.
2G has been superseded by newer technologies such as 2.5G, 2.75G, 3G, and 4G;
however, 2G networks are still used in many parts of the world.
2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)-
based and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)-based standards depending
on the type of multiplexing used.
(h) ‘A’ Interface (BSC to MSC): The A interface between the MS and the BTS is
called Um. The GSM air interface is based on time division multiple access
(TDMA) with frequency division duplex (FDD). TDMA allows multiple users to
share a common RF channel on a time-sharing basis, while FDD enables different
frequencies to be used in uplink (MS to BTS) and downlink (BTS to MS)
directions. Most of the implementations use a frequency band of 900 MHz. The
other derivative of GSM is called Digital cellular system 1800 (DCM1800).
Um VLR
B
Air Interface A Interface
Abis
BSC G
MSC
D
BTS VLR
E
B D
F
C
GMSC
EIR
HLR
AuC
UNIT-I
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
Explain the uniqueness of mobile radio environment with respect to-
(a) Mobility – Doppler effect
(b) Non Line of Sight – Multipath propagation. (12.5)
Solution.
(a) Mobility-Doppler Effect: When wave energy like sound or radio waves travels
from two objects, the wavelength can seem to be changed if one or both of them
are moving. This is called the Doppler Effect.
The Doppler Effect causes the received frequency of a source (how it is perceived
when it gets to its destination) to differ from the sent frequency if there is motion
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 61
that is increasing or decreasing the distance between the source and the receiver.
This effect is readily observable as variation in the pitch of sound between a
moving source and a stationary observer. Imagine the sound a race car makes as
it rushes by; whining high pitched and then suddenly lower. Vrrrm-VROOM.
The high pitched whine is caused by the sound waves being compacted as the
car approaches you; the lower pitched VROOM comes after it passes you and is
speeding away. The waves are spread out.
When the distance between the source and receiver of electromagnetic waves
remains constant, the frequency waves is the same in both places. When the
distance between the source and receiver of electromagnetic waves is increasing,
the frequency of the received wave forms is lower than the frequency of the
source wave form. When the distance is decreasing, the frequency of the received
wave form will be higher than the source wave form.
(b) Non Line of sight – Multipath propagation
Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) or near-line-of-sight is radio transmission across a
path that is partially obstructed, usually by a physical object in the innermost
Fresnel zone.
Many types of radio transmissions depend, to varying degrees, on line of
sight (LOS) between the transmitter and receiver. Obstacles that commonly cause
NLOS conditions include buildings, trees, hills, mountains, and, in some cases,
high voltage electric power lines. Some of these obstructions reflect certain radio
frequencies, while some simply absorb or garble the signals; but, in either case,
they limit the use of many types of radio transmissions, especially when low on
power budget.
Lower power levels at receiver give less space for correctly picking the
transmission. Low levels can be caused by at least three basic reasons: low
transmit level, for example Wi-Fi power levels; far-away transmitter, such
as 3G more than 5 miles (8.0 km) away or TV more than 31 miles (50 km) away;
and obstruction between the transmitter and the receiver, leaving no good path.
NLOS lowers the effective received power. Near Line Of Sight can usually be
dealt with better antennas, but Non Line Of Sight is usually dealt with alternative
paths or multipath propagation methods.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Diagramitacally explain cell splitting and explain how it increases system
Capacity. (8.5)
(b) Deduce the relation for co-channel interference of 3-cell cluster architecture. (4)
Solution.
(a) Cell Splitting: Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in
antenna height and transmitter power. Cell splitting increases the capacity of a
cellular system since it increases the number of times that channels are reused.
By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells and by
installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing cells,
capacity increases due to the additional number of channels per unit area.The
consequence of the cell splitting is that the frequency assignment has to be
done again, which affects the neighboring cells. It also increases the handoff
62 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
rate because the cells are now smaller and a mobile is likely to cross cell boundaries
more often compared with the case when the cells are big. Because of altered
signaling conditions, this also affects the traffic in control channels. A typical
example of cell splitting is shown in Figure. Here, it is assumed that the cell
cluster is congested and as a result, the call blocking probability has risen above
an acceptable level. Imagine if every cell in the cluster was reduced in such a
way that the radius, R of every cell was cut in half, (R/2). In order to cover the
entire service area with smaller cells, approximately four times as many cells
would be required. The increased number of cells would increase the number of
clusters over the coverage region, which in turn would increase the number of
channels, and thus capacity, in the coverage area. In the example shown in
Figure, the smaller cells were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency
reuse plan of the system. In this case, the radius of each new microcell is half that
of the original cell.
6
2 1
1 5 3
7
8 3 4 7
6 2 4 7 6
7 6 2
1
1 2 1 5
1 5 3 4
5 3 3 4 7
4 7 6 3
4 2 1
6
1 5
3
(b) If the cell size and the power transmitted at the base stations are same then CCI
will become independent of the transmitted power and will depend on radius of
the cell (R) and the distance between the interfering co-channel cells (D). If D/R
ratio is increased, then the effective distance between the co-channel cells will
increase 34 and interference will decrease. The parameter Q is called the
frequency reuse ratio and is related to the cluster size. For hexagonal geometry
D
Q = = 3N ...(i)
R
From the above equation, small of ‘Q’ means small value of cluster size ‘N’ and
increase in cellular capacity. But large ‘Q’ leads to decrease in system capacity
but increase in transmission quality. Choosing the options is very careful for the
selection of ‘N’, the proof of which is given in the first section.
The Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors the
forward channel can be calculated as
S S
= i0
...(ii)
I
∑ Ii
i =1
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 63
where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field region
at a small distance do from the transmitting antenna, and ‘n’ is the path loss
exponent. Let us calculate the SIR for this system. If Di is the distance of the i-th
interferer from the mobile, the received power at a given mobile due to i-th
interfering cell is proportional to (Di)–n (the value of ’n’ varies between 2 and 4
in urban cellular systems).
Let us take that the path loss exponent is same throughout the coverage area and
the transmitted power be same, then SIR can be approximated as
S = R−n
i0
...(v)
I
∑ Di − n
i =1
where the mobile is assumed to be located at R distance from the cell center.
UNIT-II
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain how dynamic channel assignment performs better than fixed channel
assignment, exclusively for mobile communication systems. Discuss about
various Subgroups in Dynamic channel assignment. (8)
(b) Write a short note on mobile antennas with Specific features. (4.5)
Solution.
(a) • In DCA schemes, all channels are kept in a central pool and are assigned
dynamically to new calls as they arrive in the system.
• After each call is completed, the channel is returned to the central pool. It
is fairly straight forward to select the most appropriate channel for any call
based simply on current allocation and current traffic, with the aim of
minimizing the interference.
DCA scheme can overcome the problem of FCA scheme. However, variations in
DCA schemes center around the different cost functions used for selecting one
of the candidate channels for assignment.
64 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
FCA DCA
• Performs better under heavy traffic. • Performs better under light/moderate traffic.
• Low flexibility in channel assignment. • Flexible channel allocation.
• Maximum channel reusability. • Not always maximum channel reusability.
• Sensitive to time and spatial changes. • Insensitive to time and time spatial
changes.
• Not stable grade of service per cell • Stable grade of service per cell in an
in an interference cell group. interference cell group.
• High forced call termination probability. • Low to moderate forced call termination
probability.
• Suitable for large cell environment. • Suitable in microcellular environment.
• Low flexibility • High flexibility.
DCA schemes can be centralized or distributed.
• The centralized DCA scheme involves a single controller selecting a channel
for each cell;
• The distributed DCA scheme involves a number of controllers scattered
across the network (MSCs).
• Centralized DCA schemes can theoretically provide the best performance.
However, the enormous amount of computation and communication among
BSs leads to excessive system latencies and renders centralized DCA
schemes impractical. Nevertheless, centralized DCA schemes often provide
a useful benchmark to compare practical decentralized DCA schemes.
(b) Mobile antennas are designed to be used for operation while in motion. Their
uses include pedestrian mobile operation while walking, bicycle-mounted
antennas for use while riding, and the most common form, automobile-mounted
antennas for use while driving.
Mobile antennas should not be confused with portable antennas, which are
designed to be easy to transport and set up, but are not used while in motion.
Question 5. ______________________________________________________
(a) Obtain the relation for mobile point to point propagation model over flat open
area. Draw the relevant sketch. (8)
(b) Discuss about various handoff strategies in mobile radio systems. (4.5)
Solution.
(a) The point-to-point transmission between the fixed stations over the water or flat
open land can be estimated as follows. The received power Pr can be expressed as
F 1 I 2 2
Pr = Pt H 4 πd / λ K 1 + a v e − jφ v exp ( j∆φ )
∆φ is the phase caused by the path difference ∆d between the direct wave the
reflected wave, or
2π
∆φ = β∆d = ∆d
λ
Pt
P0 =
( 4 πd / λ ) 2
Direct Wave
h1
h2
ve
Wa
H1 c ted h′2
fle
Re H2
“Propagation between two fixed stations over water or flat open land.”
(b) In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or handoff refers to the
process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected
to the core network to another channel. In satellite communications it is the
process of transferring satellite control responsibility from one earth station to
another without loss or interruption of service.
Types of Handoff:
• A hard handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is
released and only then the channel in the target cell is engaged. Thus
the connection to the source is broken before or ‘as’ the connection to
the target is made—for this reason such handovers are also known
as break-before-make. Hard handovers are intended to be instantaneous
in order to minimize the disruption to the call. A hard handover is
perceived by network engineers as an event during the call. It requires
the least processing by the network providing service. When the mobile
is between base stations, then the mobile can switch with any of the
base stations, so the base stations bounce the link with the mobile back
and forth. This is called ping-ponging.
A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained
and used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this
case the connection to the target is established before the connection to
the source is broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break.
The interval, during which the two connections are used in parallel, may
be brief or substantial. For this reason the soft handover is perceived by
network engineers as a state of the call, rather than a brief event. Soft
handovers may involve using connections to more than two cells:
connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained by one phone at
the same time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the signal of the
best of all used channels can be used for the call at a given moment or all
the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal. The
latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both
in thedownlink (forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover
is termed as softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells involved
in the handovers have a single cell site.
66 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
UNIT-III
Question 6. ______________________________________________________
(a) Briefly discuss about Single error correcting Hamming codes with encoding
and decoding algorithm. (8)
(b) Explain the principle of “Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)”
Modulation technique. (4.5)
Solution.
(a) In coding theory, Hamming(7, 4) is a linear error-correcting code that encodes
4 bits of data into 7 bits by adding 3parity bits. It is a member of a larger family
of Hamming codes, but the term Hamming code often refers to this specific code
that Richard W. Hamming introduced in 1950. At the time, Hamming worked
at Bell Telephone Laboratories and was frustrated with the error-prone punched
card reader, which is why he started working on error-correcting codes.
The Hamming code adds three additional check bits to every four data bits of
the message. Hamming’s (7,4) algorithmcan correct any single-bit error, or detect
all single-bit and two-bit errors. In other words, the minimal Hamming
distance between any two correct codewords is 3, and received words can be
correctly decoded if they are at a distance of at most one from the codeword that
was transmitted by the sender. This means that for transmission medium situations
where burst errors do not occur, Hamming’s (7,4) code is effective (as the medium
would have to be extremely noisy for 2 out of 7 bits to be flipped).
Algorithm: The following general algorithm generates a single-error
correcting (SEC) code for any number of bits.
1. Number the bits starting from 1: bit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
2. Write the bit numbers in binary: 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc.
3. All bit positions that are powers of two (have only one 1 bit in the binary
form of their position) are parity bits: 1, 2, 4, 8, etc. (1, 10, 100, 1000)
4. All other bit positions, with two or more 1 bits in the binary form of their
position, are data bits.
5. Each data bit is included in a unique set of 2 or more parity bits, as
determined by the binary form of its bit position.
(i) Parity bit 1 covers all bit positions which have the least significant bit
set: bit 1 (the parity bit itself), 3, 5, 7, 9, etc.
(ii) Parity bit 2 covers all bit positions which have the second least significant
bit set: bit 2 (the parity bit itself), 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc.
(iii) Parity bit 4 covers all bit positions which have the third least significant
bit set: bits 4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc.
(iv) Parity bit 8 covers all bit positions which have the fourth least
significant bit set: bits 8–15, 24–31, 40–47, etc.
(v) In general each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the
parity position and the bit position is non-zero.
The form of the parity is irrelevant. Even parity is simpler from the perspective
of theoretical mathematics, but there is no difference in practice.
(b) In digital communication, Gaussian minimum shift keying or GMSK is a
continuous-phase frequency-shift keying modulation scheme. It is similar to
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 67
1 0 1 1
Data 0 Time
MSK 0 Time
Signal
Signal using MSK modulation: A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows
sidebands extending well beyond a bandwidth equal to the data rate. This can
be reduced by passing the modulating signal through a low pass filter prior to
applying it to the carrier. The requirements for the filter are that it should have
a sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its impulse response should show no
overshoot. The ideal filter is known as a Gaussian filter which has a Gaussian
shaped response to an impulse and no ringing. In this way the basic MSK signal
is converted to GMSK modulation.
Question 7. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the principle of OFDM and justify that OFDM based Systems are
bandwidth efficient. (8.5)
(b) Briefly discuss about Trellis diagram of a Convolution Encodes. (4)
68 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Solution.
(a) OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, is a form of signal
modulation that divides a high data rate modulating stream placing them onto
many slowly modulated narrowband close-spaced subcarriers, and in this
way is less sensitive to frequency selective fading.
Principle: Conceptually, OFDM is a specialized FDM, the additional
constraint being: all the carrier signals are orthogonal to each other.
In OFDM, the sub-carrier frequencies are chosen so that the sub-carriers
are orthogonal to each other, meaning that cross-talk between the sub-
channels is eliminated and inter-carrier guard bands are not required. This
greatly simplifies the design of both the transmitter and the receiver; unlike
conventional FDM, a separate filter for each sub-channel is not required.
k
The orthogonality requires that the sub-carrier spacing is ∆f = Hertz,
TU
where T U seconds is the useful symbol duration (the receiver side window
size), and k is a positive integer, typically equal to 1. Therefore, with N sub-
carriers, the total passband bandwidth will be B ≈ N·∆f (Hz).
The orthogonality also allows high spectral efficiency, with a total symbol
rate near the Nyquist rate for the equivalent baseband signal (i.e. near half
the Nyquist rate for the double-side band physical passband signal). Almost
the whole available frequency band can be utilized. OFDM generally has a
nearly ‘white’ spectrum, giving it benign electromagnetic interference
properties with respect to other co-channel users.
ADSL (An example of OFDM based system): OFDM is used in ADSL
connections that follow the ANSI T1.413 and G.dmt (ITU G.992.1) standards,
where it is called discrete multitone modulation (DMT). DSL achieves high-
speed data connections on existing copper wires. OFDM is also used in the
successor standards ADSL2, ADSL2+, VDSL, VDSL2, and G.fast. ADSL2 uses
variable sub-carrier modulation, ranging from BPSK to 32768QAM (in ADSL
terminology this is referred to as bit-loading, or bit per tone, 1 to 15 bits per
sub-carrier).
Long copper wires suffer from attenuation at high frequencies. The fact that
OFDM can cope with this frequency selective attenuation and with narrow-
band interference are the main reasons it is frequently used in applications
such as ADSL modems. However, DSL cannot be used on every copper pair;
interference may become significant if more than 25% of phone lines coming
into a central office are used for DSL.
(b) Trellis Diagram Representation: The trellis diagram of a convolutional
code is obtained from its state diagram. All state transitions at each time step
are explicitly shown in the diagram to retain the time dimension, as is present
in the corresponding tree diagram. Usually, supporting descriptions on state
transitions, corresponding input and output bits etc. are labeled in the trellis
diagram. It is interesting to note that the trellis diagram, which describes the
operation of the encoder, is very convenient for describing the behavior of
the Version 2 ECE IIT, Kharagpur corresponding decoder, especially when
the famous ‘Viterbi Algorithm (VA)’ is followed.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 69
A 00 B 00 D 00 H 00 L
a (00x)
11 11
11 11
C E I 10 M
10
b (10x)
01 01
01
01 01
F J N
c (01x) 10
10
10
11 11
G 00 K 00 O
d (11x)
UNIT-IV
Question 8. ______________________________________________________
(a) Draw the architecture model of GSM and explain the functinality of each
entity. (9.5)
(b) Discuss about Normal/Traffic burst of GSM. (3)
Solution.
(a) A GSM network consists of several functional entities, whose functions and
interfaces are defined. The GSM network can be divided into following broad
parts.
• The Mobile Station (MS)
• The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
• The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
70 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Mobile station: Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are
most widely known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular
network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen
dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further
advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased.
There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements
are the main hardware and the SIM.
The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including
the display, case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and
process the data receiver and to be transmitted. It also contains a number known
as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the
phone at manufacture and “cannot” be changed. It is accessed by the network
during registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen.
Base Station Subsystem: GSM is a cellular network, which means that cell
phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are
five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto,
and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the
implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base
station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average rooftop level.
Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average rooftop level; they
are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage
diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are
cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect
to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella
cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in
coverage between those cells.
Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): The GSM system architecture contains a
variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It provides
the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major
elements within the core network include:
• Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC): The main element within the
core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile
switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching
node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to
enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include
registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call
routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so
that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to
a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be
made to mobiles on different networks.
• Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the
administrative information about each subscriber along with their last
known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the
relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the
phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine
which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed
appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-
registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 71
1. 3 tail bits: These tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the
transmitter to ramp up its power
2. 57 data bits: This block of data is used to carry information, and most
often contains the digitised voice data although on occasions it may be
replaced with signalling information in the form of the Fast Associated
Control Channel (FACCH). The type of data is indicated by the flag that
follows the data field
3. 1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the
previous field.
4. 26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing
reference and for equalisation. There is a total of eight different bit sequences
that may be used, each 26 bits long. The same sequence is used in each
GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same radio frequency channels
will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate between
the various cells using the same frequency.
5. 1 bit flag: Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field.
6. 57 data bits: Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for
carrying data.
7. 3 tail bits: These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the
transmitter power to ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just
tail bits.
8. 8.25 bits guard time: At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period.
This is introduced to prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles
overlapping. As a result of their differing distances from the base station.
Question 9. ______________________________________________________
Briefly discuss about the following: (6 + 6.5)
(a) Mobility Management.
(b) Voice Signal processing and coding.
Solution.
(a) Mobility Management: Mobility Management contains the following:
Location Management:
• Search: find a mobile user’s current location.
• Update (Register): update a mobile user’s location.
• Location info: maintained at various granularities (cell vs. a group of cells
called a registration area).
• Research Issue: organization of location databases.
• Global Systems for Mobile (GSM) vs. Mobile IP vs. Wireless Mesh Networks
(WMN).
Handoff Management:
• Ensuring that a mobile user remains connected while moving from one
location (e.g., cell) to another.
• Packets are routed to the new location.
• Decide when to handoff to a new access point (AP).
• Select a new AP from among several APs.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 73
FIRS
FIRSTT TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], FEBRUARY 2013
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
(a) What is the significance of frequency re-use? Write the formula showing
relationship between cell radius, frequency re-use distance and frequency re-
use factor?
(b) What is mean by hand-off. Why is it required?
(c) Why hexagonal shape is preferred over other call shapes in cellular network?
(d) Explain co- channel interference and how it can be minimized?
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 1(a) of End Term 2011.
(b) Refer to Question 8(b) of End Term 2011.
(c) Refer to Question 2(a) of End Term 2011.
(d) Refer to Question 3(a) of End Term 2011.
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain different performance criteria of a cellular mobile system with
emphasis on Grade of service.
(b) Prove that for a hexagonal geometry, the co-channel reuse distance is Q = 3N
2 2
where N = i + ij + j .
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 2(a) of End Term 2012.
(b) Refer to Question 3(b) of End Term 2011.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) What are the various steps involved in obtaining Mobile Point-to-Point Lee
Model use relevant expressions to support your answer.
(b) Write a note on: Effect of cell site on Antenna height.
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 4(a) of End Term 2010.
(b) Refer to Question 4(a) of End Term 2011.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain how Q and S/I can affect the system capacity. Explain with one
example?
(b) Write short notes on any two:
(i) Foliage Loss
(ii) Multipath Fading
(iii) Role of BSC and MSC in hand-off.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 75
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 2(a) of End Term 2010.
(b) (i) Foliage Loss: Refer to Question 1(c) of End Term 2010.
(ii) Multipath Fading: Refer to Question 1(c) of End Term 2011.
(iii) Role of BSC and MSC in hand-off :
Handoff: The user movements may result a change in the channel/cell,
when the quality of the communication is degrading; this is known as
handoff. Handoffs occur between:
• between channels within a cell
• between cells controlled by the same BSC
• between cells under the same MSC but controlled by different BSCs
• between cells controlled by different MSCs.
Handoffs are mainly controlled by the MSC. However to avoid unnecessary
signalling, the first two types of handoffs are managed by the respective
BSC (thus, the MSC is only notified of the handoff).
To perform the handoff the mobile station controls continuously its own
signal strengh and the signal strength of the neighboring cells. The list of
cells that must be monitored by the mobile station is given by the base
station. Power measurements allow to decide which is the best cell in order
to maintain the quality of the communication link. Two basic algorithms
are used for handoffs:
• The ‘minimum acceptable performance’ algorithm. When the quality of
the transmission degrades, the power level of the mobile is increased,
until the increase of the power level has no effect on the quality of the
signal. Upon this link layer hint, a handoff is initiated.
• The ‘power budget’ algorithm. Here the handoff pre-empts the power
increase, to obtain a good SIR (Signal to Interference Ratio).
SE
SECC OND TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], APRIL 2013
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
(a) Distinguish between dropped calls and terminated calls?
(b) What is the difference between convolutional code and linear block code?
Explain with block diagram.
(c) What are the different types of hand-offs?
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 5(b) of End Term 2010.
(b) Refer to Question 9(b) of End Term 2011.
76 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
interference, noise and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux
density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).
Spread-spectrum telecommunications This is a technique in which a telecommuni-
cation signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than thefrequency
content of the original information. Frequency hopping is a basic modulation
technique used in spread spectrum signal transmission.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum: Spread-spectrum systems provide some clear
advantages to designers. As a recap, here are nine benefits that designers can
expect when using a spread-spectrum-based wireless system.
1. Reduced crosstalk interference: In spread-spectrum systems, crosstalk
interference is greatly attenuated due to the processing gain of the spread
spectrum system as described earlier. The effect of the suppressed crosstalk
interference can be essentially removed with digital processing where noise
below certain threshold results in negligible bit errors. These negligible
bit errors will have little effect on voice transmissions.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise: Due to the
processing gain and digital processing nature of spread spectrum
technology, a spread-spectrum-based system is more immune to interference
and noise. This greatly reduces consumer electronic device-induced static
noise that is commonly experienced by conventional analog wireless system
users.
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading: Because of its inherent
frequency diversity properties (thanks to wide spectrum spread), a spread
spectrum system is much less susceptible to multipath fading.
4. Inherent security: In a spread spectrum system, a PN sequence is used to
either modulate the signal in the time domain (direct sequence systems) or
select the carrier frequency (frequency hopping systems). Due to the pseudo-
random nature of the PN sequence, the signal in the air has been
“randomized”. Only the receiver having the exact same pseudo-random
sequence and synchronous timing can de-spread and retrieve the original
signal. Consequently, a spread spectrum system provides signal security
that is not available to conventional analog wireless systems.
5. Co-existence: A spread spectrum system is less susceptible to interference
than other non-spread spectrum systems. In addition, with the proper
designing of pseudo-random sequences, multiple spread spectrum systems
can co-exist without creating severe interference to other systems. This
further increases the system capacity for spread spectrum systems or devices.
6. Longer operating distances: A spread spectrum device operated in the
ISM band is allowed to have higher transmit power due to its non-
interfering nature. Because of the higher transmit power, the operating
distance of such a device can be significantly longer than that of a
traditional analog wireless communication device.
7. Hard to detect: Spread-spectrum signals are much wider than conventional
narrowband transmission (of the order of 20 to 254 times the bandwidth of
narrowband transmissions). Since the communication band is spread, it
can be transmitted at a low power without being detrimentally by
background noise. This is because when de-spreading takes place, the
noise at one frequency is rejected, leaving the desired signal.
78 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
of repetition codes is that they are extremely simple, and are in fact used in
some transmissions of numbers stations.
Parity bits: A parity bit is a bit that is added to a group of source bits to
ensure that the number of set bits (i.e., bits with value 1) in the outcome is
even or odd. It is a very simple scheme that can be used to detect single or
any other odd number (i.e., three, five, etc.) of errors in the output. An even
number of flipped bits will make the parity bit appear correct even though
the data is erroneous.
Extensions and variations on the parity bit mechanism are horizontal
redundancy checks, vertical redundancy checks, and "double," "dual," or
"diagonal" parity (used in RAID-DP).
Checksums: A checksum of a message is a modular arithmetic sum of
message code words of a fixed word length (e.g., byte values). The sum
may be negated by means of a ones'-complement operation prior to
transmission to detect errors resulting in all-zero messages.
Checksum schemes include parity bits, check digits, and longitudinal
redundancy checks. Some checksum schemes, such as theDamm algorithm,
the Luhn algorithm, and the Verhoeff algorithm, are specifically designed
to detect errors commonly introduced by humans in writing down or
remembering identification numbers.
Cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs): A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is
a single-burst-error-detecting cyclic code and non-secure hash function
designed to detect accidental changes to digital data in computer networks.
It is not suitable for detecting maliciously introduced errors. It is
characterized by specification of a so-called generator polynomial, which
is used as the divisor in a polynomial long division over a finite field,
taking the input data as the dividend, and where the remainder becomes
the result.
Cyclic codes have favorable properties in that they are well suited for
detecting burst errors. CRCs are particularly easy to implement in hardware,
and are therefore commonly used in digital networks and storage devices
such as hard disk drives.
Even parity is a special case of a cyclic redundancy check, where the
single-bit CRC is generated by the divisor x + 1.
Cryptographic hash functions: The output of a cryptographic hash
function, also known as a message digest, can provide strong assurances
about data integrity, whether changes of the data are accidental (e.g., due
to transmission errors) or maliciously introduced. Any modification to the
data will likely be detected through a mismatching hash value. Furthermore,
given some hash value, it is infeasible to find some input data (other than
the one given) that will yield the same hash value. If an attacker can change
not only the message but also the hash value, then akeyed hash or message
authentication code (MAC) can be used for additional security. Without
knowing the key, it is infeasible for the attacker to calculate the correct
keyed hash value for a modified message.
Error correction:
Automatic repeat request: Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) is an error
control method for data transmission that makes use of error-detection
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 81
source is broken before or ‘as’ the connection to the target is made-for this
reason such handovers are also known as break-before-make. Hard handovers
are intended to be instantaneous in order to minimize the disruption to the call.
A hard handover is perceived by network engineers as an event during the call.
It requires the least processing by the network providing service. When the
mobile is between base stations, then the mobile can switch with any of the base
stations, so the base stations bounce the link with the mobile back and forth.
This is called ping-ponging.
A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and
used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this case the
connection to the target is established before the connection to the source is
broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break. The interval, during
which the two connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial. For
this reason the soft handover is perceived by network engineers as a state of the
call, rather than a brief event. Soft handovers may involve using connections to
more than two cells: connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained
by one phone at the same time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the
signal of the best of all used channels can be used for the call at a given moment
or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal. The
latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both in the
downlink (forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover is termed as
softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells involved in the handovers
have a single cell site.
(d) Refer to Question 1(f) of End Term 2012.
(e) Refer to Question 8(c) of End Term 2011.
(f) Refer to Question 1(c) of End Term 2012.
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
Draw the basic architecture of cellular radio system. Discuss about the functionality
of each block in detail?
Briefly discuss about the overview of different generations of cellular system.
Solution.
(a) Cellular Networks:
• Cellular networks are wireless WAN that establish a connection between
mobile users.
• The network is comprised of many cells that typically cover 2 to 20 miles
in area.
• The communications are wireless within the cell only.
• Many initial cellular network were predominantly analog because they
were primarily targeted for voice users.
• The use of cellular networks to support digital applications is increasing
rapidly.
Cellular Concept:
• Another advanced of several small cells instead of a single transmitters =>
frequency reuse: better efficiency.
• R cell radius and
• D distance at which a frequency can be reused with acceptable interference.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 83
(b) Differentiate between call dropping probability and call blocking probability
of mobile radio networks.
Solution.
(a) There are two types of strategies that are followed:-
1. Fixed: FCA (fixed channel allocation): Manually assigned by the network
operator
2. Dynamic:
(a) DCA (dynamic channel allocation)
(b) DFS (dynamic frequency selection)
(c) Spread spectrum
FCA: In Fixed Channel Allocation or Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA) each
cell is given a predetermined set of frequency channels. FCA requires manual
frequency planning, which is an arduous task in TDMA and FDMA based
systems, since such systems are highly sensitive to co-channel interference
from nearby cells that are reusing the same channel. Another drawback with
TDMA andFDMA systems with FCA is that the number of channels in the cell
remains constant irrespective of the number of customers in that cell. This
result in traffic congestion and some calls being lost when traffic gets heavy in
some cells, and idle capacity in other cells.
If FCA is combined with conventional FDMA and perhaps or TDMA, a
fixed number of voice channels can be transferred over the cell. A new call
can only be connected by an unused channel. If all the channel are occupied
than the new call is blocked in this system. There are however several
dynamic radio-resource management schemes that can be combined with
FCA. A simple form is traffic-adaptive handover threshold, implying that
calls from cell phones situated in the overlap between two adjacent cells
can be forced to make handover to the cell with lowest load for the moment.
If FCA is combined with spread spectrum, the maximum number of channels
is not fixed in theory, but in practice a maximum limit is applied, since too
many calls would cause too high co-channel interference level, causing
the quality to be problematic. Spread spectrum allows cell breathing to be
applied, by allowing an overloaded cell to borrow capacity (maximum
number of simultaneous calls in the cell) from a nearby cell that is sharing
the same frequency.
FCA can be extended into a DCA system by using a borrowing strategy in
which a cell can borrow channels from neighboring cell which is supervised
by Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
DCA and DFS: Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS) may be applied in
wireless networks with several adjacent non-centrally controlled access-
points. The access-points automatically selects a frequency channel with
low interference level. DFS is supported by the novel IEEE 802.11h wireless
local area network standard. DFS is also mandated in the 5470-5725 MHz
U-NII band for radar avoidance.
A more efficient way of channel allocation would be Dynamic Channel
Allocation or Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) in which voice channel
are not allocated to cell permanently, instead for every call request base
station request channel from MSC. The channel is allocated following an
86 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
• In other words, we may sat that the 3-bit output sequence for each input bit
is determined by the input bit and the four possible states of the shift
register, denoted as a = 00, b = 01, c = 10 and d = 11.
(b) State Diagram:
2E b
S1(t) = cos(2π f c t) for binary “1”
Tb
where fc is the frequency of the carrier-wave.
88 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Routing area: The routing area is the PS domain equivalent of the location area.
A "routing area" is normally a subdivision of a "location area". Routing areas are
used by mobiles which are GPRS-attached. GPRS is optimized for "bursty" data
communication services, such as wireless internet/intranet, and multimedia
services. It is also known as GSM-IP ("Internet Protocol") because it will connect
users directly toInternet Service Providers
The bursty nature of packet traffic means that more paging messages are expected
per mobile, and so it is worth knowing the location of the mobile more accurately
than it would be with traditional circuit-switched traffic. A change from routing
area to routing area (called a "Routing Area Update") is done in an almost identical
way to a change from location area to location area. The main differences are
that the "Serving GPRS Support Node" (SGSN) is the element involved.
Tracking area: The tracking area is the LTE counterpart of the location area
and routing area. A tracking area is a set of cells. Tracking areas can be grouped
into lists of tracking areas (TA lists), which can be configured on the User
Equipment (UE). Tracking area updates are performed periodically or when the
UE moves to a tracking area that is not included in its TA list.
Operators can allocate different TA lists to different UEs. This can avoid signaling
peaks in some conditions: for instance, the UEs of passengers of a train may not
perform tracking area updates simultaneously.
On the network side, the involved element is the Mobility Management Entity
(MME). MME configures TA lists using NAS messages like Attach Accept, TAU
Accept or GUTI Reallocation Command.
Question 9. ______________________________________________________
(a) Write short note on IS-95 mobile radio network.
(b) Discuss about various logical channels used in GSM.
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 9(b) of End Term 2012.
(b) Refer to Question 6(a) of End Term 2010.
FIRS
FIRSTT TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], FEBRUARY 2012
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
(a) (a) What do you mean by interference? How it affects the performance of a
cellular system?
(b) What are the components of a cellular system?
(c) Why hexagonal shape is preferred over other cell shapes in cellular network?
(d) What is effect of antenna height.
(e) Explain foliage loss.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 91
Solution.
(a) A cellular network or mobile network is a wireless network distributed over land
areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known
as a cell site or base station. In a cellular network, each cell uses a different set of
frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed
bandwidth within each cell. When joined together these cells provide radio
coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large number of portable
transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other
and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base
stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than one cell
during transmission. The interference effects were not due to the distance between
areas, but to the ratio of the distance between area to the transmitter power
(radius) of the area. By reducing the radius of an area by fifty percent service
provider could increase the number of potential customers in an area four field.
(b)
HR K
2
=
C1 1
and the decibel expression of equation
C2 R
DC (dB) = 10 log = 40 log 1
C1 R2
When R2 = 2R1, ∆C = –12 dB; when C2 = 10C1, ∆C = 40 dB.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Obtain the relation for signal to interference ratio for a 7 cell cluster in cellular
system.
(b) What is frequency reuse distance? What are the parameters on which it depends?
(c) Explain co- channel interference reduction factor. How it can be minimized.
Solution.
(a) The Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR) is given by
S S
= (no noise)
I N
∑ Ik
k =1
where Ik = power of the kth interfere
N 1 = number of interferers (N1 = 6 when N = 7)
When the transmit power of each Based Station is equal, and path loss exponent
is the same throughout the coverage area, SIR can be approximated by
S R−n
= N1
I
∑ ( Dk ) − n
k =1
where n = propagation path loss slope which depends on terrain environment
(2 ≤ n ≤ 5)
If all the interfering BSs are equidistant from the Mobile, then
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 93
F DI n
S H K
= R =
( 3N )n (assuming that D1 = D2 = ... = Dk = D)
I N1 N1
For 7-cluster
S 1 1 Qn
=
FD I
= −n
= (i.e., D1 = D2 = ... = D6 = D)
6 (Q ) − n
∑ GH R JK
I 6 6
k
k =1
F SI LM F S I OP 1/ n
Hence Qn = 6 H IK ⇒ Q= 6
N H I KQ
But since Q = ( 3 N )1/ 2
LMF 6F S I I OP ≅ 7
MNGH H I K JK
2
1
N = 2
PQ
Mobiles are at the edge of the cell
R−n
F I F I
= −n −n
H K H K
R R
2 ( D − R) − n + D − n + D − + D+ + ( D + R) − n
2 2
If written in terms of Q, one obtains
S 1
F I F I
= −n −n
I
H K H K
1 1
2 (Q − 1) − n + Q − n + Q − + Q+ + (Q + 1) − n
2 2
Note the repositioning the Mobile to a different base will give a different result,
unless the distances are also changed.
(b) Frequency reuse: The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-
use frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity. As described above,
adjacent cells must use different frequencies, however there is no problem with
two cells sufficiently far apart operating on the same frequency.
94 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the reuse
factor.
The reuse distance, D is calculated as
D = R 3N ,
where R is the cell radius and N is the number of cells per cluster. Cells may vary
in radius in the ranges (1 km to 30 km). The boundaries of the cells can also
overlap between adjacent cells and large cells can be divided into smaller cells.
The frequency reuse factor is the rate at which the same frequency can be used in
the network. It is 1/K (or K according to some books) where K is the number of
cells which cannot use the same frequencies for transmission. Common values
for the frequency reuse factor are 1/3, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or 3, 4, 7, 9 and 12
depending on notation).
In case of N sector antennas on the same base station site, each with different
direction, the base station site can serve N different sectors. N is typically 3. A
reuse pattern of N/K denotes a further division in frequency among N sector
antennas per site. Some current and historical reuse patterns are 3/7 (North
American AMPS), 6/4 (Motorola NAMPS), and 3/4 (GSM).
If the total available bandwidth is B, each cell can only use a number of frequency
channels corresponding to a bandwidth of B/K, and each sector can use a
bandwidth of B/NK.
(c) The ratio of the minimum separation between two co-channel cells without
interference to the radius of a cell. Assume that the size of all cells is roughly the
same. The cell size is determined by the coverage area of the signal strength in
each cell. As long as the cell size is fixed, cochannel interference is independent
of the transmitted power of each cell. It means that the received threshold level
at the mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell. Actually, cochannel
interference is a function of a parameter q defined as
D
q =
R
The parameter q is the cochannel interference reduction factor. When the ratio q
increases, cochannel interference decreases. Furthermore, the separation D in
equation is a function of KI and C/I,
F I
H K
C
D = f K1 ,
I
where KI is the number of cochannel interfering cells in the first tier and C/I is
the received carrier to- nterference ratio at the desired mobile receiver
C C
=
I K1
∑ Ik
k =1
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain point to point model.
(b) In a mobile radio environment the average cell site antenna height is about 60
m, the mobile antenna height is about 4 m, and the communication path length
is 4 km. Calculate
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 95
1. Incident Angle
2. Elevation angle at the antenna of mobile unit
3. Elevation angle at the location of mobile unit
(c) Explain co-channel interference reduction factor. How it can be minimized.
Solution.
(a) This mobile point-to-point model is obtained in three steps:
1. generate a standard condition,
2. obtain an area-to-area prediction model,
3. obtain a mobile point-to-point model using the area-to-area model as a base.
The philosophy of developing this model is to try to separate two effects, one
caused by the natural terrain contour and the other by the human-made structures,
in the received signal strength.
1. A standard condition: To generate a standard condition and provide
correction factors, we have used the standard conditions shown on the left side
and the correction factors on the right side 10 of Table. The advantage of using
these standard values is to obtain directly a predicted value in decibels above 1
mW expressed in dBM.
spots and also at the low spots surrounding the cell sites. Then the average path
loss slope, which is a combination of measurements from high spots and low
spots along different radio paths in a general area, represents the signal received
as if it is from a flat area affected only by a different local human-made structured
environment. We are using 1-mi intercepts (or, alternatively, 1-km intercepts) as
a starting point for obtaining the path loss curves. Therefore, the differences in
area-to-area prediction curves are due to the different man-made structures. We
should realize that measurements made in urban areas are different from those
made in suburban and open areas. The area-to-area prediction curve is obtained
from the mean value of the measured data and used for future predictions in that
area. Any area-to-area prediction model128 can be used as a first step toward
achieving the point-to-point prediction model.
(b) 1. Incident angle Θ = tan–1 (60m + 4m)/ 4km = 0.920
2. Elevation angle at the antenna of mobile unit φ = tan (60m – 4m)/ 4km =
–1
0
0.80
3. Elevation angle at the location of mobile unit φ′ = tan (60m / 4km) = 0.86
–1 0
(c) Refer to Question 1(a) of End Term 2012 or Question 3(b) of End Term 2011.
SE
SECC OND TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], APRIL 2013
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Notes: (1) Question 1 is compulsory and attempt any TWO from the other THREE.
(2) Write your roll number on the question paper.
(3) Marks are indicating along with the questions.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
Each part 2 marks
(a) How the grouping of channels into subsets is done in frequency management ?
(b) What are turbo codes?
(c) Differentiate b/w soft handoff and hard handoff?
(d) What are the advantages of digital modulation techniques over analog
modulation techniques?
(e) Explain mobile high gain antennas.
Solution.
(a) Frequency Management: The function of frequency management is to divide
the total number of available channels into subsets which can be assigned to
each cell either in a fixed fashion or dynamically (i.e., in response to any channel
among the total available channels).
The terms “frequency management” and “channel assignment” often crate some
confusion. Frequency management refers to designating set-up channels and
voice channels (done by the FCC), numbering the channels (done by the FCC),
and grouping the voice channels into subsets (done by each system according
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 97
Grouping into subsets: The number of voice channels for each system* is 312.
We can group these into any number of subsets. Since there are 21 set-up channels
for each system, it is logical to group the 312 channels into 21 subsets. Each
subset then consists of 16 channels. In each set, the closest adjacent channel is
21 channels away, as shown in Fig. 8.1. The 16 channel in each subset can be
mounted on a frame and connected to a channel combiner. Wide separation
between adjacent channels is required for meeting the requirement of minimum
isolation. Each 16-channel subset is idealized for each 16-channel combiner. In
a seven-cell frequency-reuse cell system each cell contains three subsets, iA +
iB + iC, where i is an integer from 1 to 7. The total number of voice channels in
a cell is about 45. The minimum separation between three milmi’ls is 7 channels.
If six subsets are equipped in an omnicell site, the minimum separation between
two adjacent channels can be only three (21/6 > 3) physical channel bandwidths.
For example,
1A + 1B + 1C + 4A + 4B + 4C or 1A + 1B + 1C + 5A + 5B + 5C
(b) Refer to Question 1(f) of End Term 2012.
(c) A hard handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is released and
only then the channel in the target cell is engaged. Thus the connection to the
source is broken before or ‘as’ the connection to the target is made-for this
reason such handovers are also known as break-before-make. Hard handovers
are intended to be instantaneous in order to minimize the disruption to the call.
A hard handover is perceived by network engineers as an event during the call.
It requires the least processing by the network providing service. When the
mobile is between base stations, then the mobile can switch with any of the base
stations, so the base stations bounce the link with the mobile back and forth.
This is called ping-ponging.
A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and
used for a while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this case the
connection to the target is established before the connection to the source is
broken, hence this handover is called make-before-break. The interval, during
which the two connections are used in parallel, may be brief or substantial. For
this reason the soft handover is perceived by network engineers as a state of the
call, rather than a brief event. Soft handovers may involve using connections to
more than two cells: connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained
by one phone at the same time. When a call is in a state of soft handover, the
signal of the best of all used channels can be used for the call at a given moment
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 99
or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal. The
latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both in the
downlink (forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover is termed as
softer. Softer handovers are possible when the cells involved in the handovers
have a single cell site.
(d) Pulse Code, Pulse position, and Pulse width modulation are forms of digital
modulation. By turning the carrier off and on in a pattern (a numerical code, the
position of pulse within a certain timeframe, or the width of a pulse within a
certain time-frame) one may convey information over the carrier.
Advantages:
– the modulation method is simple: switch the carrier on and off.
– one can achieve close to the theoretical limit of information transfer within
a given band.
Disadvantages:
– square waves and sharp “on”/”off” edges of the carrier produce harmonics
which must be filtered out or interference with adjacent bands will result.
– the receiver must have some form of synchronization with the transmitter
to decode the digital information (synchronization wastes bandwidth
because it is not ‘information’).
Analog modulation uses the analog information to modulate a carrier:
either it’s amplitude, frequency, phase, or a combination of the 3.
Advantages:
– Very simple demodulation techniques for AM and FM (1 or 2 diodes,
capacitors, and a transformer (for FM))
– Linear amplifiers and modulators are used — no digital circuits.
Disadvantages:
– Modulation methods require lots of power — comparable with the carrier
power.
– Generally the information is not a dense as in digital modulation
(e) High-gain antenna: A high-gain antenna (HGA) is an antenna with a focused,
narrow radio wave beam width. This narrow beam width allows more precise
targeting of the radio signal - also known as a directional antenna. Most
commonly referred to during space missions, these antennas are also in use all
over Earth, most successfully in flat, open areas where no mountains lie to
disrupt radio waves. When transmitting, a high gain antenna allows more of the
transmitted power to be sent in the direction of the receiver, increasing the
received signal strength. When receiving, a high gain antenna captures more of
the signal, again increasing signal strength. Due to reciprocity, these two effects
are equal - an antenna that makes a transmitted signal 100 times stronger
(compared to an isotropic radiator), will also capture 100 times as much energy
as the isotropic antenna when used as a receiving antenna. As a consequence of
their directivity, directional antennas also send less (and receive less) signal
from directions other than the main beam. This property may be used to reduce
interference.
There are many ways to make a high-gain antenna - the most common are
parabolic antennas, helical antennas, yagi antennas, and phased arrays of smaller
100 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
antennas of any kind. Horn antennas can also be constructed with high gain, but
are less commonly seen. Still other configurations are possible - the Arecibo
Observatory uses a combination of a line feed with an enormous spherical reflector
(as opposed to a more usual parabolic reflector), to achieve extremely high
gains at specific frequencies.
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) How omnidirectional and directional antennas are arranged in system
configuration to reduce the interference? (5)
(b) Explain the formula of dropped call rate in detail. (5)
Solution.
(a) Design of an Omnidirectional Antenna System in the Worst Case: We proved
that the value of q = 4.6 is valid for a normal interference case in a K = 7 cell
pattern we would like to prove that a K = 7 cell pattern does not provide a
sufficient frequency-reuse distance separation even when an ideal condition of
flat terrain is assumed. The worst case is at the location where the mobile unit
would receive the weakest signal from its own cell site but strong interferences
from all interfering cell sites.
In the worst case the mobile unit is at the cell boundary R, as shown in Fig. The
distances from all six cochannel interfering sites are also shown in the figure:
two distances of D – R, two distances of D, and two distances of D + R.
Following the mobile radio propagation rule of 40 dB/dec, we obtain
C α R −4 1 α D −4
Then the carrier-to-interference ratio is
C R −4
=
I 2 ( D − R ) + 2 ( D) −4 + 2 ( D + R ) −4
−4
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 101
where q = 4.6 is derived from the normal case. Substituting q = 4.6 into equatiuon,
we obtain CII = 54 or 17 dB, which is lower than 18 dB. To be conservative, we
may use the shortest distance D - R for all six interferers as a worst case: then Eq.
(6.4-la) is replaced by
C R −4 1
= = = 28 = 14.47 dB
I 6 ( D − R ) −4 6 ( q − 1) −4
In reality, because of the imperfect site locations and the rolling nature of the
terrain configuration, the C/I received is always worse than 17 dB and could be
14 dB and lower. Such an instance can easily occur in a heavy traffic situation;
therefore, the system must be designed around the C/I of the worst case. In that
case, a cochannel interference reduction factor of q = 4.6 is insufficient. Therefore,
in an omnidirectional-cell system, K = 9 or K = 12 would be a correct choice.
Then the values of q are
R| D = 3K
= |S5.2
R
q K=9
|| 6 K = 12
T
Substituting these values in equation, we obtain
C
= 84.5 (=) 19.25 dB K=9
I
C
= 179.33 (=) 22.54 dB K = 12
I
The K = 9 and K = 12 cell patterns, shown in figure, are used when the traffic is
light. Each cell covers an adequate area with adequate numbers of channels to
handle the traffic.
Design of a Directional Antenna System: When the call traffic begins to
increase, we need to use the frequency spectrum efficiently and avoid increasing
the number of cells K in a seven-cell frequency-reuse pattern. When K increases,
the number of frequency channels assigned in a cell must become smaller
(assuming a total allocated channel divided by K) and the efficiency of applying
the frequency-reuse scheme decreases.
Instead of increasing the number K in a set of cells, let us keep K = 1 and
introduce a directional antenna arrangement. The cochan-nel interference can
be reduced by using directional antennas. This means that each cell is divided
into three or six sectors and uses three or six directional antennas at a base
station. Each sector is assigned a set of frequencies (channels). The interference
between two cochan-nel cells decreases as shown in figure.
Directional antennas in K = 7 cell patterns:
Three-sector case. The three-sector case is shown in Fig. To illustrate the worst-
case situation, two cochannel cells are shown in Fig. The mobile unit at position
E will experience greater interference in the lower shaded cell sector than in the
upper shaded cell-sector site. This is because the mobile receiver receives the
weakest signal from its own cell but fairly strong interference from the interfering
cell. In a three-sector case, the interference is effective in only one direction
102 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
where Pn = 1 − X n
Pn is the probability of a dropped call when the call has gone through a hand offs and
X = (1 – δ)(1 – δ)(1 – θν)(1 – β)2
δ = Probability that the signal is below the specified receive threshold (in a
noise-limited system).
µ = Probability that the signal is below the specified cochannel interference level (in
an interference limited system).
τ = Probability that no traffic channel is available upon handoff attempt when
moving into a new cell.
θ = Probability that the call will return to the original cell.
β = Probability of blocking circuits between BSC and MSC during handoff.
N
αn = The weighted value for those calls having n handoffs, and ∑ α n = 1.
n=0
N = N is the highest number of handoffs for those calls.
Equation needs to be explained clearly as follows:
(1) z1 and z2 are two events, z1 is the case of no traffic channel in the cell, z2 is the
case of no-safe return to original cell. Assuming that z1 and z2 are independent
events, then
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 103
P ( z 2 | z1 ) . P ( z1 ) = P ( z1 ) . P ( z1 ) = θ . τ
(2) (1 – β) is the probability of a call successfully connecting from the old BSC
to the MSC. Also, (1 – β) is the probability of a call successfully connecting
from the MSC to the new BSC. Then the total probability of having a successful
call connection is:
1
2. In an interference-limited system (mature system): frequency reuse is applied,
and the dropped rate PB is based on the interference level. It can be calculated
under busy hour conditions.
In an interference-limited environment (for worst case)
δ = δ2
µ = µ2
τ = τ2 U|
θ = θ2 V| the conditions for the interference limited case
β = β2 W
Equation has to make a distinguished difference between PA and PB. The cases of
PA and PB do not occur at the same time. When capacity is based on frequency
reuse, the interference level is high, the size of the cells is small, and coverage is
not an issue. The call dropped rate totally depends on interference.
Commonly used formula of dropped call rate: In a commonly used formula of
dropped call rate, the values of τ, θ, and β are assumed to be very small and can
be neglected. Then equation becomes:
X = (1 − β ) (1 − µ )
Furthermore, in a noise-limited case, µ → 0, equation becomes
N
PA = ∑ α n Pn = ∑ α n [1 − (1 − δ ) n ]
n=0
Handoff distribution of calls, α n. The α n is the weight value for those calls
having n handoffs. Then the handoff distribution of all α n’s is needed for
calculating equation. The relationship of all αn’s is:
N
∑αn =1
n=0
Intra-BSC handover
If a better candidate for the connection is identified, based on the measurements
carried out by the MS and BTS, the following will happen:
1. Activation of new channel - BSC allocates a TCH in the new cell and
orders that BTS to activate it. The chosen HO ref. no. will be part ofthe
activation message. The BTS in the new cell will acknowledge that the
TCH has been activated.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 105
Inter-BSC handover
1. a. Handover request - BSC1 will use the MSC to send a handover request
to BSC2. The MSC will know which BSC controls that cell.
b. Activation of new channel - BSC2 will allocate a TCH in the target cell
and then order the BTS to activate it. The chosen HO ref. no. will be part
of the activation message. The BTS will acknowledge that the activation
has been made.
2. Handover command - After the activation the new BSC commands the MS
to change to the new channel. The message is sent on FACCH via the old
channel and will contain a full description of the new channel and the HO
ref. no.
3. Handover bursts - When the MS has changed to the new channel, it will
send handover bursts on the new channel. The information content is the
HO ref. no. The bursts are as short as the access bursts. This is because the
MS docs not know the new Timing Advance (TA) value yet. On the detection
106 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
of the handover bursts, and check of HO ref. no., the new BTS will send the
new TA.
4. Handover complete - Now the MS is ready to continue the traffic and will
send a handover complete message, which will be addressed to the old
BSC as a clear command.
5. Release of old channel - When the old BSC receives the clear command
from the MSC, the BSC knows that the handover was successful. The BSC
orders the BTS to release the TCH and the BTS will acknowledge.
Inter- MSC Handover: In this case the old BSC is connected to a different
MSC than the BSC that controls the target cell. This means that a new MSC will
be part of the procedure. The old MSC will be called anchor-MSC and the new
MSC will be called the target MSC
1. a. Handover request - The old BSC will use the anchor-MSC to send a
request to the new BSC for a handover to the target cell. The anchor-
MSC knows which MSC to contact, and the target-MSC in turn knows
which BSC that controls the target cell.
b. Activation of new channel - The new BSC allocates a TCH in the target
cell and order the BTS to activate it. The chosen HO ref. no. will be part
of the activation message. The BTS will acknowledge that the activation
has been made.
2. Handover command - After the activation the new BSC commands the MS
to change to the new channel. The message is sent on FACCH via the old
channel and will contain a full description of the new channel and the HO
ref. no. In order to reroute the call, the target-MSC will also send a handover
number, similar to the MSRN, to the anchor-MSC.
3. Handover bursts - When the MS has changed to the new channel, it will
send handover bursts on the new channel. The information content is the
HO ref. no. The bursts are as short as the access bursts as the MS does not
know the new Timing Advance (TA) value yet. On the
(b) Dropped call is the common term for a wireless mobile phone call that is
terminated unexpectedly as a result of technical reasons, including presence in
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 107
a dead zone. One reason for a dropped call is when the mobile phone moves out
of range of a wireless network. An active call cannot usually be maintained
across a different company’s network (as calls cannot be re-routed over the
traditional phone network while in progress), resulting in the termination of the
call once a signal cannot be maintained between the phone and the original
network. Another common reason is when a phone is taken into an area where
wireless communication is unavailable, interrupted, interfered with, or jammed.
From the network’s perspective, this is the same as the mobile moving out of the
coverage area.
Occasionally, calls are dropped upon handoff between cells within the same
provider’s network. This may be due to an imbalance of traffic between the two
cell sites’ areas of coverage. If the new cell site is at capacity, it cannot accept
the additional traffic of the call trying to “hand in.” It may also be due to the
network configuration not being set up properly, such that one cell site is not
“aware” of the cell to which the phone is trying to handoff. If the phone cannot
find an alternative cell to which to move that can take over the call, the call is
lost.
Co-channel and Adjacent channel interference can also be responsible for
dropped calls in a wireless network. Neighbour cells with the same frequencies
interfere with each other, deteriorating the quality of service and producing
dropped calls. Transmission problems are also a common cause of dropped calls.
Another problem may be a faulty transceiver (XCVR) inside the base station.
Calls can also be dropped if a mobile phone at the other end of the call loses
battery power and stops transmitting abruptly.
Sun spots and solar flares are rarely blamed for causing interference leading to
dropped calls.
(c) Refer to Question 7(b) of End Term 2011.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Why do we prefer MSK over QPSK? (2)
(b) Differentiate b/w block codes and convolutional codes. (3)
(c) Consider (7, 4) block code generated by
f
2 .40 1 G H z
P
R =
I2
This effective reisistance is called the radiation resistance.
Thus the radiation resistance of an antenna is a good indicator of the strength of
the electromagnetic field radiated by a transmitting antenna or being received
by a receiving antenna, since its value is directly proportional to the power of
the field.
(d) In a non-fixed (dynamic channel assignment strategy), voice channels are not
allocated to different cells permanently. Instead, each time a call request is
made, the serving base station requests a channel from the MSC. The switch
then allocates a channel to the requested cell following an alogrithm that takes
into account the likelihood of future blocking within the cell, the frequency of
use of the candidate channel, the reuse distance of the channel, and other cost
functions. Accordingly, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that
frequency is not presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within
the minimum restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid co-channel
interference. Dynamic channel assignment reduces the likelihood of blocking,
which increaes the trunking capacity of the system, since all the avialable
channels in a market are aceesible to all of the cells. Dynamic channel assignment
strategies require the MSC to the collect real-time data on channel occupancy,
traffic distribution, and radio signal strength indications (RSSI) of all channels
on a continuous basis. This increases the storage and computational load on the
system but provides the advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased
probability of a blocked call.
(e) GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying):
• The GMSK modulation model is used to generate GMSK modulated signal,
which is represented by compex envelope equivalent and carrier frequency;
it also performs differntial encoding.
• GMSK modulation is recommended for GSM systems with BTb = 0.3 and rate
270.833 kbits/s.
• GMSK is a type of constant-envelope FSK, where frequency modulation is
a result of carefully planned phase modulation.
• The most important feature of GMSK is that it is a constant-envelope variety
of modulation. This means there is a distinct lack of AM in the carrier with
a consequent limiting of the occupied bandwidth. The constant amplitude
of the GMSK signal makes it suitable for use with high-efficiency amplifiers.
• GMSK modulation complying with GSM specification
• Adjustable sample rate.
(f) As higher and higher speeds are used in wireless applications, error correction
continues to pose a major design challenge. Recently, a new class of codes,
In pu t d O utpu t
M ultip lexer
Z
–1
Z
–1 Take every se co nd
y2 b it from e a ch
e ncod er
In te rle aver (P u ncturin g )
–1 –1
Z Z
RCE y1
e ncod er
called turbo codes, has emerged as a popular choice for third-generation wireless
systems. Turbo codes exhibit performance, in terms of bit error probability, that
is very close to the Shannon limit and can be efficiently implemented for high-
speed use. A number of different turbo encoders and decodeers have been
introduced, most of which are based on convolution encoding.
(g) Cellular systems divide a geographic region into cells here a mobile unit in each
cell communicates with a base station. The goal in the design of cellular systems
is to be able to handle as many calls as possible (this is called capacity in cellular
terminology) in a given bandwidth with some reliability. There are several different
ways to allow access to the channel. These include the following:
• frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
• time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• time/frequency multiple-access
• random access
• code division multiple-access (CDMA)
– frequency-hop CDMA
– direct-sequency CDMA
– multi-carrier CDMA (FH or DS)
A mentioned earlier, FDMA was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular
systems. In this technique a user is assigned a pair of frequencies when placing
or receiving a call. One frequency is used for downlink (base station to mobile)
and one pair for uplink (mobile to base). This is calledfreqency division
duplexing. That frequency pair is not used in the same cell or adjacent cells
during the call. Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot
be reassigned as long as call is in place. Two second generation cellular systems.
(IS-54, GSM) use time/frequency multiple-access whereby the available spectrum
is divided into frequency slots (e.g., 30 kHz bands) but then each frequency slot
is divided into time slots.Each user is then given a pair of frequencies (uplink
and downlink) and a time slot during a frame. Different suers can use the same
frequency in the same cell except that they must transmit at different times. This
technique is also being used in third generation wireless systems (e.g., EDGE).
(h) • A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates greater
power in one or more directions allowing for increased performance on
transmit and receive and reduced interference from unwanted sources.
• Directional antennas like Yagi-Uda antennas provide increased performance
overdipole antennas when a greater concentration of radiation in a certain
direction is desired.
• All practical antennas are at least somewhat directional, although usually
only the direction in the plane parallel to the earth is considered, and
practical antennas can easily be omnidirectional in one plane.
UNIT-I
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) Discuss about the essential parmeters that influences the performance criteria
of cellular mobile systems. (6)
(b) Consider a cellular system with total available voice channels to handle the
2
traffic are 960. The area of each cell is 6 km and the total coverage area of the
2
system is 2000 km .
112 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
(i) System capacity if clusters size is 4. (ii) System capacity if cluster size is 7.
How many times the cluster size 4 is replicated to cover entire cellular area ? (6.5)
Solution.
(a) PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
For specification cellular system followin are the performance criteria
Voice Quality: Voice quality is complicated parameter for design engineers.
Because it dependes person to person and also all mobile users not uses a
common equipment, so in the area designer cannot decide that how to a build a
system without knowing the voice quality that will satisfied the users. In military,
Airforce communication, this is not a problem because Armed forces must use
the assigned equipment. But in general the voice quality depend upon the
following criterion, a set value x at which y percent of customers rate the system
voice quality is good or excellent (from transmitter to receiver). Generally
following scaled used for circuit merits (CM) in respect of voice quality.
Circuit Merit Score Quality Scale
CM 1 1 (Unsatisfactory) not understandable
CM 2 2 Poor (Understable, but repeetitions are required)
CM 3 3 Fair (Occasional repetitions required)
CM 4 4 Good (understable, but some noise)
CM 5 5 Excellent
Service Quality: Following parameter are required to judge the service quality.
1. Coverage Area 2. Grade of Service 3. Number of Droped Calls.
Coverage Area: If a system serve as for as possible large area it is good, but it is
not possible to seve 100 percent area due to irregular Geo-graphical structure.
Due to following regions, also full coverage of area is not possible.
1. The transmitted power must be very high to illuminate weak spots (where
reception is not faithful). Which increases the cost.
2. The higher the transmitted power, higher the interference.
Hence, a system usually cover 90%. Area in flat parts, white 60 to 75% in Hill Parts.
Grade of Services: The grade of service is very good if number of block calls
out of 100 is to or less than 2 in peak hour. However, the blocking probability at
each cell site is differetn. To decrease the blocik calls or blocking probability
requires a good system plain and sufficient number of radio channel as well as
number of cell site.
Droped Calls: The measure the droped calls, there is a parameter named call
drop rate. If during Q calls, Q – 1 calls are completed then call drop rate is 1/Q,
if Q – 2 calls are completed then call drop rate is 2/Q.
(b) Total coverate area of system, Asys = 2000 km2 (given)
2
coverate area of cell, Acell = 6 km (given)
Total Number of channels, N = 960 (given)
(i) System capacity if cluster size is 4,
K =4
System capacity C = N × M
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 113
N = 960
Asys 2000
(Number of cluster) M = = = 83.33 closter
Acluster 24
2
where Acloster = k × Acell = 4 × 6 = 24 km
System capacity C = N × M = 960 × 53.33 = 79996.8 Channels
(ii) System capacity if cluster size is 7,
K =7
C = N×M
N = 960
Asys 2000
M (Number of cluster) = = = 47.62 Closter
Acluster 42
2
where Acloster = K × Acell = 7 × 6 = 42 km
System capacity C = N × M = 47.62 × 960 = 45715.3 Channels
OR
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Discuss about the various constraints to be considered in planning a cellular
system. (6)
(b) Explain how system capacity can be increased with cell splitting by maintaining
constant value of frequency reuse ratio ? (6.5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 2(a) of End Term 2012.
(b) Cell splitting is a method to divide a cell into small cell sites [small base stations]
with its own antenna having low transmitted power, with reduce height of
C
E
D C o rne r
G b ase station s
D
E 2 B
F
D3 A
1
C 6 F
C G C
4 d /2
E 5 d /2
B
G D E
B
G
F
Example of cell splitting
antenna. Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system because
splitting cells having smaller radius than the original cells and by installing
these smaller cells between the existing cells, capacity increases due to the
additional number of channels per unit area. To reduce the area of a cell, let if
radius of a cell is reduced by R/2, then to cover the entire serivce area with
smaller cells, nearly 4 microcell [smaller cells] are required. The increased number
114 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
of cells would increase the number of channels, and thus capacity, in the coverage
area. But keep is mind when this concept is employing, the minimum value of Q
[= D/R] must be maintained in such way so co-channel interference must be
minimised. Following figure shows the cell splitting concept. In following figure
base stations placed at the corner of cells. We can place at centre also that we
have been disucss in frequency re-use.
But generally when we implement cell concept we place the base antenna at
corner for geting large coverage area to increase the capacity.
In figure, the original base station. A has been surrounded by six new base
antenna [numbered]. The smaller cells were added in such a way as to preserve
the frequency re-use plan of the system. Microcell base station labelled G was
placed hall way between two large stations utilizing the same channel. [G is
midway between [A and C, D and B]. Same case for all microcell base stations. In
the case, the radius of each new microcell is half that of th original cell.
The new cell formed as microcells, their transmitted power must reduced to
avoid the interference.
For above figure.
−n
R
R − n and Pr [at old cell boundary] 2
2
Pr [at old cell boundary] αPt αPt
1
Where Pt1 and Pt2 are the transmit powers of the larger and smaller cell base
stations.
n is the path less component if received power is same then
Pt1 Pt2
n
= n ⇒ Pt1 = Pt2 .2n
R R
2
Pt2 1
⇒ = n
Pt1 2
UNIT-II
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Discuss about the following propagation models: (6.5)
(i) Small Scale Propagation (ii) Large Scale Propagation.
(b) Discuss about the characteristics of Mobile Antennas. (6)
Solution.
(a) (i) Ground Wave Propagation (Small Scale): Ground wave propagation
more or less follows the contours of the earth and can propagate considerable
distance, well over the visual horizon. This effect is found in frequencies
up to about 2 MHz. Several factors account for the tendency of
electromagnetic wave in this frequency band tofollow the earth’s curvature.
One factor is that the electromagnetic wave induces a current in the earth’s
surface, the result of which is to slow the wavefront near the earth, causing
the wavefrount to tilt downward and hence follow the earth’s curvature.
Another factor is diffraction, which is phenomenon having to do with the
behavior of electromagnetic waves in the presence of obstacles.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 115
UNIT-III
Question 6. ______________________________________________________
(a) A (6, 3) linear block code is generated according to Generation Matrix. (6)
1 0 0 1 0 1
G= 0 1 0 0 1 1
. For a particular code word transmitted the received
0 0 1 1 1 0
codeword is 10011. Find the corresponding dataword transmitted.
(b) Explain the BPSK modulation scheme with the help of transmitter and receiver
block diagrams. (6.5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Previous Questions.
(b) Phase-Shift Keying : In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent
data.
Two-Level PSK: The simplest scheme uses two phase to represent the two binary
digits and is known as binary phase-shift keying. The resulting transmitted
signal for one bit time is:
BPSK
Solution.
(a) Trellis Diagram: A convolutional encoder is often seen as a finite state machine.
Each state corresponds to some value of the encoder’s register. Given the input
bit value, from a certain state the encoder can move to two other states. These
state transitions constitute a diagram which is called a trellis diagram. Each
path on the trellis diagram corresponds to a valid sequence from the encoder’s
output. Conversely, any valid sequence from the encoder’s output can be
represented as a path on the trellis diagram. One of the possible paths is denoted
as red.
Note that each state transition on the diagram corresponds to a pair of output
bits.There are only two allowed transitions for every state, so there are two
allowed pairs of output bits, and the two other pairs are forbidden. If an error occurs,
it is very likely that the receiver will get a set of forbidden pairs, which don’t
constitude a path on the trellis diagram. So, the task of the decoder is to find a path
on the trellis diagram which is the closest match to the received sequence.
0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00 0 00
0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01
0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10
0 11 0 11 0 11 0 11 0 11
1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00
1 01 1 01 1 01 1 01 1 01
11 0 11 0 11 0 11 0 11 0
+ + + + o ut 1
FD FD FD FD FD FD
in
+ + + + o ut 2
C o de
F re q ue ncy (f)
C ha nn el N
C h an ne l 1
C h an nel 2
C h an nel 3
C h an nel 4
Tim e (t)
FDMA where different channels are as signed different frequency bands
Multiple Aceess Technique used in Different Wireless Communication Systems
C o de
C h an ne l N
C h an ne l N – 1
.
.
t s .
slo C h an ne l 3
e
T im C h an ne l 2
Fre q ue ncy (f)
C h an ne l 1
Tim e (t)
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 121
One important point in TDMA that, transmission of date in buffer and burst
method, so transmission for every user it become discontinuous. If indicate like
in FDMA which accomodate analog FM. TDMA must use digital data and digital
modulation techniques. The transmission from various users is interfaced into a
repeating frame structure as shown in Fig.
O ne TD M A Fra m e
P re am b le In fo rm a tion M essag e Tra il B its
It can be seen that a frame consists of a number of slots. Each frame is made up of
an preamble informationmessage and trail bits. In TDMA/TDD, half of the time
slots in the frame information message would be used for the forward link channels
and half would be used for reverse link channels. In TDMA/FDD systems, an
identical or similar frame structure would be used for forward or reverse
transmission, but carrier frequencies will be different for the both channel. TDMA
frame preamble contains the address and synchronization information that both
the base station and the subscriber use to identity each other. Gaurd times is used to
allow the synchronization of the receivers between different slots and frames.
Features of TDMA
• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user
makes use of non-overlapping time slots. The number of times slots per
frame depends on several factors, such as modulation tehnique available
bandwidth, etc.
• Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous but occurs
in burst. Thisresults in low battery consumption, since the subscriber
transmitter can be turned off when not in use (which is most of the time).
• Becuase of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handdoff process is
much simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base
stations during idle time slots. An enhanced link control, such as that
provided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a
subscriber by listening on an idel slot in the TDMA frame.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus
duplexers are not required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rathre than a
duplexer inside the subscriber unit is all that is required to switch between
transmitter and receiver using TDMA.
UNIT-IV
Question 8. ______________________________________________________
Explain the architecure model of GSM with block diagram. Discuss about different
entities of the system. Write a brief note on various interfaces used in GSM system. (12.5)
Solution.
GSM System Architecture: The GSM system architecture consists of three major
interconnected subsystems that interact between themselves and with the users throgh
122 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
certain network interfaces. The subsystems are the Base Station Subsystem (BSS),
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS), and the Operation Support Subsystem (OSS).
The Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but is usually considered to be part of the
BSS for archtecture purposes. Equipment and services are designed within GSM to
support one or more of these specific subsystems. The BSS, also known as the radio
system, provides and manages radio transmission paths between the mobile stations
and the Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The BSS also manages the radio interface
between the mobile stations and all other subsystems of GSM. Each BSS consists of
many Base Station Controllers (BSCs) which connect the MS to the NSS via the MSCs.
The NSS manages the switching functions of the system and allows the MSCs to
communicate with other networks such as the PSTN and ISDN. The OSS supports the
operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose,
and troubleshoot all aspects of the GSM system. This subsystem interact with the other
GSM subsystems, and is provided solely for the staff of the GSM operating company
which provides service facilities for the network.
Figure shwos the block diagram of the GSM system architecture. The Mobile Station
(MS) communicate with the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) over the radio air interface.
The BSS consists of many BSCs which connect t a single MSC, and each BSC typically
controls up to several hundred Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs). Some of the BTSs may
be co-located at the BSC, and others may be remotely distributed and physcially
connected to the BSC by microwave link or dedicated leased lines. Mobile handoffs
(called handovers, or HO, in the GSM specification) between two BTSs under the control
fo the same BSC are handled by the BSC, and not the MSC. This greatly reduces the
switching burden of the MSC.
As shown in Fig. the interface which connects a BTS to a BSC is called the Abis
interface carries traffic and maintenace data, and is specified by GSM to be standardized
for all manufacturers. In practice, however, the Abis for each GSM base station
manufacturer has subtle differences, thereby forcing service providers to use the same
manufacturer for the BTS and BSC equipment.
OR
Question 9. ______________________________________________________
Write short notes on the following: (6 + 6.5)
(a) Voice Signal Processing in GSM (b) IS-95 Mobile Network.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 123
Solution.
(a) Voice Signal Processing in GSM: The radio channel is quite different from the
wired channel. First, the radio channel has a distinct time-change characteristic.
The radio channel is exposed to the air, so it is vulnerable to the interferences in
the air. The signal is influencedby various interferences, multi-path fading and
shadow fading, so the (uplink and downlink) transmission techniques are
applied. The original subscriber data or signalizing data are transformed before
being carried by the radio waves. And at the other end of the transmission, a
reverse transforming will be done. This can provide necessary protection to the
transmitting signal. The transformation methods roughly include the channel
coding/decoding, interleaving/de-interleaving, burst formatting, encryption/
decryption, and modulation/demodulation. For the voice, to pass an analog-
top-digital converter is actually a sampling process in the rate of 8KHz, after
quantification each 125 µs contains 13bit of code stream; then speech coding is
performed with every 20ms as a segment and the code transmission rate is reduced
in 13kbit/s, which becomes 22.8Kbit/s after the channel coding; then the voice
becomes a code stream at 33.8Kbit/s after code interleaving, encryption and
burst formatting and is transmitted finally. The processing at the terminal is just
the reverse of the above procedures.
20m s
8KH z, 13 bit S egm e- Speech 13kbit/s
Voice A /D C hannel coding
ntation coding
22.8kbit/s
33.8kbit/s
Interleaving E ncryption B urst form atting M odulation Transm ission
(b) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Technique: In CDMA, the narrow
band massage sigbnal is multiplied by a large bandwidth signal called spreading
signal. CDMA is a spread spectrum based technique tht will be discussed in
detail in next section.
As with FDMA, each cell is allocated a frequency bandwidth, which is split into
two parts, half for reverse (mobile to base) and half for forward (bast station to
mobile unit).
Transmission is in form of direct sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS), which uses
a chipping code to increase the data rate of the transmission, resulting in an
increase signal bandwidth.
Multiple access is provided by assigning orthogonal chipping coes to multiple
users, so that the receiver can re-cover the transmission of an individual unit
from multiple transmission.
CDMA has number of advantage over cellular network
Frequency Diversity: The transmission is spread out over a larger bandwidth
due to that less affect by noise. If bandwidth is increased S/N ration increase,
which mean noise will be reduced.
Multiplication Resistance: Chipping codes usedfor CDMA not only exhibit
low cross correlation but also low autocorrelation. Hence a version of the signal
that is delayed by more than one chip interval does not interfere with the dominant
signal as in other multipath environments.
124 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Privacy: Due to spread spectrum is obtained by the use of noise like signals,
where each user has a unique code, so privacy is inherent.
Gracefull Degradation: In CDMA, more users access the system simultaneously
as compared to FDMA, TDMA.
FIRS
FIRSTT TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], FEBRUARY 2011
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Attempt Q. No. 1 which is compulsory and any two more questions from the
remaining.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
(a) What is cell splitting? How is it advantageous? (2)
(b) What is the significance of frequency re-use? Write the formula showing
relationship between cell radius, frequency re-use distance and Frequency re-
use factor. (3)
(c) What is meant by Handoff. Why is it required. (2)
(d) How many full duplex channels are required in each cell for a cellular system
with 6 clusters, 7 cells per cluster and a total capacity of the system being 1050
full duplex channels? (3)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 3(c) of End Term 2010.
(b) Refer to Question 1(a) of End Term 2011.
(c) Refer to Question 8(b) of End Term 2011.
(d) Total capacity of system = 1050 full duplex channel
Total no. of cluster = 6
Cells in each cluster = 7
Total no. of cells = 7 × 6 = 42
1050
Full duplex channels in each cell = = 25
42
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the operation of cellular system with the help of a diagram defining
the significance of each unit. (5)
(b) On what parameters does the performance criteria of cellular system depends?
Explain. (5)
Solution.
(a) Operation of Cellular Systems: The operation of a cellular mobile system can
be described as five major functionalities and four additional utilities. All the
functions together moke a complete mobile cellular system.
Mobile unit initialization:
(a) When mobile unit is turned on. It scans and selects the strongest setup
control channel used for system.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 125
(b) What gives rise to the constant standard deviation along a path loss curve.
Explain with the help of diagram.
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 4(a) of End Term 2010.
(b) The straight-line path-loss slope with confidence
The path-loss curves are obtained from many different runs at many different
areas. As long as the distances of the radio path from the cell site to the mobile
unit are the same in different runs, the signal strength data measured at that
distance would be used to calculate the mean value for the path loss at that
distance. In the experimental data, the path-loss deviation is 8 dB across the
distance from 1.6 to 15 km (1 to 10 mi) where the general terrain contours are not
generally flat.
Figure depicts this. The path-loss curve is λ. The received power can be expressed as
r
Pr = P0 − λ log
r0
The slope λ is different in different areas, but it is always a straight line in a log
scale. If λ = 20 is a free-space path loss, λ = 40 is a mobile path loss.
P( x ≥ C ) = zC
1
πσ
∞ 2 2
e − ( x − A ) / 2 σ dx = 50%
where A is the mean level obtained along the path-loss slope, which is shown in
equation as
r
A = P0 − λ log 1
r0
Thus level A corresponds to the distance r1. If level A increases, the confidence
level decreases, as shown in equation.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 127
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain the gain and pattern relationship of antenna.
(b) Write short notes on any three of the following: (3 × 6)
(i) Propagation over water
(ii) Effect of cell site antenna height
(iii) Foliage Loss
(iv) Umbrella Pattern Antennas
Solution.
(a) The Gain-and-Pattern Relationship
The gain of an antenna or an antenna array
4π (maximum radiation intensity) E 2 (θ , φ )
G= = max 2 m m
Total power radiated E (θ, φ )
where E = electric field
Emax = maximum of E
2 2
E = average value of E which is related to the radiation intensity
θ, φ = angles
2. A collinear-array case (ψ = 0). The individual elements arc roll In ear in the
z axis. In this case, the gain related to a single dipole element is as shown
in the following table.
SE
SECC OND TERM EXAMIN
EXAMINAATION
EIGHTH SEMESTER [B.TECH.], APRIL 2011
MOBILE COMMUNIC
COMMUNICAATION (ETIT -402)
(ETIT-402)
Time : 1½ hours Maximum Marks : 30
Note: Question 1 is compulsory, attempt any two from the rest.
Question 1. ______________________________________________________
Define the following: (5 × 2 = 10)
(i) Radiation Resistance of antenna
(ii) Forced handoff
(iii) Adjacent Channel Interference
(iv) Dropped call rate
(v) Paging Channel.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 129
Solution.
(i) Radiation resistance is that part of an antenna’s feedpoint resistance that is
caused by the radiation of electromagnetic waves from the antenna. The radiation
resistance is determined by the geometry of the antenna, not by the materials of
which it is made. It can be viewed as the equivalent resistance to a resistor in the
same circuit. Radiation resistance is caused by the radiation reaction of the
conduction electrons in the antenna. When electrons are accelerated, as occurs
when an AC electrical field is impressed on an antenna, they will radiate
electromagnetic waves. These waves carry energy that is taken from the electrons.
The loss of energy of the electrons appears as an effective resistance to the
movement of the electrons, analogous to the ohmic resistance caused by
scattering of the electrons in the crystal lattice of the metallic conductor. While
the energy lost by ohmic resistance is converted to heat, the energy lost by
radiation resistance is converted to electromagnetic radiation.
(ii) Refer to Question 2(b) of Second Term 2012.
(iii) Refer to Question 1(a) of End Term 2012.
(iv) Refer to Question 2(b) of Second Term 2012.
(v) Refer to Question 2(b) of End Term 2010.
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain various umbrella pattern antennas with the help of neat diagrams. (5)
(b) What is meant by frequency management? Explain the numbering of channels
with the help of frequency management chart, if bandwidth assigned for two
AMPS system is 40 Mhz. (5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 1(d) of End Term 2010.
(b) Refer to Question 1(a) of Second Term 2012.
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) A(6, 3) Linear block code is generated according to the generator matrix. (5)
LM1 0 0 1 1 1 OP
G= M PP
0 1 0 0 1 1
NM0 0 1 1 1 0 Q
For a particular code word transmitted, the received code word is 10011. Find
corresponding data word transmitted.
(b) Explain mobile high gain antennas and its applications. (5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 6(a) of End Term 2012.
(b) Refer to Question 1(e) of Second Term 2012.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) For a PCM system with following parameters:
(i) Maximum analog input frequency = 4 kHz
(ii) Maximum decoded voltage at the receiver = 2.25 V
(iii) Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB
130 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Determine : (a) minimum sample rate (b) minimum no. of bits used in the PCM
code (c) resolution (d) quantization error. (5)
(b) What orthogonality? How OFDM proves to be a better modulation technique
over others? (5)
Solution.
(a) Minimum sample rate
⇒ f s ⇒ 2fa = 2(4 kHz) = 8 kHz
The absolute dynamic range
Vmax
46 dB = 20 log V
min
DR = 199.5
(b) The minimum number of bit is
log (199.5 + 1)
n = = 7.63
log 2
To choose number of bit must be greater than minimum value which is equal to
8. It is also require a bit for the sign bit. Therefore total number of bit is nine. The
total number of the PCM code is 29 = 512
n
The actual dynamic range is DRcdB = 20 log (2 – 1) = 48.13 dB
Vmax Vmax 2 .25
(c) Resolution: ∆V = = n = 8 = 0.009 j 0.01
L −1 2 −1 2 −1
(d) Maximum quantization error is
0 .01 V
φc = Resolution = = 0.005 V
2 2
(d) Give all differences between fixed channel assignment and non-fixed channel
assignment. (5)
(e) If Pt = 10W, Gt = 0db, fc = 900 MHz. (5)
Find P6 in watts at a free space distance of 1 km.
Solution.
(a) Frequency Reuse Distance: The minimum distance which allows the same
frequency to be reused will depend on many factors, such as the number of
cochannel cells in the vicinity of the center cell, the type of geographic terrain
contour, the antenna height, and the transmitted power at each cell site. The
frequency reuse distance D can be determined from D = 3 K R where K is the
frequency reuse pattern shown in figure, then
0
R
1
1
1
4
1 2
3
4 3 4 5
2 1
1 7
3 6 1
1
2
4 1
1
3
K=4
2
q = D /R = 46
K=7
3.46 R K =4
4.6 R K =7
D=
6R K = 12
7.55R K = 19
C a ll B
no B
12 6
4
A
5 9 5 A
8 10 6
10
11 2 11 B
B
7 3 7 B
3
12 A
12 1 A
6 4 6 A
4
9 5 9
B
10 6 B
11 DR = 6
K = 12 A
A 2 2
K = i + ij + j = 19
1 2 C e ll re us e pa tte rn to sta rt-u p c o nfigu ra tio n S h ift pa ram e ter i = 3 , j = 2
132 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
If all the cell sites transmit the same power, then K increases and the frequency
reuse distance D increases. This increased D reduces the chance that cochannel
interference may occur.
(b) Refer to Question 2(a) of End Term 2012.
(c) Fading Techniques: In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the
attenuation affecting a signal over certain propagation media. The fading may
vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency, and is oftenmodeled
as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel comprising
fading. In wireless systems, fading May either is due to multipath propagation,
referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles
affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a propagation environment
on a radio signal, such as that used by wireless devices. Rayleigh fading models
assume that the magnitude of a signal that has passed through such a transmission
medium (also called a communications channel) will vary randomly, or fade,
according to a Rayleigh distribution – the radial component of the sum of two
uncorrelated Gaussian random variables. Rayleigh fading is viewed as a
reasonable model for troposphere and ionosphere signal propagation as well as
the effect of heavily built-up urban environments on radio signals. Rayleigh
fading is most applicable when there is no dominant propagation along a line of
sight between the transmitter and receiver. If there is a dominant line of sight,
Rician fading may be more applicable.
Rician fading is a stochastic model for radio propagation anomaly caused by
partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself – the signal arrives at the receiver
by several different paths (hence exhibiting multipath interference), and at least
one of the paths is changing (lengthening or shortening). Rician fading occurs
when one of the paths, typically a line of sight signal, is much stronger than the
others. In Rician fading, the amplitude gain is characterized by a Rician distribution.
Rayleigh is the specialised model for stochastic fading when there is no line of
sight signal, and is sometimes considered as a special case of the more generalised
concept of Rician fading. In Rayleigh fading, the amplitude gain is characterized
by a Rayleigh distribution.
Weibull fading, named after Waloddi Weibull, is a simple statistical model of
fading used in wireless communications and based on the Weibull distribution.
Empirical studies have shown it to be an effective model in both indoor and
outdoor environments. In 2005, a theoretical model for a particular class of
weibull distributions was described by Sagias and Karagiannidis, who also analyzed
channel capacity of a wireless channel in the presence of weibull fading.
(d) Refer to Question 5(a) of End Term 2012.
(e) Pt = 10 W
Gt = 0 dB
Gr = 0 dB
d = 1 KM ⇒ 1000 M
f ⇒ 900 MHz ⇒ 0.96 GHz
P r(1000) =
( PG G λ )
t t r
2
( 4π ) 2 d 2
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 133
We need value of l
C C
We know that f = l=
λ f
8
C = 3.8 × 10 m f = 0.9 GHz
3.8 × 108
l = m
0.9
3.8 × 108
2
10 ×
0.9
Pr(1000m) = = ( Ans)W
( 4π)2 (1000)2
Question 2. ______________________________________________________
(a) Why hexagonal shape is preferred over other cell shapes in cellular mobile
radio. (2.5)
(b) Describe all the techniques to improve coverage and capacity in cellular
systems. (5)
(c) If 25 MHz of total spectrum is allocated for a duplex wireless cellular system
and each simplex channel has 25 KHz RF bandwidth, find: (5)
(i) No. of duplex channels
(ii) Total number of channels per site, if N = 4 cell reuse is used.
Solution.
(a) In a cellular System a land area is divided into regular shaped cells, which can
be hexagonal, square, circular or some other irregular shapes, although hexagonal
cells are convetional.
This is becuase there are some criteria for the cell shape, which are
1. Geometric shape
2. Area without overlap
3. Area of the cell
And the eligible shapes for these criteria are Square, circle, equilateral triangle
and hexagon.
The Geometric shape and Area without overlap is satisfied by a hexagon, square,
equilateral triangle as they can be fitted in a manner where there is no area of
overlap.The circle on the other hand would overlap (which implies interference
of signals) or leave gaps (which means loss of coverage in those areas) when not
overlapping. When the area factor is considered a circle has the highest area
hoever it does not satisfy the second criteria of overlap. Therefore we have to
consider a shape which fits correctly and also has maximum area. For this purpose
we shall compare the area of the remaining shapes to the area of circle to see
which has the maximum area.
The area of an equilateral traiangle to a circle approx = 17.77%
The area of a square to a circle approx = 63.7%
The area of a hexagon to a circle approx = 83%
Which means hexagon has the highest coverage area after a circle from the lot. Thus
of the lot hexagon satisfies all the conditons which is why the shape of a cell is
hexagonal in cellular network.
134 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
Cell splitting
Microcells: As cells become smaller, antennas height become smaller. It moves
from the tops of tall building or hills to the tops of small buildings or the sides
of large buildings, where they form microcells. Decrease in cell size is
accompnined by a reduction in the rediated power levels from the base stations
and the mobile units.
Microcells are usefull in city streets or along highways and inside large public
buildings.
(c) Total Bandwidth = 25 MHz
Channel Bandwitdth = 25 KHz × 2 = 50 KHz/duplex channel
2500
1. Total available channels = = 500channels
50
2. for N = 4
500
Total number of channels per site ⇒ = 125 channels
4
OR
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain co-channel interference. How it can be minimized? (2.5)
(b) Prove that for a hexagonal geonetry, the co-channel reuse distance is Q =
2 2
3N where, N = i + ij + j . (5)
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 135
(c) Suppose 5 cells of iginally cover a cogested service area with 80 channels per
cell. Find its channel capacity. Now, if cell spliting is done with new radius
R1 = R/2, find its new channels capacity. Assume path loss exponent n = 4. (5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 1(a) of End Term 2012.
(b) Co-channel Interference (CCI): Co-channel interference (CCI) is generated
when two or more independent signals are transmitted simultaneously in the
same frequency band. The same frequencies (frequency bands) are re-used many
times. In following figure, for examples frequency bands f1 to f7 re-used in a N =
7 cell re-use patterns. If the mobile unit is at location m7, then it recives the
desired signal on frequency f7 from the nearest base station B7.
Simultaneously, the mobile unit at M 7 also receives, in the same frequency
band, an independent interfering signal from base station A7. The ratio of desired
average carrier power (C) from the nearby base station (B7) to averageinterference
(I) power from the distant base station (A7) the average C/I or channel interference
(CCI) factor
D
a=
R
D = Distance between base station that transmit on the same frequency.
For example, distance A7 to B7.
R = Coverage radius of the basic station transmitter of one cell.
A larger ‘a’ factor leads to higher C/I, to get larger C/I values; the cell re-use
factor must increases and the capacity is reduced the relation between D and R
hexagonal shape sharingof k frequencies.
D = 3N R
C lu ster C
3 C
2
Base (a cce ss p oint)
C
4 C M ob ile
6 C
5
C
7 C
1
R
1 C 3
D M1 B
2
3 A 2
B
4 B
A A
4
6 B
5
6 A
5 B
7 B
M7
A 7 A
B
D R
A
C lu ster B
C lu ster A
f2 f3 AC I
f2 f3
2 3
A B
Base A2 M obile Base B3
At f 2 At f 3
136 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
0 dB
– 40 dB
– 50 dB
fc f(kH z)
C o-channel interferen ce for k = 7 cell re-use pattern
R
7 b 7
A a= D B
R
The CCI-caused C/I ration received at a desired base station (cell site) for a N = 7 cell
re-use pattern.
Assuming that we have all six, m = 6 co-channel interference, the CCI at the base
station is
C C
CCI b = =
NT + I N + ∑m
Ii
T
i =1
If CCI is the pre-dominant factor or noise NT is negligible, then we have
C
CCI b = m =6
∑ Ii
i =1
I′1 I′6
I′2 d1 I′5
C .S o. C b
I′3 d2
I′4
We assume for example, that the non-line of sight (NLOS) path loss is at a slope
of 40 dB/decade, that is proportional to R–4. In this case
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 137
R −4
4
1 D
CCI b = =
6D −4
6 R
By putting D = 3N R and N = 7
−4
1 R
⇒ 73.5
6 3N R
CCI b =
C
or CCI b = 18.7 dB ⇒ = 18.7 dB.
I
C
This ratio received at the base, assumes equal transmit power and equidistant
I
spacing of the six remote interferring signals from the base.
(c) Total cells = 5
each cell have channels = 80
Capacity original = 5 × 80 = 400
R
After all splitting R1 =
2
We now have 24 new cells.
capacit new = 24 × 80 = 19200
for n = 4, transmit power of new BS is 12 dB lower than original, No change in
frequency use. Cost is that more base stations and more handoffs.
Question 4. ______________________________________________________
(a) What is the effect of antenna height on cell area coverage? Explain in detail. (6.5)
(b) What are the propagation effects in following areas: (6)
(i) Over flat terrain (ii) Over water (iii) In an urban area
Solution.
(a) Cell Site Antenna Height: There are several points, which need to be clarified
concerning cell site antenna height effects.
Antenna Height Unchanged: If the power of the cell site transmitter changes
the whole signal strength can be linearly updated according to the change in
power. If the transmitted power increased by 3dB to each grid in the signal
strength map. The relative difference in power among the grids remains the
same.
Antenna Height Changed: If the antenna heigh changes, then signal strength
map obtained from the old antenna height cannot be updated. With the simple
antenna heigh antenna formula as
h′
1
Dg′ = 20log
h1
Where h1 is the old actual antenna height and h¢1 is the new actual antenna
height. However we can still use the same terrain contour data along the radio
path (from the cell site antenna to each grid) to figure out the difference in gain
resulting from the different antenna heights in each grid.
138 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
h′
Dg = 20log e
he
Where he is the old effective antenna height and h′e is the new effective antenna
height. The additional gain (increase or decrease) will be added to the signal
strength grid based on the old antenna height.
Visualization of the effective antenna height: The effective antenna height
changes when the location of the mobile unit changes. Therefore we can visualize
the efffective antenna height as always changing up or down while the mobile
unit is moving. This kind of picture should be kept in mind. In addition following
fact may be helpful
1. The mobile unit is driven up a positive slop (up to a high spot). The
effective antenna height increases if the mobile unit is driving away from
the cell site antenna and it decreases if the mobile unit is approaching the
cell site antenna.
2. The mobile unit is driven the hill. The effective antenna height decreases
if the mobile unit is driven away from the cell site antenna, and it increases
if the mobile unit is approaching the cell site antenna.
Lowering the antenna height: Lowering the antenna height doesn’t always
reduce the co-channel interference. In some circumstances, such as on fairly flat
ground or in a valley situation, lowering the antenna height will be very effective
for reducing the co-channel and adjacent channel interference. However there
are three cases where the lowering the antenna height may or may not effective
help to reduce the interference.
(b) Radio Propagation Model: A radio propagation model, also known as the
Radio Wave Propagation Model or the Radio Frequency Propagation Model, is
an empirical mathematical formulation for the characterization of radio wave
propagation as a function of frequency, distance and other conditions. A single
model is usually developed to predict the behavior of propagation for all similar
links under similar constraints. Created with the goal of formalizing the way
radio waves are propagated from one place to another, such models typically
predict the path loss along a link or the effective coverage area of a transmitter.
Characteristics: As the path loss encountered along any radio link serves as
the dominant factor for characterization of propagation for the link, radio
propagation models typically focus on realization of the path loss with the
auxiliary task of predicting the area of coverage for a transmitter or modeling
the distibution of signals over different regions.
Free Space Propagation (Flat Open Area) over
water & flat terrain: For propagation distance d R e ce ive
A n ten n a
much larger than the square of the antenna size A p erture
divided the wavelength, the far-field of the generated
electromagnetic wave dominates all other Tra nsm it
component. In free space, the power radiated by an A n ten n a
isotopic antenn is spread uniformaly and without
loss over the surface of a sphare surrounding the antenna. Even the simplest
antenna has some directivity. For example, a linear dipole has uniform power
flow in any plane perpendicular to the axis of the dipole (omnidirectionality) and
the maximum powr flow is in the equtaorial plane.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 139
2
The surface area of a sphere of radius d is 4 d , so that the power flow per unit area
2
w (power flux in watts/mater ) at distance d from a transmitter antenna with
input accepted power PT and gaia GT is
PT GT
W =
4πd 2
Propagation in an urban area: If we consider the effect of the earth surface,
the expressions for the received signal become more complicated than in case of
free space propagation. The main effect is that signals reflected off the earth
surface may (partially) cancel the line of sight wave.
L ine -o f-sig ht
G ro un d-R e flecte d
w a ve
S u rfa ce W a ve
OR
Question 5. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain all setup channels in GSM architecture. (7)
(b) What are type of cell site antennal. Compare them according to geographical
areaof a cell. (5.5)
Solution.
(a) GSM Channel Types: There are two types of GSM logical channels, called
traffic channels (TCH) and control channels (CCH). Traffic channels carry
digitally encoded user speech or user data and have identical functons and
formats on both the forward and reverse link. Control channels carry signaling
and synchronizing commands between the base station and the mobile station.
Certain types of control channels are defined for just the forward or reverse link.
GSM Traffic Channels (TCH): GSM traffic channels may be either full-rate or
half-rate and may carry either digitized speech or user data. When transmitted as
full-rate, user data is contained within one TS per frame. When transmitted as
half-rate, user data is mapped onto the same time slot, but is sent in alternate
frames. That is, two half-rate channel users would share the same time slot, but
would alternately transmit during every other frame. In the GSM standard, TCH
data may not be sent in TS 0 within a TDMA frame on certain ARFCNs which
serve as the broadcast station for each cell . Furthermore, frames of TCH data are
broken up every thirteenth frame by either slow associated control channel data
(SACCH) or idle frames. Figure illustrates how the TCH data is transmitted in
consecutive frames. Each group of twenty-six consecutive TDMA frame is called
a multiframe. For every twenty-six frames, the thirteenth and twenty-sixth frames
consist of Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) data, or the idle frame,
respectively. The twenty-sixth frame contains idle bits for the channels case
when full-rate TCHs are used, and contains SACCH data when half-rate TCHs
are used.
Full-Rate TCH: The following full rate speech and data channels are supported:
• Full-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/FS)–The full-rate speech channel carries
user speech which is digitized at a raw data rate of 13 kbps. With GSM
140 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
channel coding added to the digitized sppech, the full-rate speech channel
carries 22.8 kbps.
• Full-Rate Data Channel for 9600 bps (TCH/F9.6)–The full-rate traffic
data channel carries raw user data which is sent at 9600 bps. With additional
forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 9600
bps data is sent at 22.8 kbps.
• Full-Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/4.8)–The full-rate traffic data
channel carries raw user data which is sent at 4800 bps. With additonal
forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 4800
bps is sent at 22.8 kbps.
• Full-Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/2.4)–The full-rate traffic data
channel carries raw user data which is sent at 2400 bps. With additional
forward error correction codng applied by the GSM standard, the 2400 bps
is sent at 22.8 kbps.
Half-Rate TCH: The following half-rate speech and data channels are
supported:
• Half-Rate Speech Channel (TCH/FS)–The half-rate speech channel has
been designed to carry digitized speech which is sampled at a rate half that
of the full-rate channel. The half-rate speech channel will carry 11.4 kbps.
• Half-Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/4.8)–The half-rate traffic
data channel carries raw user data which is sent at 4800 bps. With additional
forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 4800
bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps.
• Half-Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/2.4)–The half-rate traffic
data channel carries raw user data which is sent at 2400 bps. With additional
forward error correction coding applied by the GSM standard, the 2400
bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps.
GSM Control Channels (CCH): There are three main control channels in the
GSM system. These are the broadcast channel (BCH), the common control
channel (CCCH), and the dedicated control channel (DCCH). Each control of
several logical which are distributed in time to provide the necessary GSM
control functions. The BCH and CCCH forward control channels in GSM are
implemented only on certain ARFCN channels and are allocated timeslots in a
veryspecific manner. Specifically, the BCH and CCCH forward control channels
are allocated only TS 0 and are broadcast only during certain frames within a
repetitive fifty-one frame sequence (called the control channel multiframe) on
those ARFCNs which are designated as control channels are still able to carry
full-rate users on seven of the eight time slots. The GSM specification defines
thirty-four ARFCNs as stadard broadcast channels. For each broadcast channel,
frame 51 does not contain any BCH/CCCH forward channel data and is considered
to be an idle frame. However, the reverse channel CCCH is able to receive
subscriber transmission during TS 0 of any frame (even the idle frame). On the
other hand, DCCH data may be sent during any time slot and any frame, and
entire frames are specifically dedicated to certain DCCH tranmissions.
• Broadcast Channels (BCH)–The broadcast channel operates on the forward
link of a specific ARFCN within each cell, and transmits data only in the
first time slot (TS 0) of certain GSM frames. Unlike TCHs which are duplex,
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 141
BCHs only use the forward link. Just as the forward control channel (FCC)
in AMPS is used as a beacon for all nearby mobiles to camp on to, the BCH
serves as a TDMA beacon channel for any nearby mobile to identify and
lock on to. The BCH provides synchronization for all mobiles within the
cell and is occasionally monitored by mobiles in neighboring cells so that
received power and MAHO decisiionsmay be made by out-of-cell users.
The three types of BCH are now described:
(a) Broadcast Control CHannel (BCCH)–The BCCH is a forward control
channel that is used to broadcast information such as cell and network
identity, and operating characteristics of the cell (current control channel
structure, channel availability, and congestion). The BCCH also
broadcasts a list of channels that are currently in use within the cell.
Frme 2 through frame 5 in a control multiframe (4 out of every 51 frames)
contain BCCH data. It should be noted from figure 10.8 that TS 0 contains
BCCH data during specific frames, and contains other BCH channels
(FCcH and SCH), common control channels (CCCHs) or an idle frame
(sent every 51st frame) during other specific frames.
(b) Frequency Correction CHannel (FCCH)–The FCCH is a special data
burst which occupies TS 0 for the very first GSM frame (frame 0) and is
repeated every ten frames within a control channel multiframe. The FCCH
allows each subscriber unit to synchronize its internal frequency standard
(local oscillator) to the exact frequency of the base station.
(c) Synchronization CHannel (SCH)–SCH is broadcasty in TS 0 of the
frame immediately following the FCCH frame and is used to identify the
serving base station while allowing each mobile to frame synchronize
with the base station. The frame number (FN), which ranges from 0 to 2,
715, 647, is sent with the base station identity code (BSIC) during the
SCH burst. The BSIC is uniquely assigned to each BST in a GSM system.
• Common Control CHannels (CCCH)–On the broadcast (BCH) ARFCN,
the common control channels occupy TS 0 of every GSM frame tht is not
otherwise used by the BCH or the Idle frame. CCCH consists of three
different channels: the paging channel (PCH), which is a forward link
channel, the random access channel (RACH) which is a reverse link channel,
and the access grant channel (AGCH0, which is a forward link channel,and
the access grant channel (AGCH), which is a forward link channel.
(a) Paging CHannel (PCH)–The PCH provides paging signals from the
base station to all mobiles in the cell, and notifies a specific mobile of an
incoming call which originates from the PSTN. The PCH transmits the
IMSI of the target subscriber, along with a request for acknowledgement
from the mobile unit on the RACH.
(b) Random Access Channel (RACH)–The RACH is a reverse link channel
used by a subscriber unit to acknowledge a page from the PCH, and is
also used by mobiles to originate a call. The RACH uses a slotted ALOHA
access scheme.
(b) Cell Site Antenna: A cell site is a site where antennas and electronic
communications equipment are placed, usually on a radio mast, tower or other
high place, to create a cell (or adjacent cells ) in a cellular network. The elevated
structure typically supports antennas, and one or more sets of transmitter/receiver
142 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
2 ( 0.5)
2
df = = 3.12m
0.16
OR
Question 7. ______________________________________________________
(a) Explain three types of multiple access techniques. Why CDMA technique is
more secure over. (7)
(b) What are different digital modulation techniques compare QPSK and BPSK in
terms of bandwidth and data rate. (5.5)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 7(a) and Question 9(b) of End Term 2012.
(b) Linear Modulation Techniques: Digital modulation techniques may be broadly
classified as linear and non-linear. In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude
of the transmitted signal, s(t), varies linearly with the modulating digital signal
m(t). Linear modulation techniques are bandwidth efficient and hence are very
attractive for use in wire-less communication systems where there is an increasing
demand to accommodate more and more users within a limited spectrum.
In a linear modulation scheme, the transmitted signal s(t) can be expressed as:
s (t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2πfct)]
= A [mR (t) cos (2πfct) – mt(t) sin(2πfct)]
where A is the amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, and m(t) = mR(t) + jmI(t) is a
complex envelope representation of the modulated signal which is in general
complex form. From equation it is clear that the amplitude of the carrier varies
linearly with the modulating signal. Linear modulation schmes, in general, do
not have a constant envelope.
Spectrum and Bandwidth of BPSK: The BPSK signal using a polar baseband
data waveform m(t) can be expressed in complex envelop form as
{
SBPSK = Re g BPSK (t ) exp ( j 2πf ct ) }
where gBPSK (t) is the complex envelope of the signal given by
2 Eb
gBPSK (t) = m (t ) e jθc
Tb
The power spectral density (PSD) of the complex envelope can be shown to be
2
sin πfTb
Pg BPSK ( f ) = 2 Eb
πfT
b
The PSD for the BPSK signal at RF can be evaluated by translating the baseband
spectrum to the carrier frequency using the relation given in equation.
Hence the PSD of a BPSK signal at RF is given by
E sin π ( f − f ) T 2 sin π ( − f − f ) T 2
PBPSK = b c b
+ c b
2 π ( f − f c ) Tb π ( f − f c ) Tb
bit period. At the end of each bit period, the switch at the output of the integrator
closes to dump the output signal to the decision circuit. Depending on whether
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 145
the integrator output is above or below a certain threshold, the decision circuit
decides that the recived signal corresponds to a binary 1 or 0. The threshold is
set at an optimum level such that the probability of error is minimized. If it is
equally likely that a binary 1 or 0 is transmitted then the voltage level
corresponding to the midpoint between the detector output voltage levels of
binary 1 and is used as the optimum threshold.
Spectrum and Bandwidth of QPSK Signals: The power spectral density of a
QPSK signal can be obtained in a manner similar to that used for BPSK, with the
bit periods Tb replaced by symbol periods Ts. Hence the PSD of a QPSK signal
using rectangular pulses can be expressed as
E sin π ( f − f ) T 2 sin π ( − f − f ) T 2
PQPSK = s c s
+
c s
2 π ( f − f c ) Ts π ( − f − f c ) Ts
sin 2π ( f − f ) T 2 sin 2π ( − f − f ) T 2
= Eb c b
+ 2π − f − f T
c b
2 π ( f − f c) b
T ( c) b
The PSD of a QPSK signal for rectangular and raised cosine filtered pulses is
plotted in Fig. The null-to-null RF bandwidth is equal to the bit rate Rb, which
is half that of a BPSK signal.
UNIT-IV
Question 8. ______________________________________________________
(a) Draw and explain in detail architecture of a cellular (GSM) system. Explain in
detail. How a call is matured. (5)
(b) What are different hand-off strategies. (5)
(c) What are training bits and why they are used in GSM burst architecture. (2.5)
Solution.
(a) Global System for Mobile (GSM): Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second
generation cellular system standard that was developed to solve the fragmentation
problems of the first cellular systems in Europe. GSM is the world’s first cellular
146 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
very little chance that it will dropped before the call is terminated as a result of
a weak signal at the boundary. So arises why handoff is required. Because if a
call is dropeed in a area, the customer simply redials and reconnects the call.
Generally handoff is needed in two situations. Where the cell site receive weak
signals from the mobile unit. (1) at cell boundary, say – 100 dBm which is the
level for requesting a handoff in a noise area. (2) When the mobile phone is
reaching the signal strength holes (gaps) within the cell site.
Generally, two types of handoff are there:
(1) That based on signal strength (2) Based on carrier to interference ratio.
Handoff: It is a unique feature that allows cellular systems to operate as
effectively as demonstrated in actual use to understand clearly let us analyze
following examples.
During a call, two parties are on a voice channel. When the mobile unit moves
out of the coverage area of a particular site, the recepition become weak. The
present cell site requests a handoff. The system switches the call to a new
frequency channel in a new cell site without either interrupting the call or
changing the user. The call continues as long as the user is talking.
Different Handoff Strategies: Processing of handoff is an important tasks and
it must be performed successfully.
As we known that when a mobile unit moves into different cell site during a
conversation in progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new
channel belonging to the new base station. This handoff operation not only
involves identifying a new base station, but also requires that the voice and
control signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base station.
L evel a t P o in t A
Im p rop er ha nd off (not occu r)
R e ceive d sign al le vel
H a nd off thresho ld
Tim e
L evel a t P o in t B
(C a ll is tran sferre d to ce ll B )
Tim e
A B
BS1 BS2
So handoff is a very complicated process, so if possible it may not occur very
frequently. Therefore to meet such requirements, system designer mus fix a signal
level or threshold level at which handoff is required. When conversation is in
148 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
progress, but at instant specified signal level become minimum, at which better
voice reception is not possible, then a slightly stronger signal level is used as a
threshold at which handoff is made.
This margin of signal level is given by
D = Pr(handoff) – Pr(minimum usable)
but D cannot be two large or small.
As shown in the figure. In first case handoff is not possible because before
transferring the call to cell B, call will be terminated.
While in second case handoff will occur.
(c) The figure shows the field structures of the normal burst used in the GSM system.
This diagram shows that the field structure is different for the normal burst,
synchronization burst, and the frequency correction bursts. The fields transmitted
during the normal burst include initial tail bits (ramp-up time), training sequence,
flag bits user data bits, final tail bits, and guard period. The diagram shows that
the first 3 bits of the time slot are dedicated to the gradual increase of transmitter
power level (ramp-up). For the normal burst, this is followed by the information
(user data) bits. The flag bits indicate if the normal burst has been replaced with
FACCH signaling information. This diagram shows that some of the bits in the
center of the burst are used as training bits (to allow equalizer training). At the
end of the transmitteed burst there are tail bits (for error protection) and 3 guard
period bits that are used during the gradual reduction of the RF transmitter
signal (ramp-down).
Tw o 1 -b it fla g bits (no rm a l b urst o nly) indica te
pres ence o f fast asso ciated cha nne l (FA C C H )
P o w er pro file
B its 3 1 42 3 8.25
T (1)-Tail B its (R a m p) F. F la g B its
in form a tion -U s er or m ess age d a ta T (2). Tail B its
Train ing -S yn chron iza tion & tra in in g G P G ua rd P e riod
OR
Question 9. ______________________________________________________
(a) Write short notes on any two of the following: (2.5 × 3 = 7.5)
(i) OFDM (ii) Turbo coding (iii) IS – 95
(b) What is the difference between convolution code and linear block codes? Make
block diagram of a convolution encoder. (5)
Solution.
(a) (i) Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM): OFDM, also
called multicarrier modulation, uses multiple carrier signals at different
frequencies, sending some of the bits on each channel. This is similar to
FDM. However, in the case of OFDM, all of the subchannels are dedicted to
a single data source.
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 149
disks. The error rates are usually low and tend to occur by the byte so a SEC/
DED coding scheme for each byte provides sufficient error protection. Error
coding must be fast in this situation because high throughout is desired. A SEC/
DED code is extremely simple and does not cause a high coding delay.
Refer to Question 7(a) of End Term 2012.
the scope of this book. For a system design, the estimate of the signal reception due
to foliage loss does not need any degree of accuracy.
L ea f size
Branch size
Tru nk size
spa cing
D e nsity
M ea n M ea n
sizes D istribution o f spa cing
D istributions of b etw e e n adjace nt tru nks
leaves, trunks, or b ranches o r bran ches
A characteristic of foliage environment.
Furthermore, some trees, such as maple or oak, lose their leaves in winter, while
others, such as pine, never do.
However, a rough estimate should be sufficient for the purpose of system design.
In tropic zones, the sizes of tree leaves are so large and thick that the signal can
hardly penetrate. In this case, the signal will propagate from the top of the tree and
deflect to the mobile receiver. We will include this calculation also. Sometime the
foliage loss can be treated as a wire-line loss, in decibels per foot or decibels per
meter, when the foliage is uniformly heavy and the path lengths are short.
(d) An umbrella antenna is a top-loaded electrically lengthened monopole antenna,
consisting in most cases of mast fed at the ground end, to which six or more
wires are connected at the top, stoping downwards. The outer end of each wire is
terminated by an insulator, usually placed at about one third the total height to
isolate the lower support-wire or rope which is anchored to the ground. The
radial wires can also function as guy wires to support the mast. The radial wires
make the antenna look like a giant umbrella without the cloth, accounting for
the name. They are used as transmitting antennas at frequencies below 1.6 MHz,
particularly in the LF and VLF bands, at frequencies sufficiently low that it is
impractical to build a full size quarter-wave monopol antenna. Typical mast
heights are less than 1/40 wavelength to 1/10 wavelength depending on the
requirement. The funciton of the added umbrella-wires is to add capacitance to
the top of the antenna, improving the current distribution on the vertical mast to
increase the radiation resistance, and making the antenna with height of 15 to
350 metres are in service.
Umbrella antennas radiate vertically polarised ground waves in an
omnidirectional radiation pattern. Because they are short compared to a
wavelength of the radio waves, they have low radiation resistance and are usually
inefficient, radiating only a fraction of the power supplied by the transmitter.
Umbrella antennas are used as single mast antennas and are in common use for
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 153
where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and Ii is the
interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell cell base station.
If the signal levels of co-channel cells are known, then S/I ratio for the forward link.
−n
d
Pr = P0
d0
d
or Pr ( dBm) = P0 ( dBm) − 10n log
d0
When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent
is the same throughout the coverage area. S/I for a mobile can be approximated as
S R− n
= i0
( i)
I ∑ D −n
i =1
Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base
stations are equipment from the desired base station and if this distance is equal
to the distance D between cell centers, then Equation simplifies to
( )
n
S ( D / R)
n
3N
= = ...(i)
I i0 i0
Equation relates S/I to the cluster size N, which in turn determines the overall
capacity of the system. For example, assume that the six closest cells are close
enough to create significant interference and that they are all approximately
equidistant from the desired base station. For the U.S. AMPS cellular system
which uses FM and 30 kHz channels, subjective tests indicate that sufficient
voice quality is provided when S/I is greater thatn or equal to 18 dB. Using Eq.
(3.9), it can be shown in order to meet this requirement, the cluster size of seven is
required to meet an S/I requirement of 18 dB.
Using an exact cell geometry layout, it can be shown for a seven-cell cluster, with
the mobile unit at the cell boundry, the mobile is a distance D – R from the two
nearest co-channel interfering cells and is exactly D + R/2, Di D – R/2, and D + R
from the other interfering cells in the first tier. Using the approximate geometry
shown in Figure. Aassuming n = 4, the signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case
can be closely approximated as (an exact expression is worked out by Jacobsmeyer.
S R −4
=
I 2 ( D − R ) + 2 ( D + R )−4 + 2 D −4
−4
(b) A paging method and apparatus for a mobile communication network to which
at least two non-coordinated core networks are connected is disclosed, wherein
a service state of a mobile station is checked, when a request for a paging message
to the mobile station has been received from one of the non-coordinated core
networks. Then, a multicall paging message is transmitted using an existing
signalling link of the mobile station and/or mobile station location information
known in a radio access network, when the mobile station is already connected
to another one of the non-coordinated core networks. The checking is preferable
performed by a radio network controller which is connected to the non-coordinated
core networks. Thus, a paging request received form a non-coordinated core network
can be supplied to a mobile station, although the paged mobile station is already
connected to another non-coordinated core network.
(c) (i) Total number of available channels, K = 1001
Cluster size, N =7
2
Area of cell, Acell = 12 km
2
Area of cellular system, Asys = 4200 km
K
Since number of channel per cell is J =
N
1001
then J = = 143 channels/cell
7
2
Acluster = N × Acell = 7 × 12 = 84 km
The number of times the cluster has to be replicated to cover the entire cellular
system.
Asys 4200
M = = = 50
A cluster 84
C = MJN = 50 × 143 × 7 = 50050 Channels.
(ii) for N = 4
2
A cluster = 4 × 12 = 48 km
Asys 4200
M = = = 87.5 ≅ 87
A cluster 48
156 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
1001
(iii) With N = 4, J = = 250 channels/cell
4
The system capacity, C = 87 × 250 = 87000 channels
(iv) From (i) and (iii) it is seen that a decrease in N from 7 to 4 is accompanied by an
increase in M from 50 to 87, and the system capacity is increased from 50050 to
87000 channels. Therefore, decreasing the cluster size does increase the system
capacity.
OR
Question 3. ______________________________________________________
(a) Define co-channel interfaerence for seven-cell cluster pattern. Also find CCI
for the case when mobile is at cell boundry. (6.5)
(b) DEfine Trunking efficiency and Grade of service. (2)
(c) State cell splitting. If each cell is allocated 60 channels regardless of cell size.
2
Find the number of channels contained in a 3 × 3 km area without cell splitting
i.e. R = 1km and with cell splitting. (4)
Solution.
(a) Refer to Question 3(b) of End Term 2011.
(b) Trunking and Grade of Service: Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to
accommodate a large number of users in a limited radio spectrum. The concept
of trunking allows a large number of users to share the relatively small number
of channels in a cell by providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of
available channels. In a trunked radio system, each user is allocated a channel
on a per call basis, and upon termination of the call, the previously occupied
channel is immediately returned to the pool of available channels. Trunking
exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a fixed number of channels or
circuits may accomodate a large, random user community. The telephone
company uses trunking theory to determine the number of telephone circuits
that need to be allocated for office buildings with hundreds of telephones, a dn
this same principle is used in designing cellular radio systems. There is a trade-
off between the number of available telephone cirrcuits and the likehood of a
particular user finding the at no circuits are avaiable during the peak calling time.
As thenumber of phone lines decreases, it becomes more likely that all circuits will
be busy for a particular user. In a trunked mobile radio system, when a particular user
requests service and all of the radio channels are already in use, the user is blocked,
or denied access to the system. In some systems, a queue may be used to hold the
requesting users until a channel becomess available. To design trunked radio systems
that can handle a spcific capacity at a specific “grade of service,” it is essential to
understand trunking theory and queuing theory. The fundamentls of trunking theory
were developed by Erlang, a Danish mathematician who, in the late 19th century,
embarked on the study of how a large population could be accommodated by a
limited number of servers. For example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty
minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic.
The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a
trunked system during the busiest hour. The busy hour is based upon customer
demand at the busiest hour during a week, month, or year. The busy hours for
cellular radio systems typically occur during rush hours, between 4 p.m. and 6
p.m on a Thursday or Friday evening. The grade of service is a benchmark used
to define the desired performance of a particulr trunked system by specifying a
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 157
1
(c) Derive free space equation i.e. Pr = Pr . , where, Pt = transmitted free power
( )
2
4 πr
λ
t t Gr λ
2
PG
Pr ( d ) =
( 4π ) 2 d 2 L
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 159
where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr(d) is the received power which is a function
of the T-R separation, Gt is the transmitter antenna gain, Gr is the receiver antenna
gain, d is the T-R separation distance in meters, L is the system loss factor not
related to propagation (L ≥ 1), and l is the wavelength in meters. The gain of an
antenna is related to its effective aperture, Ae, by
4πAe
G=
λ2
The effective aperture Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna, and λ is
related to the carrier frequency by
c 2πc
λ= =
f ωc
where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz, wc is the carrier frequency in radians per
second, and c is the speed of light given in meters/s.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions, and is often used to reference antenna gains in
wireless systems. The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is defined as
EIRP = PtGt
and represents the masimum radiated powr available from a transmitter in the
direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic rdiator.
In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of EIRP to denote the
maximum radiated power as compared to a half-wave dipole antenna (instead of an
isotropic antenna). Since a dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB above an
isotrope), the ERP will be 2.15 dB smaller than the EIRP for the same transmission
system. In practice, antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to
an isotropic source) or dBd (dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole).
The path loss, which represent signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured
in dB, is defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted
power and the received power, and may or may not include the effect of the
antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are
included is given by
Pt G G λ2
PL ( dB ) = 10log = −10log t 2r 2
Pr ( 4π ) d
When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed are assumed to
have unity gain, and path loss is given by
Pt λ2
PL ( dB ) = 10log = −10log 2 2
Pr ( 4π ) d
The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of d which
are in the far-field of the transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region,
of a transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting
antenna is defined as the region beyound the far field distance df, which is
related to the larges linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the
carrier wavelength. The Fraunhofer distance is given by
2D2
df =
λ
160 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
the system.
(b) The definition of dropped call rate: The definition of a dropped call is after
the call is established but before it is properly terminated. The definition fo
“The call is established” means that the call is setup completely by the setup
channel. If there is a possibility of cal drop due to no available voice channels,
this counted as a blocked call not a dropped call.
It there is a possibility that a call will drop due to the poor signal of the assigned
voice channel, this is considered a dropped call. This case can happen when the
mobile or portable units are at a standstill and the radio carrier is changed from
a strong setup channel to a weak voice channel due to the selective frequency
fading phenomenon.
The perception of dropped call rate by the subscribers can be higher due to:
1. The subscriber unit not functioning properly (needs repair).
2. The user operating the portable unit in a vehicle (misused).
3. The user not knowing how to get the best reception from a portable unit
(needs education).
Consideration of dropped calls: In principle, dropped call rate can be set very
low if we do not need to maintain the voice quality. The dropped call rate and
the specified voice quality level are inversely proportional. In designing a
commercial system, the specified voice quality level is given relating to how
much C/I (or C/N) the speech coder can tolerate. By maintaining a certain voice
quality level, the dropped call rate can be calculated by taking the following
factors into consideration.
1. Provide signal coverage based on the percentage (say 90%) that all the
received signal will be above a given signal level.
2. Maintain the specified co-channel and adjacent channel interference levels
in each cell during a busy hour, i.e., the worst interference case.
3. Since the performance of the call dropped rate is calculated as possible call
dropping in every stage from the radio link to the PSTN connection, the
response time of the handoff in the network will be a factor when the cell
becomes small, the response time for a handoff request has to be shorter in
order to reduce the call dropped rate.
4. The signaling of the handoff and the MAHO algorithm will also impact the
call dropped rate.
5. The relationship among the voice quality, system capacity and call dropped
rate can be expressed through a common parameter C/I.
Relationship among capacity, voice quality, dropped call rate: Radio capacity
m is expressed as follow:
BT / Bc
m=
2
(C / I ) s
3
where BT/BC is the total number of voice channels. BT/BC is a given number, and
(C/I)s is a required C/I for designing a system. The above equation is obtained
based on six co-channel interferers which occur in busy traffic, i.e., a worst case.
In an interference limited system the adjacent channel interference has only a
secondary effect.
162 ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication
2
3 BT 1
2
3 BT / Bc
(C / I ) s = = . 2
2 m 2 Bc m
(c) Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model: In a mobile radio channel, a single direct
path between the base station and a mobile is seldom the only physical means
for propagation, and hence the free space propagation model is in most cases
inaccurate when used alone. The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in figure
is a useful propagation model that is based on geometric optics, and considers
both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation path between transmitter
and receiver. This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting
the large scale signal strength over distance of several kilometers for mobile
radio systems that use tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for
line-of-sight microcell channels in urban environments.
where Γ is the reflection coefficient for ground. For small values of θi (i.e., grazing
incidence), the reflected wave is equal in magnitude and 180º out of phase with the
incident wave, the resultant E-field, assuming perfect ground reflection is the vector
sum of ELOS and Eg, and the resultant total E-field envelop is given by
|ETOT| = |ELOS + Eg|
The electric field ETOT (d, t) can be expresse as
E0 d 0 d ' Ed d ''
ETOT ( d , t ) = cos ω c t − + ( −1) 0 0 cos ω c t −
d '
c d '' c
Using the method of images which is demonstrated by the geometry of Figure
the path difference, ∆, between the line-of-sight and the ground reflected paths
can be expressed as
(ht + hr ) (ht − hr )
2 2
∆ = d ''− d ' = + d2 − + d2
for every user. The forward band provides traffic from the base station to the
mobile, and the reverse band provides traffic from the mobile to the base station.
In FDD, any duplex channel acutally consists of two simplex channels (a forward
and reverse), and a device called a duplexer is used is used inside each subcriber
unit and base station to allow simultaneous bidirectional radio transmission
and reception for both the subscriber unit and the base station on the duplex
channel pair. The frequency separation between each forward and reverse channel is
constant throughout the system, regardless of the particular channel being used.
TDD: Time division duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to provide
both a forward and reverse link. In TDD, multiple users share a single radio
channel by taking turns in the time domain. Individual users are allowed to
access the channel in assigned time slots, and each duplex channel has both a
forward time slot and a reverse time slot to faciliated bidirectional
communication. If the time separation between the forward and reverse time slot
is small then the transmission and reception of data appears simultaneous to the
users at both the subscriber unit and on the base station side. Figure illustrates
FDD and TDD techniques. TDD allows communication
R everse Forw ard
C hannel C hannel Freq uency
Freq uency separation
(a ) FD D
R everse Forw ard
C hannel C hannel
Tim e
Tim e separation
(b ) TD D
(b) AMPS and ETACS System Overview: Like all other first generation, anal.og,
cellular systems, AMPS and ETACS use frequency modulation (FM) for radio
transmission. In the United States, transmission from mobiles to base stations
(reverse link) use frequencies between 824 MHz and 849 MHz, while base stations
transmit to mobiles (forward link) using frequencies between 869 MHz and 894
MHz. ETACS uses 890 MHz to 915 MHz for the revese link and 935 MHz to 960
MHz for the forward link. Every radio channel actually consists of a pair of
simplex channels separated by 45 MHz.
AMPS and ETACS cellular radio syystems generally have tall towers which
support several receiving antennas and have transmitting antennas which
typically rediate a feew hundred watts of effectgive radiated power. Each base
station typically has one control channel transmtter (that broadcasts on the
forward control channel), one control channel receiver (that listens on the reverse
control channel for any cellular phone switching to set-up a call), and eight or
more FM duplex voice channels. The actual number of control and voice channels
used at a particular base station varies widelyy in different syystem installations
depending on traffic, maturity of the system, and locations of other base stations.
The number of base stations in a service area varies widely, as well, from as few
as cellular tower in rural area to several hundred or more base stations in a large city.
Each base station in the AMPS or ETACS system continuously transmits digital FSK
data on the forward control channel (FCC) at all times so that idel cellular subscriber
ALPHAA GROUP: Wireless Communication 167
units can lock onto the strongest FCC whereever they are. All subscribers must be
locked, or “camped” onto a FCC in order to originate or receive calls. The base
station reverse control chhannel (RCC) receiver constantly monitors tranmissions
from cellular subscribers that are locked onto the matching FCC.
United States Digital Cellular (IS-54): The first generation analog AMPS system
was not designed to support the current demand for capacity in large cities. Cellular
systems which use digital modulation techniques (called digital cellular) offer large
improvements in capacity and system performance. After extensive research and
comparison by major cellular manufacturers in the late 1980s, the United States
Digital Cellular System (USDC) was developed to support more users in a fixed
spectrum allocation. USDC is a time division multiple access (TDMA) system which
supports three full-rate users or six half-rate users on each AMPS channel.
The USDC system was designed to share the same frequencies, frequency reuse
plan, and base station as AMPS, so that base stations and suubscriber units
could be equipped with both AMPS and USDC channels withiin the same piece
of equpment. By supporting both AMPS and USDS, cellular carriers are able to
provide new customers with USDC phones and may gradually replace AMPS
base stations with USDC base stations, channel by channel, over time. Because
USDC maintains compatibility with AMPS in a number of ways, USDC is also
known as Digital AMPS (D-AMPS).
(c) Location Update: A GSM or UMTS network, like all cellular networks, is a
radio network of individual cells, known as base stations. Each base station covers
a small geographical area which is part of a uniquely identified location area. By
integrating the coverage of eachh of these base stations, a cellular network provides
a radio coverage over a much wider area. A group of base stations is named alocation
area, or a routing area. The location update procedure allows a mobiile device to
infrom the cellular network, whenever it moves form one location area to the next.
Mobiles are responsible for detectiing location area codes. When a mobile finds
that the location area code is different from its last update, it performs another
uupdate by sending to the network a location update request, together wiith its
previous location, and its Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI).
There are several reasons why a mobile may provide updated location infromation
to the network. Whenever a mobile is swicxhed on or off, the network mayy
requre it to perform an IMSI attach or IMSI detach location update procedure.
Also, each mobile is required to regularly report its location at a set time interval
using a periodic location update procedure. Whenever a mobile moves from one
location area to the next while not ion a call, a random location update is
required. This is also required of a stationary mobile that reselects coverage
from a cell in a diffrent location area, because of signal fade. Thus a subscriber
has reliable access to the network and may be reached with a call, while enjoying
the freedom of mobility within the whole coverage area.
When a subscriber is paged in an attempt to deliver a call or SMS and the
subscriber does not rely to that page then the subscriber iis marked as absent in
both the Mobile Switching Center/Visitor Location Register (MSC/VLR) and
the Home Location Register (HLR) Mobile not reachable flag MNRF is set). The
next time the mobile performs a location update the HLR is updated and the
mobile not reachable flag is cleared.