S0300-A8-HBK-010

CHAPTER 2

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

2-1 INTRODUCTION

A salvage engineer performs structural analysis to evaluate casualty strength and to design structural elements of salvage systems. Casualty
strength analysis addresses both hull girder and local loading. The salvage engineer must be able to:

• Evaluate the ability of the casualty’s primary structure to carry loads expected during salvage and the subsequent tow or transit
to a repair or disposal site.

• Determine whether structures can carry high local loads, such as those experienced by pulling points, winch foundations, heavily
loaded decks, etc.

• Design reinforcements to existing structures.

• Design field repairs and patches.

• Estimate residual strength of damaged structure.

The salvage engineer is also concerned with local structural analysis of the casualty hull and/or field-built structures. Local structure loading
concerns salvors when:

• Hull girder and local stresses are superimposed.

• Deck loading is incurred by equipment, stores, flooding, or weight additions.

• Damaged structure is loaded.

• There are tensile, shear, and bending loads on lifting or pulling system attachment points.

• Bulkheads and decks are loaded hydrostatically during dewatering.

• Jacking, parbuckling, shoring, or pushing induce compressive loads.

• Fittings or members are loaded in other than the design mode.

• Part of the casualty’s structure is designed into a salvage system.

Equations of statics or deflection relationships can be employed to determine component loads if certain restrictions are met:

• The structural units can be isolated realistically.

• Valid assumptions concerning end and side constraints are made.

• Forces and moments applied by adjacent units can represent reasonable boundary conditions on the isolated unit.

Local strength analysis has four steps:

1 – Draw a free body diagram to isolate the member and determine force and moment loads.

2 – Determine principal and combined stresses resulting from the applied forces.

3 – Compare the stress levels to limiting stress levels of an appropriate failure theory.

4 – If the results of step 3 indicate failure or an unacceptable safety factor, strengthen or reinforce the member, or reduce the load.

2-1
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-2 HULL STRENGTH IN SALVAGE

Ships are designed and constructed to withstand the shear forces and bending moments expected in their normal service. In an intact floating
ship, maximum bending moment occurs at or near the midships section. Maximum shear force occurs near the quarter-length points. Ships
have heavier scantlings in high-load areas to keep stresses within acceptable levels. Two conditions common in salvage operations cause unusual
hull stress distribution:

• The ship is loaded in ways the designer has not foreseen. Due to flooding, grounding, or other unusual conditions of loading,
maximum bending moment occurs at a section other than midships, and maximum shear is at points other than the quarters.

• Damage alters the geometry of the ship sections so that maximum stress is in a section other than that of maximum bending
moment or shear. Damage, even over a short distance, disrupts the continuity of longitudinal members and reduces the load-
carrying ability of the structure for some distance on either side of the damaged section.
Casualty hull girder stresses should be monitored carefully throughout the salvage operation. The salvage engineer takes three actions with
regard to hull girder strength:

• Analyzes the casualty’s initial condition.

• Determines the casualty’s ability to carry loads imposed by environmental conditions and planned salvage actions.

• Determines methods to reduce excessive hull stresses by altering load distribution or reinforcing critical sections.

Initial determination of strength deck and keel bending stresses, including the effects of damage and altered loading, sets a baseline for analysis.
As a minimum, stress levels should be determined at damaged sections, where shear force or bending moment is maximum, and where the
salvage engineer’s judgement indicates there may be problems. Paragraph 1-11 describes hull girder stress calculations. Chapters 5 and 6
address changes to the load, shear, and bending moment curves resulting from grounding and other casualties. The potential effects of major
weight changes on load, shear, and bending moment should be examined before making the changes. Curves of maximum acceptable (limiting)
shear forces and bending moments, based on actual section geometry, should be developed. Plotting bending shear force and bending moment
curves and comparing them with allowable limits determines if planned actions will result in acceptable conditions. If the shear and bending
moment curves lie under the limiting curves, the planned action will not overstress the hull.
Hull girder failure in bending usually starts with compressive failure of the top or bottom of the girder. Compressive failure of longitudinally
stiffened deck and single-bottom structures in warship hulls almost always takes the form of local inelastic buckling of longitudinals and attached
plating. Hull girder failure may not be visible; the failure area may be obscured by other structures or the ship contents. Tensile failure is
characterized by athwartships fractures in the outer flange of the structure. The fracture is accompanied by a loud report.
2-2.1 Damaged Strength. The hull’s structural design keeps longitudinal bending stresses at acceptable levels under expected loads.
Longitudinal bending stresses are highest in the sheer strake, strength deck, keel, bottom longitudinals, and bottom plating. In salvage operations,
strength members should be inspected carefully for damage. Salvors should avoid intentional damage to members subject to high stress.
Damage to members close to the neutral axis in the midships region, such as holing near the design or service waterline, has much less impact
on longitudinal strength than damage to the strength deck and upper side strakes or bottom. Damage in the vicinity of the neutral axis near the
quarter-length points can result in very high shear stresses.
A serious consequence of damage is the loss of structural continuity in critical strength members. The application of simple beam theory to
ship girders is predicated on the assumption that the ship responds to shear forces and bending moments essentially as a single continuous beam.
Loss of continuity in longitudinal members reduces the ability of the structure to spread shear loads across adjacent sections—both shear and
bending stresses are increased. Loss of continuity in transverse members reduces the rigidity of the structure and allows longitudinal members
to act independently, reducing longitudinal strength. Loss of transverse continuity in regions subject to shear or torsional loading increases shear
stress and deformation. Increased shear stress and/or deformation in a section alters the bending stress distribution in that section. In addition,
discontinuities in load-bearing members always act as stress raisers or concentration points. These effects, singly or in combination, can raise
stresses in the hull girder to unacceptable levels.
When subjected to high-enough stress, the hull will fail catastrophically. Usually, total hull failure begins with compressive failure of the
extreme fibers:

• Buckled plating and stiffener flanges and tripped stiffener webs are evidence of compressive failure. Load shirking by the buckled
members and hull deformation cause increased stress in other structural members that may then fail sequentially.

• Shear failure is characterized by wrinkles or cracks in side plating at a 45-degree angle to the line of stress.

• While not causing immediate failure, cyclic stressing of the hull to levels near the yield limit will reduce the endurance limit
greatly, causing fatigue failure at tensile stresses below the ultimate stress. Casualties exposed to severe cyclic loading from wave
or tidal action may fail in days or even hours.

2-2
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Structural members cut or torn away by battle damage, collision, or grounding cannot contribute to a section’s ability to carry loads. Other types
of damage reduce load-carrying capacity:

• Buckled members that have lost essentially all of their ability to carry compressive loads, but keep a large portion of their original
tensile strength.

• Large areas of heavily indented or dished plate that cannot carry compressive loads as high as undamaged plating. The tensile
strength remains about the same.

• Cracks may appear around the edges of other damage or in otherwise undamaged structure. The great danger of cracks is that
they will propagate under tensile loads perpendicular to the crack axis.

• Structural members exposed to high heat or fire suffer a loss of material from wastage due to accelerated corrosion, melting, or
burning. Metal strength properties are altered unpredictably by the heating and cooling process, but strength and hardness are
always taken as lowered. Fire-damaged members may have very little residual strength in either tension or compression.

• Holes, cuts, or tears act as stress raisers in tensioned members and induce buckling or tripping in members under compression.
Accesses should not be cut where the loss of material will reduce the section modulus unacceptably or interrupt strength member
continuity. If holes are cut in decks or shell plating, the effects of reduced plating area and stress concentration on hull girder
strength must be determined, or the openings reinforced to compensate for the lost material.
When stresses are within the elastic range, deleting damaged and missing structural members from the moment of inertia and shear area
calculations gives a conservative estimate of a damaged hull’s ability to carry shear and bending loads.
Damaged structural members have residual strength, which is important in salvage because the salvage engineer may have to rely on that
strength. Residual strength is estimated more by art and common sense than by analysis—there are no hard-and-fast rules for accurate
determination of residual strength. Permanently deformed members have been stressed beyond the elastic limit. When a load causing plastic
deformation in part of a structure is removed, stresses in the structure do not return to their original levels because of the uneven deformation.
The plastic design methods described in Paragraph 2-2.4 estimate the contribution of bent or buckled structural members to hull girder strength.
Plastic analysis assumes the entire structural cross section has yielded. Yield across an entire section is an extreme assumption that is seldom
fulfilled in ship girders—plastic analysis is therefore conservative for damaged hulls. Plastic design methods presume, however, that loads are
controlled and accurately quantified, a condition that rarely applies to salvage. Thoughtful consideration of the type and extent of damage and
nature of expected loading is necessary to determine the residual strength of damaged structure.
Holes, wrinkles, cracks, torn plating, and similar damage is obvious; other damage may be less obvious or may be hidden. Explosions,
particularly underwater explosions, cause violent responses throughout the hull girder—not just in the vicinity of the explosion. The ship whips
or vibrates near its fundamental two-node vertical frequency. The ship may complete a hog-sag cycle in one second or less, with deflection
amplitudes of several feet. In addition to damage in the areas nearest the explosion, there may be significant damage near the quarter-length
points, caused by rapid flexure and stress reversal. Signs of hidden damage include:

• Recent rust and scale flaking or paint cracking and flaking on structural members, indicating large deformations.

• Double-bottom plating set up or with the lines or position of internals very obvious.

• Severe dishing of plating between stiffeners. Dishing may be caused by impact or may indicate plastic hinging. Plastic hinging
will usually extend across several adjacent plate panels, with each dished, and the plating will pant if a heavy sea is running. If
possible, the thickness of the plating should be measured. A significant reduction in thickness shows that plastic hinging has been
going on for some time, and was probably not an effect of the casualty.

• Changes in the alignment of masts and other fixed topside installations.

• Long shallow indentations of plating. Indentations are best seen by placing the eye close to the structure and looking along it,
or by shining a flashlight beam across the plating so the deformations form shadows.

• Cracked welds.

• Cracked deck coating.

• Misaligned machinery.

• Jammed or misaligned doors, hatches, etc.

• Failed bolted or riveted connections or machinery foundations.

• Evidence of abnormal range of movement of boiler sliding feet.

• Changes in any of the above.

2-3
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-2.2 Stiffened Plating. Strength of

small sections of shell or deck plating λ λ λ λ
between frames can be analyzed by the flat-
plate formulas presented in Paragraph 2-5.
Large areas of hull structure that include
stiffening frames or longitudinals, or cross-
stiffening, require a different approach.
Simple beam theory can be applied to
stiffened plating if two conditions are met: B B B
λ = EFFECTIVE BREADTH OF PLATING
• Adjacent units exert no in-
fluence on the edges of the
isolated unit, and Figure 2-1. Stress Distribution in Stiffened Plating.

• The deflection of the support-

ing structure is negligible compared with the deflection of the isolated beam.
These assumptions are likely to be valid if the end supports are bulkheads or shell plating, and less likely if they are orthogonal beams.
Simple beam theory is not completely applicable to wide-flanged beams, box girders, and stiffened plating because of the way shear diffuses
from the webs into and across the flanges. Direct stresses in flanges and plating differ from those predicted with simple beam theory because
sections do not remain plane. The wavy line in Figure 2-1 shows the distribution of stress across stiffened plating under bending load. This
effect is known as shear lag. Maximum stress is found by assuming that part of the plating is wholly effective and applying simple beam theory
to the effective part. The effective breadth of plating (λ) is used to calculate the effective moment of inertia of the cross section. Table 2-1
gives effective breadths for various configurations. If there is appreciable panel dishing, the λ/B values from Table 2-1 are no longer applicable,
and λ is assumed to be B/2.

Table 2-1. Effective Breadths.

Single girder, effective breadth = λ/B

Concentrated load
L/B Uniform load β = 0.01 β = 0.10 β = 1.00 B L
λ
0.5 0.191 0.092 0.133 0.150
1.0 0.362 0.152 0.242 0.288
2.0 0.665 0.312 0.414 0.518 t
4.0 0.885 0.467 0.592 0.720 h=1/2 WEB
DEPTH tW
6.0 0.943 0.554 0.687 0.802
8.0 0.969 0.611 0.748 0.850
10.0 0.982 0.653 0.792 0.878

Stiffened plating, effective breadth = λ/B

Concentrated load
L/B Uniform load β = 0.01 β = 0.10 β = 1.00 L
0.5 0.196 0.092 0.136 0.154 B
λ
1.0 0.369 0.156 0.256 0.313
λ
2.0 0.737 0.328 0.438 0.580
4.0 0.989 0.501 0.638 0.795 t
WEB tW
6.0 1.045 0.596 0.744 0.881 h=1/2
8.0 1.069 0.661 0.814 0.934 DEPTH
10.0 1.080 0.701 0.855 0.960

L = Span of simply supported beam or distance between points of zero bending moment for fixed ends (0.58 × span for uniformly
distributed load)
1 htw
β = _ __ for double identical flanges
6 Bt
1 htw
β = _ __ for single flanges or stiffened plating
4 Bt
From The Effective Breadth Concept in Ship Structure Design, H.A. Schade; TSNAME, 1953 and 1951

2-4
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-2.3 Grillages. Crossing stiffeners will

complicate evaluation of bending loads on P
panels of stiffened plate. Figure 2-2 shows
a concentrated load P on the intersection of
two perpendicular, simply supported beams.
The beams, designated by subscripts 1 and
2, cross at their midpoints and form the
simplest type of grillage. Examining each
beam separately, as shown in Figure 2-2:
3
P1l1
y1 =
48E1I1
P1 P2
BEAM 1 BEAM 2
and:
l1 l2
3
P2l2
y2 =
48E2I2 Figure 2-2. Grillage.

where:

y = vertical deflection at beam midpoint, [length]

P = load at the beam midpoint, [force]
l = beam length, [length]
E = modulus of elasticity, [force/length2]
I = cross-sectional moment of inertia of the beam, [length4]

If the beams do not separate, y1 = y2, and

3 3
P1l1 P2l2
=
E1I1 E 2I 2

P1 + P2 = P; if both beams are constructed of the same material, E1 = E2 and:

3
Pl1 1
y= ×
3
48EI1 I2l1
1 +
3
I1l2

Maximum bending moments in the two beams are:

P1l1 p2l2
M1max = M2max =
4 4

Plating contribution is accounted for with effective breadths, as discussed in the previous section. This problem involved the simplest form of
grillage, under the simplest form of loading. Determining moments and loads for complex grillages is difficult, however, satisfactory estimates
can be made using the design curves described in the following paragraph.

2-5
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-2.3.1 Design Curves. Figures 2-5 through 2-13 are design curves for predicting axial stresses, shear stresses, and deflection of stiffened
plate panels under uniform bending loads. A complete presentation of the derivation and use of the curves can be found in Design Curves for
Cross-Stiffened Plating Under Uniform Bending Load, H.A. Schade, TSNAME, 1941. The curves apply to rectangles with the stiffener patterns
shown in Figure 2-3:

• Type A – Cross-stiffened
grillage. The middle stiffener
of either or both sets of
stiffeners may be stiffer than
the others of the set.
TYPE A - TYPE B - MODIFIED TYPE C - SINGLE TYPE D -
•
CROSS-STIFFENING CROSS-STIFFENING DIRECTION STIFFENING UNSTIFFENED PLATE
Type B – A set of repeating
I I -I I t3
stiffeners in one direction and ia = na + 2 ( a na ) ia = 2 a ia = 0 ia = ib =
a single central stiffener at
sa b b 12(1 - µ2)
right angles. The central Inb Ib - Inb Inb I -I I
ib = +2(
a
) ib = + 2 ( b nb )
a
ib = nb ρ= a
stiffener of the repeating set sb sb sb b
may be stiffer than the others. 4 Ii Ii
ρ= a ρ= a ρ=∞ η = 1.0
b Ii b Ii
• Type C – Repeating stiffeners
Ipa Ipb I2pb b
in one direction only. η= a η = 0.124 η = indeterminate
b Ina Inb IaInb sb
• Type D – Plating without
stiffeners.
Figure 2-3. Types of Stiffening, with Applicable Formulas for Parameters.

The curves are applied to interlocking stiffeners without plating (grids), stiffeners with plating on one side, or stiffeners with plating on both
sides, such as a ship’s double bottom. In the titles of Figures 2-5 through 2-8, the term field indicates stress within the rectangle, as distinguished
from stress at the edges.

The curves provide values for a dimensionless coefficient, K, that is substituted into the relationships shown on the graphs to find the axial stress,
shear stress, or deflection. The K curves are plotted as functions of the virtual side ratio, ρ, and the torsion coefficient, η for different edge
constraints. The parameters ρ and η for different stiffener patterns are defined in Figure 2-3. The four cases of edge constraint considered are:

• Case 1 – All four edges

rigidly supported, but not a = LONG DIMENSION
fixed.
b = SHORT DIMENSION
b
• Case 2 – Both short edges PLATE
fixed, both long edges rigidly
supported. sa
N A
• Case 3 – Both long edges rb
fixed, both short edges rigidly
supported.
sb
STIFFENER
• Case 4 – All four edges
a

fixed.
Figure 2-4. Stiffened Plate Nomenclature.
Additional parameters, some of which are
illustrated in Figures 2-3 and 2-4, are used
with the curves:

P = uniform bending load Ia = moment of inertia of central long stiffener,

a = length of rectangle including effective breadth of plating
b = width of rectangle Ib = moment of inertia of central short stiffener,
sa = spacing of long stiffeners including effective breadth of plating
sb = spacing of short stiffeners Aa = web area of central long stiffener
Ina = moment of inertia of repeating long stiffeners, in- Ab = web area of central short stiffener
cluding effective breadth of plating ra = bending lever arm of central long stiffener
Inb = moment of inertia of repeating short stiffeners, rb = bending lever arm of central short stiffener
including effective breadth of plating ia = unit stiffness in the long direction
Ipa = moment of inertia of effective breadth of plating ib = unit stiffness in the short direction
only, working with repeating long stiffeners µ = Poisson’s ratio
Ipb = moment of inertia of effective breadth of plating
only, working with repeating short stiffeners

2-6
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The parameters ia and ib, the unit stiffness in the long and short directions, are the moment of inertia of the stiffeners per unit width. The torsion
coefficient (η) accounts for horizontal shear stress in the plating, and is defined roughly as the ratio of the inertia of the material subject to
horizontal shear stress to the inertia of the material subject to bending. In a grid without plating, no material is subject to horizontal shear and
η = 0. In an unstiffened plate, all material is subject to both horizontal shear and bending and η = 1. In stiffened plate structures, only the
plating is subject to horizontal shear, but both plating and stiffeners are subject to bending, so 0 < η < 1.

If there are stiffeners in only one direction, the expression for η becomes indeterminate because either Ina or Inb is zero. For this case:

Ipb2b
η = 0.124
IaInbsb
The virtual side ratio, ρ, always equal to or greater than 1, is the actual side ratio, a/b, modified by the ratio of the unit stiffness in the two
directions.

Material yield strength (σy), modulus of elasticity (E), plate breadth between stiffeners to thickness ratio (b/t), stiffener dimensions, initial
deformations, and residual stresses influence the strength of a welded grillage under end loading.

There are four failure modes:

1 – Plate failure.

2 – Inter-frame flexural buckling of stiffeners and plating.

3 – Inter-frame tripping of stiffeners and plating.

4 – Overall grillage instability.

0.14

0.13 η = 0.00 ALL EDGES Pb2ra

GENERAL FORMULA: σ = K
η = 0.50 FREELY ib ia
0.12 η = 1.00 SUPPORTED
SYMBOL INDICATES
a LOCATION OF STRESS
b µ ASSUMED 0.3
0.11 CASE 1
FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES
(TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMLA:
0.10 SUPPORTED σ = 5.46 KP ( bt )2 APPLIES
a
FIXED

FIXED

0.09 b
CASE 2
SUPPORTED
0.08

0.07 η = 0.00
K VALUES

η = 0.50
0.06 η = 1.00

0.05
SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED

FIXED 0.0412
0.04 a
b FIXED
CASE 3 a
FIXED

FIXED

0.03
FIXED b
CASE 4
0.02
FIXED 0.0137
η = 0.00
0.01 η = 0.50
η = 1.00
0.00
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4
NOTE: ρ = a b ib
VALUES OF ρ
ia

Figure 2-5. Field Bending Stress in Plating Long Direction.

2-7
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

0.12

0.11 Pb2ra
FORMULA: σ = K
ib ia
0.10
SYMBOL INDICATES
LOCATION OF STRESS
0.09 η = 0.00 ALL EDGES µ ASSUMED 0.00
η = 0.50 FREELY
0.08 η = 1.00 SUPPORTED
a
b
0.07
CASE 1
0.06 SUPPORTED

FIXED
a

FIXED
0.05 b
K VALUES

CASE 2
SUPPORTED
0.04

SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED
FIXED
0.03 a
b
0.02 CASE 3
FIXED
0.01

0.0000
0.00

η = 0.00 η = 0.00
-0.01 η = 0.50 η = 0.50
η = 1.00 η = 1.00
-0.02
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-6. Field Bending Stress in Free Flanges in Long Direction.

0.17
η = 0.00 a ALL EDGES
0.16 η = 0.50 b FREELY
η = 1.00 CASE 1 SUPPORTED
0.15

0.1374
0.14

0.13
η = 0.00
0.12 η = 0.50
η = 1.00 SUPPORTED
a Pb2ra
GENERAL FORMULA: σ = K
FIXED

FIXED

0.11
b ib
CASE 2 SYMBOL INDICATES
0.10
K VALUES

SUPPORTED LOCATION OF STRESS

µ ASSUMED 0.3
0.09
FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES
SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED

FIXED (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMULA:

0.08 a σ = 5.46 KP ( bt )2 APPLIES
b
0.07 CASE 3
FIXED
FIXED
a
FIXED

FIXED

0.06 b
CASE 4
0.05 FIXED
0.0458
η = 0.00
0.04 η = 0.50
η = 1.00
0.03
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-7. Field Bending Stress in Plating in Short Direction.

2-8
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

0.16
η = 0.00 a ALL EDGES
η = 0.50 b FREELY
0.15
η = 1.00 CASE 1 SUPPORTED

0.14

0.13
0.1250
0.12

0.11
SUPPORTED
0.10 a

FIXED

FIXED
b
0.09 CASE 2
K VALUES

η = 1.00 SUPPORTED
η = 0.50
0.08 η = 0.00 Pb2rb
FORMULA: σ = K
SUPPORTED ib ia

SUPPORTED
0.07 FIXED
SYMBOL INDICATES
a LOCATION OF STRESS
0.06 b µ ASSUMED 0.00
CASE 3
0.05 FIXED
0.0417
0.04
η = 0.00
0.03 η = 0.50
η = 1.00
0.02
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-8. Field Bending Stress in Free Flanges in Short Direction.

0.16
η = 0.00 a ALL EDGES
η = 0.50 Pb2ra
0.15 b FREELY σ=K
η = 1.00 CASE 1 SUPPORTED ib ia

0.14 0.1374

0.13
SUPPORTED
0.12 a
FIXED

FIXED

Pb2rb
b σ=K
ib
0.11 CASE 2
SUPPORTED
0.10
0.0916
0.09
K VALUES

SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED

FIXED
0.08 a Pb2rb
η = 0.00 b σ=K
ib
η = 0.50 CASE 3
0.07 η = 1.00 FIXED 0.0627
0.06
FIXED GENERAL FORMULAE AS SHOWN
0.05 a SYMBOL INDICATES
FIXED

FIXED

Pb2ra
b σ=K LOCATION OF STRESS
ib ia µ ASSUMED 0.3
0.04 CASE 4
FIXED FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES
0.03 (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMULA:
σ = 5.46 KP ( bt )2 APPLIES
0.02
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-9. Support Bending Stress in Plating.

2-9
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

0.16

0.15 SUPPORTED
η = 0.00 a

FIXED

FIXED
Pb2ra
η = 0.50 b σ=K
0.14 η = 1.00 ib ia
CASE 2
SUPPORTED
0.13
0.1250
0.12

SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED
FIXED
0.11
η = 0.00 a
Pb2rb
η = 0.50 b σ=K
0.10 ib
η = 1.00 CASE 3
FIXED
0.09
K VALUES

0.0833
0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05 FORMULAE AS SHOWN

SYMBOL INDICATES
0.04 LOCATION OF STRESS
µ ASSUMED 0.00
0.03

0.02
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4
NOTE: ρ = ab ib
VALUES OF ρ
ia

Figure 2-10. Support Bending Stress in Free Flanges.

0.7426
0.70

0.6431
SUPPORTED
a
FIXED

FIXED

0.60
b
CASE 2
η = 1.00 SUPPORTED 0.5251
η = 0.50
0.50 η = 0.00
FIXED
a ALL EDGES
a
FIXED

FIXED

b FREELY
η = 1.00 b SUPPORTED
η = 0.00 CASE 1
CASE 4
0.40 η = 0.50
FIXED
K VALUES

η = 1.00 0.3712

0.3215

0.30
0.2625

PbIα
GENERAL FORMULA: τ = K
0.20 Aa 4 i L3
b a
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION
SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED

FIXED
OF STRESS
a
η = 1.00 b FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES
0.10 (TYPE "D"), THE SHEAR
η = 0.50 CASE 3 LOAD PER UNIT WIDTH = KPb
η = 0.00 FIXED
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-11. Shear Stress in Long Webs.

2-10
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

η = 0.00

SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED
FIXED
0.70 η = 0.50 a
η = 1.00 b
CASE 3
FIXED η = 0.00
0.60 η = 0.50
η = 1.00

0.5000
0.50

FIXED
0.40 a

FIXED

FIXED
K VALUES

b
CASE 4
FIXED
0.30 a ALL EDGES
b FREELY
CASE 1 SUPPORTED
PbIb
SUPPORTED GENERAL FORMULA: τ = K
0.20 Abia
a
FIXED

FIXED
SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION
η = 1.00 b OF STRESS
η = 0.50 CASE 2 FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES
η = 0.00 SUPPORTED (TYPE "D"), THE SHEAR
0.10 LOAD PER UNIT WIDTH = KPb

1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-12. Shear Stress in Short Webs.

0.15
η = 0.00
0.14 η = 0.50
η = 1.00
0.0130
0.13

0.12
Pb2ra
0.11 GENERAL FORMULA: σ = K
ib ia
a
b SYMBOL INDICATES LOCATION
0.10 OF STRESS
CASE 1
η = 0.00 FOR UNSTIFFENED PLATES
0.09 η = 0.50 ALL EDGES
FREELY (TYPE "D"), THE PLATE FORMULA:
η = 1.00 SUPPORTED Pb4
0.08 W = 10.91 K APPLIES
Et3
K VALUES

SUPPORTED
a
FIXED

FIXED

0.07 b
CASE 2
0.06 SUPPORTED
η = 0.00
η = 0.50
SUPPORTED

SUPPORTED

0.05 FIXED FIXED

η = 1.00
a a
FIXED

FIXED

0.04 b b
CASE 3 CASE 4
0.03 FIXED FIXED
0.0130

0.02

0.01
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 ρ ∞ 4 ib
VALUES OF ρ NOTE: ρ = ab
ia

Figure 2-13. Deflection at Center.

2-11
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-2.3.2 Plate Failure. Plate panels rupture before stiffeners yield. The difference in ultimate loads for grillages whose edges are held straight
and those free to deflect is negligible for b/t < 60. For b/t = 80, the difference in collapse loads is less than 5 percent. Lateral pressure (e.g.,
hydrostatic head) is unlikely to cause significant loss of plating compressive strength.

When yield strength of the stiffeners is much greater than that of the plating, plate failure is the most likely form of collapse. In grillages with
substantial weld-induced distortions and residual stress, and in grillages with b/t < 45, little if any load reduction occurs in plating. The ultimate
stress of the plating is not normally reached until the average compressive stress is well beyond yield. At this stage, extensive yielding and
elasto-plastic buckling of stiffeners usually has occurred.

2-2.3.3 Inter-frame Flexural Buckling. Failure is column-like flexural buckling of stiffeners and plating between transverse frames. External
lateral load forces buckle away from the plating, although initial distortion towards the plating may overcome the effect of external load and force
buckling towards the plating. Panting, hinging, or damage reduces plating stiffness and increases the likelihood of this mode of failure.

2-2.3.4 Inter-frame Tripping. Inter-frame tripping is particularly likely in short, stiff girders and in stiffeners without lateral or torsional
rigidity, such as flat bars and bulb angles. Tripping may take place in association with flexure of stiffeners where buckling is towards the
plating.

2-2.3.5 Grillage Instability. Collapse is by buckling of the grillage over its entire length into one or more half waves with bending of
transverse and longitudinal stiffeners. Collapse is influenced strongly by reduced plating stiffness, as in inter-frame buckling. Local stiffener
tripping where bending occurs towards the plating causes failure at lower loads.

2-2.3.6 Residual Stresses. Residual stresses, introduced during construction and by damage, can cause large reductions in column strength
of stiffened panels. Residual stresses induced in stiffeners by fully plastic cold bending, followed by welding to a plate, can cause loss of up
to 35 percent of the column strength of stiffened plate. The curvature required to induce fully plastic bending of rolled stiffeners is small and
occurs from straightening of distorted stiffeners during construction, or as a result of collision, grounding, battle damage, or expedient repairs.

The alternating tensile and compressive loads of wave-induced bending slightly relax bending stresses. Effective residual stress is usually taken
as 75 percent of the as-built stresses.

2-2.3.7 Herzog Formula for Stiffened Panels under Uniaxial Compression. A formula developed by Herzog (Simplified Design of
Unstiffened and Stiffened Plates, M.A.M. Herzog; Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol 113, No 10, ASCE Structural Division, October 1987)
provides a simple, semi-empirical prediction of the ultimate strength of a stiffened panel under compressive load, expressed as a ratio of ultimate
stress to material yield strength:

 
σ     2
 ult  = 0.86 R 0.5  λ1  
σ  2  0.5 1 
 y  5%   2

where:

σult = ultimate strength in uniaxial compression of longitudinally stiffened plate panels with average imperfections and residual welding
stresses, expressed as a simple compressive stress
σy = steel yield stress
5% = indicates the fifth percentile, i.e., all but 5 percent of test panels fail at or above the predicted stress
R2 = reduction factor for plate slenderness effect
λ1 = reduction factor for relative column slenderness

The reduction factors R2 and λ1 are determined by:

b  b
R2 = 1 0.007  45 for > 45
t  t
b
= 1 for < 45
t

a σy
λ1 =
πr E

where:

b = maximum spacing between stiffeners

t = plate thickness
a = transverse stiffener spacing
k = radius of gyration
E = modulus of elasticity

2-12
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Choice of units is immaterial, as long as top and bottom terms in each ratio are expressed in the same units. Although the formula does not
indicate failure mode, it is useful for predicting the collapse load for axially loaded flanges in complex girders—for example, the compression
flange of a hull girder.

2-2.4 Plastic Stress and Residual Strength.

Because stresses are highest in the outer Table 2-2. Plastic Modulus, S, for FFG-7, Station 10.
fibers of a beam in bending, the fibers
farthest from the neutral axis yield first. As Neutral Axis 15.01 ft above baseline (see Table 1-12 for calculation)
load increases, stress remains constant in the First Moment of Area above Neutral Axis:
yielded fibers until all fibers in the section
Component dimensions a y ay
reach the yield limit. Stress remains constant in. in2 ft in2-ft
because at stresses just above the elastic
Mn Dk Girders, Inbd (7) 5 x 4 x 6# 12.39 14.603 180.93
limit, strain increases without an increase in
stress, allowing the material to flow Mn Dk Girders, Outbd (4) 5 x 5.75 x 13# 15.24 14.603 222.55
plastically and shirk load. When all the 2nd Dk Girders, (10) 4 x 4 x 5# 14.80 5.736 84.89
fibers have reached the yield limit, stress Mn Dk Plating, Inbd (246 - 75) x .375 64.13 14.990 961.23
distribution is uniform on each side of the Mn Dk Plating, Outbd 84 x .625 52.50 14.990 786.98
neutral axis; the moment of resistance is 2nd Dk Plating, Inbd (225 - 90) x .1875 25.31 5.990 151.62
constant and the beam has formed a plastic
2nd Dk Pltg, Outbd 51 x .25 12.75 5.990 76.37
hinge. The plastic moment is:
"E" Strake 93 x .3125 29.06 2.865 83.26
Mp = σyS "D" Strake, above NA 86.88 x .3125 27.15 3.620 98.28
"E" Doubler, upper 31.5 x .5 15.75 12.990 204.59
S is the sum of the first moments of area "E" Doubler, lower 30 x .75 22.50 11.490 258.53
about each side of the neutral axis and is Side Stringers
called the plastic modulus. The ratio S/Z is
L20 6 x 6 x 13# 3.82 12.990 49.62
the shape factor and is equal to 1.5 for
rectangle and about 1.3 for stiffened plating. L19 6 x 6 x 13# 3.82 11.490 43.89
L18 5 x 4 x 6# 1.77 9.490 16.80
A plastic hinge resists the plastic moment but L17 5 x 4 x 6# 1.77 7.740 13.70
rotates freely for a slightly greater moment. L16 6 x 4 x 7# 2.08 4.240 8.82
Before collapse, a structure will develop L15 6 x 4 x 7# 2.08 2.490 5.18
enough hinges to become statically
L14 6 x 4 x 8# 2.36 0.990 2.34
determinate, since each plastic hinge becomes
a point of known bending moment. ∑ayabove NA = 3249.58

Table 2-2 is the tabular calculation of the S = ∑ayabove NA + ∑aybelow NA a = cross-sectional area
y = height above Neutral Axis
plastic modulus for station 10 of an FFG-7
∑ayabove NA = ∑aybelow NA, ⇒ S = 2 × ∑ayabove NA ay = moment of area about Neutral Axis
Class ship. The section moduli for this
station were calculated in Table 1-12 as Shalf section = 2 × 3,249.58 = 6,499.16 in2-ft
10,870 inches2 feet (ZK) and 10,884 inches2
feet (ZDK). The shape factor is the plastic Swhole section = 2 × Shalf section = 2 × 6,499.16
modulus divided by the larger of the two
section moduli: = 12,998.32 in2-ftx ≈ 12,998 in2-ft
S 12,998
Shape factor = = = 1.19
ZDK 10,884

The moment that will cause the entire section to yield is only about 19 percent higher than the moment that first causes plastic deformation.
The flange of the hull girder in compression almost always buckles before the entire section yields.

2-2.5 Ultimate Strength Computer Programs. A number of computer programs have been developed to analyze the ultimate strength of ship
hulls under various loadings. Because of the tedious nature of hull girder ultimate strength calculations, computer programs should be used when
salvage operations must depend on the casualty’s ultimate rather than yield strength. Access to ultimate strength computer programs and or
operators can be sought from the David Taylor Research Center, the Naval Ship Engineering Center, the American Bureau of Shipping, or private
companies, through the Supervisor of Salvage.

2-13
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-3 BEAMS

The theory of flexure is the basis for beam

strength analysis; the relationships
developed by flexure theory are based on
certain assumptions and subject to
constraints that may not always apply to
situations in damaged ships. A summary of FIXED PINNED SIMPLE CONSTRAINED
the theory and its assumptions is presented
prior to addressing specific beam END RESTRAINTS
applications.
A beam is a structural member subjected
principally to lateral loading and restrained
at one or both ends, or at points along its
length. The distance between supports or SIMPLE PROPPED CANTILEVER
restraints is the span. Four types of BEAM BEAM BEAM
restraint are shown in Figure 2-14:

• Fixed – prevents both rotation

and translation.

• Pinned – permits rotation but

not translation. CONTINUALLY OVERHANGING BUILT-IN OR
SUPPORTED BEAM BEAM RESTRAINED BEAM

• Simply supported – permits BEAMS

rotation and prevents transla-
tion in one direction. F1
F2

• Constrained – permits trans-

lation in one direction only
and prevents rotation. CONCENTRATED UNIFORMLY NONUNIFORMLY
LOADS DISTRIBUTED LOAD DISTRIBUTED LOAD PURE MOMENT
There are various combinations of support. BEAM LOADINGS
Loads are concentrated or distributed forces
and couples acting on the beam. Reactions Figure 2-14. Beam End Restraints and Loadings.
are the forces and/or couples acting at the
supports and holding the beam in place. In
statically determinate beams, distributed loads can be replaced by their resultant acting through the center of gravity of the load.
The sum of the vertical forces on one side of a section of a beam, the one-way shear, is resisted by an internal stress force, equal to the sum
of the transverse shear stresses acting on the section, S = ∫τ dA. Similarly, the algebraic sum of the external moments acting on a beam on one
side of a section, the one-way moment, is resisted by an internal moment of resistance, equal to the moment of the internal axial stresses at the
section, M = ∫σ dA y. Shear force is the first integral of load with respect to distance along the beam; the one-way moment is the integral of
shear force:

S = ⌠P dx and M = ⌠S dx = ⌠⌠P dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡⌡

where:
P = load
S = shear force
M = bending moment
A shear diagram or curve is a plot of the one-way shear with respect to distance along the beam. The following conventions are used:

• Upward forces (loads and reactions) are positive; downward forces are negative.

• Shear force at any point is equal to the sum of the loads and reactions from one end (usually the left) to the point in question.

• Concentrated loads produce straight horizontal lines on the diagram.

• Uniformly distributed loads produce straight sloping lines on the diagram.

• The shear force at any point is equal to the slope of the moment curve at that point.

2-14
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Plotting the one-way moment with respect to distance along the beam produces a moment diagram. The following conventions apply:

• Moments can be taken from either end of the beam to any point, but must be consistently taken from the same end; the normal
procedure is to take moments from the left end.

• When upward forces are taken as positive, and distances measured from left to right as positive, clockwise moments are positive
and counterclockwise moments negative.

• Concentrated loads produce straight lines on the diagram.

• Uniformly distributed loads produce parabolic lines on the diagram.

• Maximum and minimum moments occur where shear force is zero.

• Moment at any point is equal to the area under the shear curve up to that point.

• Moment is zero at a free end or hinge.

Table 2-3 shows shear and moment diagrams, and gives relationships for support reactions, shear force, and bending moment for common beam
loadings and geometries. Computer programs for calculating reactions, shear, and moment for many beam loadings are available in the public
domain. A number of beam loadings have been incorporated into the NAVSEA Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE).

2-3.1 Theory of Flexure. The fibers of a

beam flexed under an external load will LOA
DS
experience tension on the convex side and
COMPRESSION
compression on the concave side, as shown
in Figure 2-15. The zones of tensile and
compressive stress are separated by a
neutral plane of zero stress. The
intersection of the neutral plane with the
cross section forms a neutral axis. The B
NEUTRAL
conclusions of the theory of flexure are AXIS
based on seven assumptions:

1 – The beam is prismatic TENSION

(uniform cross section). NEUTRAL
LINE
COMPRESSION
2 – Beam length (l) is at least
ten times the depth (h).

3 – External forces act at TENSION

right angles to the beam
and in a plane of
Figure 2-15. Flexural (Bending) Stress.
symmetry.

4 – Flexure is slight and stresses are within the elastic limit.

5 – The beam is constructed of homogeneous material that obeys Hooke’s law and whose tensile and compressive moduli are
equal.

6 – Every layer of material is free to expand and contract laterally and longitudinally as if separate from other layers.

7 – Plane sections remain plane after flexure.

From the preceding assumptions it follows that:

• Internal forces (stresses) are in horizontal balance.

• The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross section if there is no resultant axial stress (no end loading).

• Stress intensity varies directly with the distance from the neutral plane.

2-15
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3A. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

1. Simple Beam - Uniformly Distributed Load.

wl
R = S = ------
2
l
S x = w  --- – x
2 
2
wl
M max = -------
8
- (at center)
wx
2 (l – x)
M x = -------
4
5 wl
y max = --------------
384EI
- (at center)

wx 3 2 3
24EI ( l – 2lx + x )
y x = -----------
-

2. Simple Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly to One End.

W
R 1 = S 1 = -----
3
2W
R 2 = S 2 max = --------
3
2
W Wx
S x = ----- – ---------
2-
3 l
2Wl 1
 at x = ------
M max = ---------- = .1283Wl - = .5774l
9 3  3 
Wx 2 2
M x = -------2- ( l – x )
3l
3
Wl  at x = 8
y max = .01304 --------
EI
-
 1 – ------ = .5193l
15
Wx 4 2 2 4
y x = --------------------2- ( 3x – 10l x + 7l )
180EI l

3. Simple Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly to Center.

W
R = S = -----
2
W 2 2  x < --l-
S x = ------2- ( l – 4x )
2l  2
Wl
M max = ------
-
6 (at center)
2
 1 2x   x < --l-
M x = Wx  --- – -------2-
 2 3l   2
3
Wl
y max = -----------
-
60EI (at center)
Wx 2 2 2  when x < --l-
y x = --------------------2- ( 5l – 4x )
480EI l  2

2-16
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3B. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

4. Simple Beam - Uniform Load Partially Distributed.

wb
R1 = S 1 = ------- ( 2c + b ) ( max when a < c )
2l
wb
R 2 = S 2 = ------- ( 2a + b ) ( max when a > c )
2l
S x = R1 – w ( x – a ) ( a < x < ( a + b ) )
R1 R1
M max = R1  a + -------  at x = a + -----
 2w   w
Mx = R1 x (x < a)
w
M x = R1 x – ---- ( x – a ) (a < x < (a + b))
2
2
Mx = R2 ( l – x ) (x > (a + b) )

5. Simple Beam - Uniform Load Partially Distributed at One End.

wa
R 1 = S 1 max = ------- ( 2l – a )
2l
2
wa
R2 = s 2 = ---------
2l
S x = R1 – wx ( x < a )
2
R1 R1
 at x = -----
M max = -------- 
2W w
2
wx
M x = R 1 x – --------- ( x < a )
2
Mx = R2 ( l – x ) ( x > a )
wx
y x = --------------- ( a ( 2l – a ) – 2ax ( 2l – a ) + lx ) (x < a)
2 2 2 3
24EI l
wa ( l – x )
2
y x = ------------------------- ( 4xl – 2x – a ) (x > a)
2 2
24EI l

6. Simple Beam - Uniform Load Partially Distributed at Each End.

w 1 a ( 2l – a ) + w 2 c
2
R1 = S 1 = ----------------------------------------------
2l
w 2 c ( 2l – c ) + w 1 a
2
R2 = S 1 = ----------------------------------------------
2l
Sx = R 1 – w1 x ( x < a )
Sx= R1 – w1 x ( a < x < ( a + b ) )
Sx = R2 – w2 ( l – x ) ( x > ( a + b ) )
2
R1 R1
M max = ---------  at x = ------ when R 1 < w1 a
2w 1  w1 
2
R2  at x = l – ----- R2
M max = --------- - when R2 < w 2 c
2w 2  w2 
2
w1 x
M x = R 1 x – ----------- ( x < a )
2
w1 a
M x = R 1 x – --------- ( 2x – a ) ( a < x < ( a + b ) )
2
w2 ( l – x )
2

M x = R2 ( l – x ) – ------------------------ ( x > ( a + b ) )
2

2-17
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3C. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

7. Simple Beam - Concentrated Load at Center.

P
R = S = ---
2

Pl
M max = ----- ( at P )
4

Px
M x = ------  x < 1---
2  2
3
Pl
y max = ------------ ( at P )
48EI
Px
y x = ------------ ( 3l – 4x )
2 2  x < --l-
48EI  2

8. Simple Beam - Concentrated Load at any Point.

Pb
R 1 = S 1 = ------- ( max. when a < b )
l
Pa
R2 = S 2 = ------- ( max. when a < b )
l
Pab
M max = ---------- ( at P )
l
Pbx
M x = ---------- ( x < a )
l
Pab ( a + 2b ) 3a ( a + 2b )  a ( a + 2b )
y max = --------------------------------------------------------------- at x = ---------------------------- when a > b
27EI l  3 
2 2
Pa b
y a = -------------- ( at P )
3EI l
Pbx 2
y x = ------------ ( l – b – x ) (x < a)
2 2
6EI l

9. Simple Beam - Two Equal Concentrated Loads Symmetrically Placed.

R= S= P
M max = Pa ( between loads )

M x = Px (x < a)
Pa
y max = ------------ ( 3l – 4a ) ( at center )
2 2
24EI

Px
y x = --------- ( 3la – 3a – x ) (x < a)
2 2
6EI

Pa
y x = --------- ( 3lx – 3x – a ) (a < x < (l – a))
2 2
6EI

2-18
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3D. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

10. Simple Beam - Two Equal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically Placed.

P
R 1 = S 1 = --l- ( l – a + b ) ( max when a < b )
P
R 2 = S 2 = --l- ( l – b + a ) ( max when a > b )
P
S x = --l- ( b – a ) ( a < x < ( l – b ) )
M 1 = R1 a ( max when a > b )
M2 = R2 b ( max when a < b )
Mx = R1 x (x < a)
Mx = R1 x – P ( x – a ) (a < x < (l – b ) )

11. Simple Beam - Two Unequal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically Placed.

P1 ( l – a ) + P 2 b
R 1 = S 1 = ------------------------------------
l -
P 1 a + P2 ( l – b )
R2 = S 2 = ------------------------------------
l -

sx = R 1 – P1 (a < x < l – b)

M1 = R1 a ( max when R1 < P1 )

M2 = R2 b ( max when R 2 < P 2 )
M x = R1 x ( when x < a )
Mx = R1 x – P1 ( x – a ) (a < x(l – b )

12. Simple Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly from Center.

W
- ( at x = 0, x = l )
R1 = R 2 = S max = ----
2
2
1 x 2x
M x = Wx  --- – -- + -------2- when x ≤ l ⁄ 2
 2 l 3l 
Wl  at x = --l-
M max = ------
-

12 2
2
1 2x 2x 
S x = W  --- – ------ + -------
2 - when x ≤ l ⁄ 2
2 l l 
3
W 3l
y max = ----
- ---------
EI 320

2-19
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3E. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

13. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Concentrated Load at Center.

5P
R 1 = S 1 = -------
16
11P
R 2 = S 2 max = ----------
16
3Pl
M max = --------- ( at fixed end )
16
5Pl
M1= - ( at P )
--------
32
M x = ----------  x < ---
5Px l
16  2
M x = P  --- – ---------  x > ---
l 11x l
 2 16   2
3 3
Pl Pl
y max = --------------------- = .009317 -------  at x = l 1--- = .4472l
48 EI 5 EI  5 
3
7Pl
y x = ---------------- ( at P )
768 EI
Px
y x = ------------- ( 3l – 5x )
2 2  x < --l-
96 EI  2

P
y x = ------------- ( x – l ) ( 11x – 2l )
3  x > --l-
96 EI  2

14. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Concentrated Load at Any Point.

2
Pb
R 1 = S 1 = --------3- ( a + 2l )
2l
Pa 2
R 2 = S 2 = ------3- ( 3l – a )
3

2l
M 1 = R 1 a ( at P )
Pab
2 (a + l)
M 2 = --------- ( at fixed end )
-
2l
Mx= R1x ( x < a )
Mx = R1 x – P ( x – a ) (x > a)
2 3
Pa ( l – a )
2 2 2
y max = --------- ------------------------
-  when a < .414l at x = l -----------------
l +a 
 2-
3EI ( 3l2 – a 2 ) 2 3l – a 
2

2
y max = ------------ --------------  when a > .414l at x = l --------------
Pab a a
6EI 2l + a  2l + a
2 3
Pa b
y a = ---------------3- ( 3l + a ) ( at P )
12EIl
2
Pb x
y x = ----------------3 ( 3al – 2lx – ax ) ( x < a )
2 3 3

12EIl
Pa
y x = ----------------3 ( l – x ) ( 3l x – a x – 2a l ) ( x > a )
2 2 2 2

12EIl

2-20
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3F. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

15. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Uniformly Distributed Load.

3wl
R 1 = S 1 = ---------
8
5wl
R2 = S 2 max = ---------
8
S x = R 1 – wx
3
wl
M max = --------
8
9 2  at x = 3--- l
M 1 = --------
128 wl
-
 8
2
wx
M x = R 1 x – ---------
4
2
wl
185EI ( at x = 0.4215l )
y max = --------------
-
wx 3
48EI ( l – 3lx + 2x )
2 3
y x = -----------
-

16. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Load Increasing Uniformly to Fixed End.

W 4W
5,
R 1 = ----
- R2 = --------
5
2
1 x
M x = Wx  --- – -------2
 5 3l 
2
15 Wl ( at fixed end )
M max = – ----- -
2
1 x
S x = W  --- – ----2 
5 l
4W
S max = – ------- - ( at fixed end )
5
3 3
16Wl 0.00477Wl
y x = ------------------- == -----------------------------
1500EI 5 EI

17. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Uniformly Distributed Loads.

wl
R = S = ------
2
l
S x = w  --- – x
2 
2
wl
- ( at ends )
M max = -------
12
2
wl
M 1 = -------- ( at center )
24
w
12- ( 6lx – l – 6x )
2 2
M x = -----
4
wl
y max = --------------
384EI
- ( at center )
2
wx
24EI- ( l – x )
2
y x = -----------

2-21
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3G. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

18. Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other - Uniformly Distributed Load and Concentrated Load.

c 1 ( 3c + 2c 1 ) 3
2

R 1 = P --------------------------------
3 - + --- wl
8
2l
2 2
(2c + 6cc 1 + 3c 1 )c 5
R 2 = P -----------------------------------------------
3 - + --- wl
8
2l
2
cc 1 (2c + c 1 ) wl
M 2 = P -----------------------------
2 - + --------
2l 8
cc 1 ( 3c + 2c 1 ) ( 3c 1 – c )c
2

2l
- + W ------------------------
M p = P ----------------------------------- 8l
3
2 2
R1 R1l P l 5c – 3c 1
 at x = ------- for ---- < 3c + 2c 1 , M c max > M c 1 max
W 4c -2 ---------------------
M c max = -------
- l - --------- -
2W  W 1
1 2
( R1 – W ) l ( 3c 1 – 5c )
2
R1 – P P
- l  max at x = --------------
M c 1 max = Pc + ------------------------- 
W- < -----------------------------------------------------
W - l for ---- 2-
2W  4c ( 2c + 6cc 1 + 3c 1 )
2

P c c 1 (4c+3c 1 ) W cc 1 ( 3c + c 1 )
2 3 2

y p = ----
EI 3 - + ----- --------------------------------
- --------------------------------
EI 48l ( at P )
12l

19. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Concentrated Load at Any Point.

2
Pb
R 1 = S 1 = -------- 3 - ( 3a + b ) ( max when a < b )
l
2
Pa
R 2 = S 2 = -------- 3 - ( a + 3b ) ( max when a > b )
l
2
Pab
2 - ( max when a < b )
M 1 = -----------
l
2
Pa b
2 - ( max when a > b )
M 2 = -----------
l
2 2
2Pa b
3 - ( at P )
M 2 = -----------------
l
2
Pab
M x = R1 x – ----------- 2 - (x < a)
l
3 2
2Pa b 2al
Y max = ---------------------------------2  at x = -------------- 
3a + b when a > b
-
3EI ( 3a + b ) 
3 3
Pa b
y a = -------------3- ( at P )
3EIl
2 2
Pb x
y x = --------------3 ( 3al – 3ax – bx ) ( x < a )
6EI l

2-22
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3H. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

20. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Concentrated Load at Center.

P
P = S = ---
2
Pl
M max = ---- 8 ( at center and ends )
-
l P
M x  x < --2- = --8- ( 4x – l )
3
Pl
192EI ( at center )
y max = --------------
-
2
l Px
y x  x < --2- = -----------
48EI ( 3l – 4x )
-

21. Beam Fixed at Both Ends - Uniformly Distributed Load and Concentrated Load.

c < c 1, W = wl
2
(3c + c 1 )c 1 W
R 1 = P ----------------------------
l3 - + -----
2
( c + 3c 1 )c W
2

R2 = P --------------------------
3 - + -----
l 2
2
cc 1 Wl
M 1 = M max = P --------- 2 - + ------
l 12-
3 3 2 2
1  c c1 c c1 
EI  P 3l 3 + W 24l 
y = ----
- ----------- ------------ ( at P )

22. Cantilever Beam - Load Increasing Uniformly to Fixed End.

wl
R = S = W = ------
2
2
x
S x = W ----2
l
Wl
3 ( at fixed end )
M max = ------
-
3
Wx
M x = ---------
2-
3l
3
Wl
y max = -----------
15EI
- ( at free end )
W
y x = ----------------2 ( x – 5l x + 4l )
5 4 5
60EIl

2-23
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3I. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

23. Cantilever Beam - Uniformly Distributed Load.

R = S = W = wl
S x = wx
2
wl
M max = -------- ( at fixed end )
2
2
wx
M x = ---------
2
4
wl
y max = --------- ( at free end )
8EI
w
y x = ------------ ( x – 4l x + 3l )
4 3 4
24EI

24. Cantilever Beam - Concentrated Load at Any Point.

R= S= P
M max = Pb ( at fixed end )
Mx = P ( x – a ) ( x > a )
2
Pb
y max = --------- ( 3l – b ) ( at free end )
6EI
3
Pb
y a = --------- ( at P )
3EI
2
Pb
y x = --------- ( 3b – 3x – b ) ( x < a )
6EI
P(l – x)
2
y x = --------------------- ( 3b – l + x ) ( x > a )
6EI

25. Cantilever Beam - Concentrated Load at Free End.

R= S= P
M max = Pb ( at fixed end )

M x = Px
3
Pl
y max = --------- ( at free end )
3EI
P
y x = --------- ( 2l – 3l x + x )
3 2 3
6EI

2-24
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3J. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

26. Beam Fixed at One End, Free to Deflect Vertically But Not Rotate at Other - Concentrated Load at Deflected End.

R= S= P
Pl
M max = ----- ( at both ends )
2
M x = P  --- – x
l
2 
3
Pl
y max = ------------ ( at deflected end )
12EI
P(l – x)
2
y x = --------------------- ( l + 2x )
12EI

27. Beam Fixed at One End, Free to Deflect Vertically But Rotate at Other - Uniformly Distributed Load.

R = S = wl
S x = wx
2
wl
M max = -------- ( at fixed end )
3
2
wl
M 1 = -------- ( at deflected end )
6
w 2
M x = ---- ( l – 3x )
2
6
4
wl
y max = ------------ ( at deflected end )
24EI
2 2
w(l – x )
2
y x = --------------------------
24EI

28. Beam Overhanging Two Supports - Equal Concentrated Loads at Both Ends.

R1= P
R2= P
M x = – Pc = const.
S= –P [ P to R 1 ]
S= 0 [ R 1 to R2 ]
S = +P [ R 2 to P ]
2
Pcl
y 1 = ---------- [ max ]
EI8
2
y 2 = -------- c + -----
Pc  3l
[ max ]
EI3  2

2-25
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3K. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

29. Beam Overhanging One Support - Uniformly Distributed Load.

w 2
R1 = S 1 = ----- ( l – a )
2
2l
w
R 2 = S 2 + S 3 = ----- ( l + a )
2
2l
S 2 = wa
w 2
S 3 = ----- ( l + a )
2
2l
S x = R 1 – wx ( between supports )
S x1 = w ( a – x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2
M 1 = -------2 ( l + a ) ( l – a )  at x = --- 1 – ----2- 
w 2 2 l a
8l  2 l 
2
wa
M 2 = --------- ( at R2 )
2
wx 2
M x = ------- ( l – a – xl ) ( between supports )
2
2l
w
M x1 = ---- ( a – x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2
2
wx 4
y x = -------------- ( l – 2l x + lx – 2a l + 2a x ) ( between supports )
2 2 3 2 2 2 2
24EIl
1
wx
y x1 = ------------ ( 4a l – l + 6a x 1 – 4ax 1 + x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2 3 2 2 3
24EI

30. Beam Overhanging One Support - Uniformly Distributed Load On Overhang.

2
wa
R1 = S 1 = ---------
2l
wa
R 2 = S 1 + S 2 = ------- ( 2l + a )
2l
S 2 = wa
S x1 = w ( a – x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2
wa
M max = --------- ( at R 2 )
2
2
wa x
M x = ------------ ( between supports )
2l
w
M x1 = ---- ( a – x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2
2
2 2 2 2
= .03208 -------------  at x = -------
wa l wa l l
y max = -------------
18 3 EI EI  3
3
wa
y max = ------------ ( 4l + 3a ) ( at x 1 = a )
24EI
2
wa x 2 2
y x = -------------- ( l – x ) ( between supports )
12EIl
wx 1
y x1 = ------------ ( 4a l + 6a x 1 – 4ax 1 = x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2 2 2 2
24EI

2-26
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3L. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

31. Beam Overhanging One Support - Concentrated Load at End of Overhang.

Pa
R1 = S 1 = -------
l
P
R 2 = S 1 + S 2 = --- ( l + a )
l
S2 = P
M max ( at R 2 ) = Pa
Pax
M x = ---------- ( between supports )
l
M x1 = P ( a – x 1 ) ( for overhang )
2 2
y max = ----------- = .06415 -----------  at x = -------
Pal Pal l
9 3 EI EI  3
2
Pa
y max = ------------------------- ( at x 1 = a )
3EI ( l + a )
Pax 2 2
y x = ----------- ( l – x ) ( between supports )
6EIl
Px 1
y x1 = --------- ( 2al + 3ax – x 1 ) ( for overhang )
1 2
6EI

32. Beam Overhanging One Support - Uniformly Distributed Load Between Supports.

wl
R = S = ------
2
S x = w  --- – x
l
2 
2
wl
M max = -------- ( at center )
8
wx
M x = ------- ( l – x )
2
4
5wl
y max = --------------- ( at center )
384EI
wx 2
Y x = ------------ ( l – 2lx + x )
2 3
24EI
3
wl x 1
Y x1 = -------------
24EI

33. Beam Overhanging One Support - Concentrated Load at Any Point Between Supports.

8Pab
Total Equiv. Uniform Load = ------------
2
-
l
Pb
R 1 = S 1 = ------- ( max when a < b )
l
Pa
R 2 = S 2 = ------- ( max when a > b )
l
Pab
M max = ---------- ( at P )
l
Pbx
M x = ---------- ( x < a )
l
Pab ( a + 2b ) 3a ( a + 2b )  a ( a + 2b )
y max = --------------------------------------------------------------- at x = ---------------------------- when a > b
2 2
27EIl  3 
Pa b
y a = -------------- ( at P )
3EIl
Pbx 2
y x = ----------- ( l – b – x ) (x < a)
2 2
6EIl
Pa ( l – x )
y x = ---------------------- ( 2lx – x – a ) ( x > a )
2 2
6EIl
Pabx 1
y x1 = --------------- ( l + a )
6EIl

2-27
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-3M. Reaction, Shear, Bending Moment, and Deflection for Transversely Loaded Beams of Uniform Cross Section.

34. Beam - Uniformly Distributed Load and Variable End Moments.

wl M 1 – M 2
R1 = S 1 = ------ + --------------------
2 l
wl M 1 – M 2
R 2 = S 2 = ------ – --------------------
2 l
 l  M1 – M2
S x = w --- – x + --------------------
2  l
wl M 1 + M 2 ( M 1 – M 2 )
2 2

M 1 = -------- – -------------------- + --------------------------

-  at x = --l- + M 1 – M2
--------------------
8 2 2wl
2  2 wl 
M – M
M x = ------- (l – x) +  -------------------- x – M 1
wx 1 2
2  l 
wx 3  4M 1 4M 2 2 12M 1 8M 1 l 4M 2 l
y x = ------------ x – 2l + ---------- – ---------- x + ------------- x + l3 – ------------ – ------------
24EI  wl wl  w w w

to locate inflection points:

2 2
l  M 1 + M 2  M 1 – M 2
b= --- – -------------------- + --------------------
4  w   wl 

35. Beam - Concentrated Load at Center and Variable End Moments.

P M1 – M2
R1 = s 1 = --- + --------------------
2 l
P M1 – M2
R 2 = S 2 = --- - --------------------
2 l
Pl M 1 + M 2
M 1 = ----- – -------------------- ( at center )
4 2

P M 1 – M2
M x =  --- + -------------------- x – M 1  x < --l-

2 l 2
P ( M 1 – M 2 )x  x > --l-
M x = --- ( l – x ) + ---------------------------- – M 1
2 l  2
8(l – x)
y = ------------  3l – 4x – ------------------ [ M 1 ( 2l – x ) + M 2 ( l + x ) ]  x < --l-
Px 2 2
48EI  Pl   2

2-28
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The moment at any point along the beam resulting from the application of the load P is resisted by an opposite and equal internal stress moment,
or moment of resistance, M = σI/y, where σ is the elastic unit stress at the outer fibers, a distance y from the neutral axis, and I is the moment
of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis. The strength of a beam in bending is its ability to carry external moment, i.e., the maximum
moment of resistance it can develop. Beam strength is limited by material strength (allowable stress) and cross-sectional geometry (moment
of inertia). For a beam of rectangular cross section with depth h and breadth b, the strength formula reduces to M = (σbh2)/6. Beam strength
can be seen to vary as follows:

• For constant breadth, as the square of the depth.

• For constant depth, directly with the breadth.

• For constant cross section, directly with material strength.

Although beam strength, as measured by maximum internal moment, is independent of length, load capacity decreases with length, as maximum
external moment increases with length for virtually all loadings.

Few beams satisfy all of the flexure theory assumptions precisely. The assumption that cross sections remain plane is true only if shear is
constant or zero over the cross section and along the length of the beam, layers of the beam are not normally free to expand or contract, etc.
The validity of the flexure theory stress-moment relationship is a function of how closely the actual beam approximates the ideal beam described
by the assumptions. In general, greater latitude can be taken with assumptions one, five and seven than with two, three, and four. For example,
flexure theory predicts hull girder stresses with acceptable accuracy.

2-3.2 Deflection. When a beam is bent, the fibers on one side elongate, while the fibers on the other side shorten, causing the beam to deflect.
The elastic curve or neutral line is the curve formed by the intersection of the neutral plane and the beam face or side. The radius of curvature
at any point is:

EI
rc =
M

where:

E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of beam section
M = bending moment

A beam bent to a circular curve of constant radius has a constant bending moment along its length.

If y is beam deflection, then dy/dx is the slope of a tangent to the elastic curve; the reciprocal of the radius of curvature is approximately equal
to the derivative of the slope of the curve:

d 2y 1 M 1 ⌠⌠
≈ = ⇒ y = Mdx
dx 2 rc EI EI ⌡⌡

In general, deflection can be expressed in the form:

Pl 3
y =
mEI

where:

P = total load on the beam

l = beam length
m = deflection coefficient

Table 2-3 gives deflection relationships for common beam loadings and configurations.

2-29
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Beam deflection can be related to bending stress.

The strength formula, M = σI/c, can be expressed Table 2-4. Beam Deflection Coefficients.
as M = Pl/n, where P is the load, l is the span,
and n is a constant. Solving for Pl = σIn/c, and
substituting into the relationship y = Pl3/mEI: Beam Load n m Cy
σ In l 2
σnl 2 σ Cy l 2 1
⁄3
y = = = Cantilever Concentrated at end 1 3
m EIc mEc Ec 1
⁄4
Cantilever Uniform 2 8
1
Simple Concentrated at center 4 48 ⁄ 12
where Cy is a deflection coefficient equal to n/m. 5
Values for n, m, and Cy are given in Table 2-4. Simple Uniform 8 384
⁄5 ⁄ 48
The relationship illustrates that deflection varies 1
⁄ 24
directly as stress and the square of span length, Fixed ends Concentrated at center 8 192
and inversely as modulus of elasticity and beam 1
⁄ 32
Fixed ends Uniform 12 384
depth.
7
One end fixed, one end supported Concentrated at center 16
⁄3 768
⁄7 ⁄ 144
2-3.3 Superposition. It is always possible to en-
1
counter combinations of loading and support for One end fixed, one end supported Uniform 128
⁄9 185 ⁄ 13
which no tabulated solution can be found. In such 1
Simple Uniformly varying, maximum at center 6 60 ⁄ 10
cases, moment and deflection diagrams can be
drawn in parts. If the loading for the beam can be
taken as the sum of two or more load cases for
which moment solutions are known, moment or
deflection diagrams can be drawn for each load as if it acted independently. The superposition, or sum, of the independent diagrams is equivalent
to the applicable diagram for the combined loads. Table 2-5 gives moment distributions and properties of the resulting areas for the four basic
loadings as applied to cantilever beams. Figure 2-16A illustrates two simple applications of the superposition principle. Ingenuity plays an
important role in the application of superposition, as shown by the examples in Figure 2-16B. Figure 2-16B(a) shows how judicious selection of
the reference point for calculating moments can simplify drawing moment diagrams by parts. All three moment diagrams by parts sum to the same
composite diagram. In Figure 2-16B(b), the point load P is equivalent to Case 7 from Table 2-3. Maximum (midspan) deflection for the load
distributed over the half span can be deduced from Case 1 of Table 2-3. Two identical beams, supporting identical distributed loads over opposite
half spans, are equivalent to Case 1 if superposed. Since the "half beams" are connected, midspan deflection for each must be equal and half of
that given for Case 1. Total deflection is calculated simply, as shown.

Table 2-5. Moment Diagrams for Basic Beam Loadings.

Loading Maximum Moment Moment Distribution Shape Area Centroid x

x
M
b
M h rectangle bh = Ml
l 2

x
P
h bh Pl b
Pl triangle =
2 2 3
l
b

x
w
wl 2
h bh wl 3 b
parabola =
2 3 6 4
l
b

wmax x
wl 2
bh wl 3 b
h cubic parabola =
6 4 24 5
l b

2-30
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

P1 P2 P3 P w

LOADING A
l3 l l
2 2
l2
l1

P1l1
MOMENT Pl
DIAGRAM
BY PARTS P2 l1
wl 2
P3l3 8

2
COMPOSITE P1l1+P2l2+P3l3 Pl + wl
MOMENT 8
DIAGRAM

Figure 2-16A. Moment Diagrams by Parts.

P
l1 l2

l
R1 R2
R2 l

MOMENTS SUMMED ABOUT SUPPORT 1

Pl1
R1l

MOMENTS SUMMED ABOUT SUPPORT 2

Pl2
MOMENTS SUMMED ABOUT POINT
OF LOAD APPLICATION
R1l1 R2l2

(a) MOMENTS BY SUPERPOSITION

P
w DEFLECTION DUE TO P:
3
Ymax = Pl (AT CENTER)
48EI

w
DEFLECTION DUE TO DISTRIBUTED LOAD:
Ymax FOR EACH HALF BEAM OCCURS
AT CENTER, Ymax, right = Ymax, left =
l l
2 2 1/2 (Ymax for load distributed over l)
4 4
Ymax = 1/2 ( 5wl ) = 5wl
384EI 768EI
w

TOTAL DEFLECTION:
3 4
l l Ymax = Pl + 5wl
48EI 768EI
2 2

(b) DEFLECTION BY SUPERPOSITION

Figure 2-16B. Moment Diagrams by Parts.

2-31
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-3.4 Oblique Loading. If an upright

beam subject to oblique loads, as shown in PLANE OF PRINCIPAL
Figure 2-17, is restrained laterally as well as BENDING AXIS
MOMENT
vertically, beam strength can be evaluated α Y
X
by resolving the loads into vertical and
horizontal components. The moments and Y
stresses resulting from the loads in the
θ
vertical and horizontal planes are handled X
separately. Total stress at any point is
found by superposition of the stresses due to
the horizontal and vertical components. The
expressions for vertical and horizontal stress OBLIQUE LOADING ASYMETRIC SECTION
can be combined. For a point with
coordinates x and y, bending stress is: Figure 2-17. Oblique Loading and Asymmetric Beam Sections.
My cosα Mx sinα
σ =
Ix Iy

where:
M = bending moment, [length-force]
y = distance from the X-axis, [length]
x = distance from the Y-axis, [length]
α = angle between the plane of bending moment (plane of loads) and the Y-axis, as shown in Figure 2-17
Mcosα = component of bending moment causing bending about the Y-axis, [length-force]
Msinα = component of bending moment causing bending about the X-axis, [length-force]
Ix = moment of inertia about the X-axis, [length4]
Iy = moment of inertia about the Y-axis, [length4]

2-3.5 Asymmetrical Sections. Every

section of a beam has two principal axes w
passing through the centroid at right angles
to each other. A beam is considered CONTINUOUS BEAM
upright when one of its principal axes is l l
2 2
aligned with the vertical. Moments of
inertia taken about the principal axes are R1 R2 R3
either maximum or minimum compared to
moments of inertia taken about other axes.
For symmetrical sections, axes of symmetry
are always principal axes. For y
asymmetrical sections, such as angles and wl wl
bulb stiffeners, the inclination of one of the 2 2 EQUIVALENT SUPERPOSED
principal axes from the X-axis (θ) can be 2 SUPPORT LOADING
found from: P P
2 2
2Ixy y
tan 2θ =
Iy Ix P

where:
SUPPORT REACTIONS
Ixy = product of inertia with
respect to the X and Y
axes = ∫∫xy dy dx (see wl - P = wl P = wl wl - P = wl
Appendix C for 2 2 4 2 2 2 4
discussion and table)
Iy = moment of inertia about
Figure 2-18. Continuous Beam Solution by Super Position.
the Y-axis
Ix = moment of inertia about
the X-axis

The second principal axis is at right angles to the first. Strength of beams with asymmetrical cross section is evaluated as for oblique loading,
by using moments of inertia about the principal axes, and resolving the load into components perpendicular to the principal axes.

2-3.6 Continuous Beams. Continuous beams rest on multiple supports and are stronger and stiffer than simple beams. The shear force, bending
moment, and deflection relationships presented for simple beams also hold true for continuous beams. Continuous beams have more supports
than are necessary to maintain equilibrium, making them statically indeterminate. One method of determining reactions for various loading
conditions is by the superposition of deflections (see Paragraph 2-3.3).

2-32
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

For example, middle support reaction of the

uniformly loaded, continuous beam in
Figure 2-18 can be treated as an opposing
concentrated load. Assuming rigid support,
the midspan deflections caused the uniform
loading and the concentrated load must be
opposite and equal. Case 17 of Table 2-3 SHEAR
gives midspan deflection as wl 4/384EI for
the distributed load. The midspan
deflection of the concentrated load at center
is given in Case 20 of Table 2-3 as
Pl3/192EI. Setting the two expressions MOMENT
equal and solving for P:

wl 4 Pl 3 Figure 2-19. Equal-Span, Uniformly Loaded Continuous Beam.

=
384 EI 192 EI

wl
P = = R2
2
Table 2-6. Continuous Beams.
The end reactions are equal to the algebraic
sums of the end reactions for the two cases,
as shown. Shear and moment diagrams are Number Notation Shear on each side of Moment Max Distance to point Distance to point
drawn by the usual method. If the center of of support.L=left,R=right.Reaction over each moment of max moment, of inflection,
support is not in the same plane as the two supports support at any support is L+R support in each measured to right measured to right
of span span from support from support
end supports, the procedure is modified
slightly. The deflection caused by the up-
ward reaction is set equal to the deflection
caused by the uniform load less the vertical L R
distance from the plane of the end supports 2 1 or 2 0 1/2 0 0.125 0.500 None
to the top of the center support.
3 1 0 3/8 0 0.0703 0.375 0.750
2 5/8 5/8 1/8 0.0703 0.625 0.250
Figure 2-19 shows the general form of 4 1 0 4/10 0 0.080 0.400 0.800
shear and moment diagrams for uniformly 2 6/10 5/10 1/10 0.025 0.500 0.276,0.724
loaded, equal-span continuous beams with 5 1 0 11/28 0 0.0772 0.393 0.786
all supports in the same plane. Table 2-6 2 17/28 15/28 3/28 0.0364 0.536 0.226,0.806
gives values for reactions, shear force, and 3 13/28 13/28 2/28 0.0364 0.464 0.194,0.734

bending moment at supports, and position 6 1 0 15/38 0 0.0779 0.395 0.789

2 23/38 20/38 4/38 0.0332 0.526 0.268,0.783
and magnitude of maximum bending
3 18/38 19/38 3/38 0.0461 0.500 0.196,0.804
moment between supports. Reactions,
7 1 0 41/104 0 0.0777 0.394 0.788
shear forces, and bending moments will 2 63/104 55/104 11/104 0.0340 0.533 0.268,0.790
vary significantly from these values if all 3 49/104 51/104 8/104 0.0433 0.490 0.196,0.785
supports are not in the same plane. 4 53/104 53/104 9/104 0.0433 0.510 0.215,0.804

8 1 0 56/142 0 0.0778 0.394 0.789

2-3.7 Curved Beams. Curved beams are 2 86/142 75/142 15/142 0.0338 0.528 0.268,0.788
3 67/142 70/142 11/142 0.0440 0.493 0.196,0.790
either concentric, where inner and outer 4 72/142 71/142 12/142 0.0405 0.500 0.215,0.785
surfaces have the same center of curvature,
Values
or eccentric, where inner and outer surfaces wl wl wl 2 wl 2 l l
apply to
have different centers and/or radii of Uniform load per unit length = w; length of equal span = l
curvature. The straight beam flexure
formula, σ = My/I, is not accurate for
curved beams. Different stress formulae Note: The numerical values given are coefficients of the expressions at the foot of each column.
are used for concentric and eccentric curved
From Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987
beams.

2-33
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

For beams of rectangular section, the stress formula reduces to:

6KM
σ
bh 2

where:

b = beam width
h = beam depth

Bending stresses are maximum at the center section in arch beams. In crescent beams, maximum bending stress may occur in offcenter sections.
Stress at the center section is multiplied by a position factor, k, from Table 2-9 to determine the magnitude and section of maximum stress.

Table 2-9. Crescent Beam Position Stress Factors, k.

Angle φ, degrees k

Inner Outer

10 1 0.055 H/h 1 + 0.03 H/h

20 1 0.164 H/h 1 + 0.10 H/h
30 1 0.365 H/h 1 + 0.25 H/h
40 1 0.567 H/h 1 + 0.467 H/h
(0.5171 1.382 H/h)1/2
50 1.521 1 + 0.733 H/h
1.382
(0.2416 0.6506 H/h)1/2
1.756
60 0.6506 1 + 1.123 H/h
(0.4817 1.298 H/h)1/2
2.070
70 0.6492 1 + 1.70 H/h
(0.2939 0.7084 H/h)1/2
2.531
80 0.3542 1 + 2.383 H/h

90 1 + 3.933 H/h
Note: All formulas are valid for 0 < H/h < 0.325. Formulas for the inner boundary, except
for 40 deg., may be used to H/h < 0.36. H = distance between centers.
From Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987

2-4 STRUTS AND COLUMNS

Struts are structural members that are subjected primarily to axial loading; columns are struts that are generally loaded only in compression.
Stanchions, pillars, and some types of temporary shores are columns. Columns are grouped into three classes by failure mode and approximate
slenderness ratio—unsupported length (l) divided by least radius of gyration of the cross section (k):

• Compression Blocks – members with slenderness ratios less than 30 so that bending is unlikely and strength is limited by ultimate
compressive stress.

• Long Columns – very slender members that usually fail by buckling when a critical load is reached.

• Short Columns – members that are neither long columns nor compression blocks.

2-4.1 Compression Blocks. The load-carrying ability of a compression block through its cross-sectional centroid is the permissible compressive
stress multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the block:

P = σc A

where:

P = ultimate (failure) compressive load, [force]

σc = compressive ultimate (brittle materials) or yield (ductile materials) stress, [force/length2]
A = cross-sectional area, [length2]

2-36
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-4.2 Long and Short Columns. Allowable load for long columns is limited by buckling, while strength is limiting for short columns. The
slenderness ratio that separates long and short columns depends on material properties, geometry, and end constraints and ranges from 120 to
150. Critical loads for long columns are given by Euler’s formula:

n(π)2EI n(π)2EA
Pcr = =
l 2
l2
 
k

where:
P = end load, [force] k = least radius of gyration of column cross section, [length]
E = modulus of elasticity, [force/length2] n = 1 for a column pivoted at both ends
I = moment of inertia about the buckling axis, 2 for one end fixed and one rounded
[length4] 4 for both ends fixed
1
A = column cross-sectional area, [length2] ⁄ 4 for one end fixed and one free
l = unsupported column length, [length]
When Euler’s formula results in a critical load such that Pcr/A is greater than the column material’s compressive yield stress, allowable load is
limited by strength rather than buckling, and the column is short. The stress in short columns is partly due to compression and partly due to
bending. There is no theoretical relationship; various empirical expressions for the allowable working stress (sw), and the theoretical maximum
allowable, or critical stress (scr) are given in Table 2-10. These expressions assume that permissible stress is caused by compression only. Each
expression is valid only for a specified range of slenderness ratios.

Table 2-10. Short Column Formulas.

Formula Material Code Slenderness ratio

l2 l
< 120
sw = 17,000 0.485  
k Carbon Steels AISC k

l l
sw = 16,000 70 < 120
k Carbon Steels Chicago k

l l
sw = 15,000 50 < 150
k Carbon Steels AREA k

l l
sw = 19,000 100 60 < < 120
k Carbon Steels Am. Br. Co. k

15.9  l  l
2
scr = 135,000   < 65
c k Alloy-steel tubing ANC ck
l l
sw = 9,000 40 < 70
k Cast iron NYC k

 245  l l
< 94
scr = 34,500  
 k 2017ST Aluminum ANC ck
 c 

0.5  l  l
2
scr = 5,000   < 72
c k Spruce ANC ck

  l 2n π2E
 l  2
scr = sy  1
sy <
   Steels Johnson k sy
 4nπ2E  k  

sy
scr = l
  Steels Secant < critical
  k
ec l P 
1 sec  
k 2
k 4AE 

scr = theoretical maximum critical stress, psi;sw = allowable working stress, psi
c = end finity coefficient: c = 2, both ends pivoted, c = 2.86, one pivoted, other fixed, c = 4, both ends fixed, c = 1 one fixed, one free.
e = initial eccentricity at which load is applied to center of column cross section.

2-37
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-4.3 Eccentric Loads. A strut loaded eccentrically in compression or tension is subject to both axial and bending stresses. In Figure 2-21,
a load P acts at a distance e from the center of the column. If the load is eccentric with respect to only one of the principal axes (in this case,
the X-axis), the stress in any fiber is the sum of the axial (in this case, compressive) and bending stresses:

P My P Pey
σ = σc σb = ± = ±
A I A I

and since I = k 2A (where k is radius of gyration),

σ =
P 1 ± ey  = σ 1 ± ey 
  c 
A  k 2  k 2

On the side of the central axis towards the point of load application, bending stresses reinforce the axial stresses; on the opposite side, the
stresses cancel one another. For a rectangular cross section of width b, maximum stress is:

6e
σmax = σ (1 )
b

If the load is eccentric with respect to both principal axes, the expressions for total stress become:

P M xy Myx
σ = ± ±
A Ix Iy

P Pexy Peyx
= ± ±
A Ix Iy

P Mx My
σmax =
A Zx Zy

For the rectangular section shown in Figure

2-21, CL P
e
bh 2 Ah
Zx = =
6 6
b
b 2h Ab AREA A
Zy = = h/3
6 6 c
e h
6Pex 6Pey h/3
P
σmax =
A Ab Ah
P h/3
KERN
Loads with sufficient eccentricity will cause
b/3
b/3
b/3

stress sign reversal; that is, an eccentric

compressive load will cause tensile stresses
CL P
on the opposite side of the strut and vice
versa. This is particularly important when
applying compressive loads to struts weak Figure 2-21. Eccentrically Loaded Strut.
in tension (concrete, stone, partially severed
framing) or tensile loads to struts weak in
compression (buckled or bent framing). Permissible eccentricity (to avoid stress reversal) can be found by equating the direct (compressive)
stress to the maximum opposing (tensile) stress induced by bending:

P 6Pex 6Pey
= (rectangular section)
A Ab Ah
6ex 6ey
1 =
b h

2-38
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Setting ex to 0, permissible ey is h/6.

Similarly, permissible ex is b/6 when ey is SOLID SHAPES: h/3 2h/3
0. Joining the points of greatest h/4
permissible eccentricity in each coordinate h/3
direction defines a neutral axis where
bending and direct stresses exactly cancel. h/3 h b b/4
By symmetry, four such neutral axes exist
in a rectangular cross section, bounding a
h/3
diamond-shaped core or kern. Forces h/6
acting within the kern will cause stresses of h/12

b/3
b/3
b/3
only one sign throughout the section. A
characteristic kern can be defined for any b h
geometric section. Figure 2-22 shows kerns
and simplified expressions for maximum (a) (b)
stress for various cross sections.
h/3
Practical structures are often unintentionally
d/4 h/6 h
manufactured with an initial bow. The h/6
deflection of an initially bowed, end-loaded h/3
strut is given by:
h
PE d
y = y0 (c) (d) .226R
PE P
R R
(e)
where: HOLLOW SHAPES:
Ro Ri
PE = Euler collapse load, π2EI/l2 (l D H
r
is effective length)
y = total deflection, including
initial deflection, y0
2r h
Maximum bending moment in a member
whose end rotation is not constrained is 2r
given by:

Mbmax = Pymax d
_ 2
d
r = D[1+( D ) ] _ )2 ]
h
r = H [1+( H r = 0.2256Ro [1+( Ri )2 ]
6 2 Ro
8
2-5 FLAT PLATES (f) (g) (h)

Analysis of flat plates under lateral load is Figure 2-22. Kerns.

difficult because plates deflect vertically in
response to all loads. There are strict
mathematical relationships for only a few cases. Most stress or deflection relationships are empirical to some degree, although finite element
methods can give rigorous solutions. Because of the large number of elements that must be examined, finite element analysis is not practical
without high-speed computer programs, and is not discussed here. Plates may be grouped into four categories, without exact lines of
demarkation:

• Thick plates – Plates so thick that transverse shear is an important factor in load carrying capacity.

• Medium- or average-thickness plates – Plates with thickness or rigidity such that flexural stresses are the predominate factor
affecting strength.

• Thin plates – Plates that depend, in part, on direct tension to carry lateral loads.

• Membranes – Plates so thin that deflection under lateral load subjects them to direct tension only.

The flat plate formulae given here apply to medium thickness plates subject to the following constraints:

• Plate thickness is constant and less than one-fourth the minimum width.

• Maximum deflection is less than one-half the plate thickness.

• The plates are constructed of isentropic, elastic material, and the elastic limit is not exceeded under the applied loading.

2-39
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

In developing these formulae, allowance for stress Stress Deflection Loading

{
redistribution, caused by slight local yielding, was pr 2 pr 4
usually not made. Since the redistribution is beneficial, k k1 Uniform pressure, p
especially in ductile materials, the formulae are on the t2 Et 3
safe side. Certain cases of symmetrically loaded circular P Pr 2
k k1 Concentrated load, P, at center
and rectangular plates are shown in Figure 2-23. t2 Et 3
Maximum stress (smax) and deflection (ymax) for the C Cr 2
loading indicated are given by the relationships as shown k k1 Couple, C, per unit length
to the right: t2 Et 3

The coefficients k and k1 depend on the edge constraint Stress Deflection Edge contraints

{
and length-to-breadth ratio for rectangular or elliptical
plates or ratio of inner to outer diameter for annular 3 pr 2(3 µ) 3 pr 4(1 µ) (5 µ)
plates. Table 2-11 gives values of k and k1 for materials Simply supported
with Poisson’s ratio (µ) of 0.3 for the cases shown in 8 t2 16 Et 3
Figure 2-23. Combinations of the loadings shown can be
analyzed by superposition. For circular plates with µ ≠ 3 pr 2 3 pr 4 (1 µ2)
Built in
0.3 under uniform pressure, smax and ymax can be found 4 t2 16 Et 3
from the relationships as shown to the right:

W W W W
W W C
r r
R R R R R
(1). (2). (3). (4). (5).

W W W W W W
P P P P
r r r r
R R r R R
R
(6). (7). (8). (9). (10).

P
W W
C C P P

r r r r W r W
R R R R R
(11). (12). (13). (14). (15).
CIRCULAR PLATES. CASES (4)., (5)., (6)., (7)., (8)., AND (13)., HAVE CENTRAL HOLE OF RADIUS r; CASES (9).,
(10)., (11)., (12)., (14)., AND (15)., HAVE A CENTRAL PISTON OF RADIUS r TO WHICH THE PLATE IS FIXED.

W W W W W

r r r R R
(16). (17). (18). (19). (20).
RECT., RECT., FIXED RECT., RECT., FIXED ON ONE RECT., FIXED ON TWO
SUPPORTED ON ALL EDGES. SUPPORTED EDGE, SUPPORTED OPPOSITE EDGES AND
SIMPLY ON SIMPLY ALONG SIMPLY ON OTHER SUPPORTED SIMPLY
ALL EDGES. THREE EDGES. THREE EDGES. ON OTHER TWO.

(21). W (23). (24). (25).

SAME AS (20). SAME AS (22). ELLIPTICAL, SAME AS (24).
BUT r>R. BUT r>R. 2R MAJOR AXIS, BUT FIXED
UNIFORMALY ALONG EDGE.
r LOADED, SIMPLY
SUPPORTED
(22). ALONG EDGE.
RECT., SUPPORTED
SIMPLY ON ALL EDGES.
RECTANGULAR AND ELLIPTICAL PLATES. [R IS THE LONGER DIMENSION EXCEPT IN CASES (21). AND (23).]

Figure 2-23. Flat Plate Loading and Edge Restraint Case.

2-40
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-11. Coefficients k and k1 for Flat Plates.

Circular Plates (µ = 0.3)

Case k k1

1 1.24 0.696
2 0.75 0.171
3 6.0 4.2

R/r 1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Case k k1 k k1 k k1 k k1 k k1 k k1

4 0.592 0.184 0.976 0.414 1.440 0.664 1.880 0.824 2.08 0.830 2.19 0.813
5 0.105 0.0025 0.259 0.0129 0.481 0.057 0.654 0.130 0.708 0.163 0.730 0.176
6 1.10 0.341 1.26 0.519 1.48 0.672 1.88 0.734 2.17 0.724 2.34 0.704
7 0.195 0.0036 0.320 0.024 0.455 0.081 0.670 0.171 1.00 0.218 1.30 0.238
8 0.660 0.202 1.19 0.491 2.04 0.902 3.34 1.220 4.30 1.300 5.10 1.310
9 0.135 0.0023 0.410 0.0183 1.04 0.0938 2.15 0.293 2.99 0.448 3.96 0.564
10 0.122 0.00343 0.336 0.0313 0.740 0.1250 1.21 0.291 1.45 0.417 1.59 0.492
11 0.072 0.00068 0.1825 0.005 0.361 0.023 0.546 0.064 0.627 0.092 0.668 0.112
12 6.865 0.2323 7.448 0.6613 8.136 1.493 8.71 2.555 8.930 3.105 9.036 3.418
13 6.0 0.196 6.0 0.485 6.0 0.847 6.0 0.940 6.0 0.810 6.0 0.658
14 0.115 0.00129 0.220 0.0064 0.405 0.0237 0.703 0.062 0.933 0.092 1.13 0.114
15 0.090 0.00077 0.273 0.0062 0.710 0.0329 1.54 0.110 2.23 0.179 2.80 0.234

Rectangular and Elliptical Plates (µ = 0.3)

R/r 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0

Case k k1 k k1 k k1 k k1 k yk1

16 0.287 0.0443 0.487 0.0843 0.610 0.1106 0.173 0.1336 0.741 0.1400
17 0.308 0.0138 0.454 0.0240 0.497 0.0277 0.500 0.028 0.500 0.028
18 0.672 0.140 0.768 0.160 0.792 0.165 0.798 0.166 0.800 0.166
19 0.500 0.030 0.670 0.070 0.730 0.101 0.750 0.132 0.750 0.139
20 0.418 0.0209 0.626 0.0582 0.715 0.0987 0.750 0.1276 0.750
21* 0.418 0.0216 0.490 0.0270 0.497 0.0284 0.500 0.0284 0.500 0.0284
22 0.160 0.0221 0.260 0.0421 0.320 0.0553 0.370 0.0668 0.380 0.0700
23* 0.160 0.0220 0.260 0.0436 0.340 0.0592 0.430 0.0772 0.490 0.0908
24 1.24 0.70 1.92 1.26 2.26 1.58 2.60 1.88 2.78 2.02
25 0.75 0.171 1.34 0.304 1.63 0.379 1.84 0.419 1.90 0.431

*
Length ratio is r/R in cases 21 and 23
From Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987

2-41
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-6 CYLINDERS AND SPHERES

Cylinders and spheres often form portions

of salvage systems. Their strength must be Tι = σιπDt
analyzed when they are used outside their
design mode or nonstandard components
form part of a system.

2-6.1 Thin-walled Cylinders and

(b)
Spheres. Cylinders with wall thicknesses 2
such that the assumption of constant stress Pi = pπD
4
across the wall results in negligible error
are called thin-walled cylinders. Cylinders t
having internal diameter to thickness ratios
(D/t) greater than 10 are considered thin- Th = σhtW
walled. Boilers, drums, tanks, pipes, and W Ph = pDW
many pressure flasks can be treated as thin-
walled cylinders.
Th = σhtW
2-6.1.1 Internal Pressure. The walls of a D
closed cylinder under internal pressure are
subject to a circumferential or hoop stress, (a) (c)
and a longitudinal stress:
DERIVATION OF LONGITUDINAL DERIVATION OF HOOP
pD pr STRESS, σι STRESS, σh
σh = =
2t t p = PRESSURE
P = PRESSURE FORCE
pD pr T = TENSILE FORCE IN CYLINDER WALL
σl = =
4t 2t
Figure 2-24. Stresses in the Thin-Walled Cylinder Under Internal Pressure.

where:

σh = hoop stress, [force/area]

σl = longitudinal stress, [force/area]
p = pressure, [force/area]
D = cylinder diameter, [length]
r = cylinder radius, [length]
t = wall thickness, [length]

The expressions for hoop and longitudinal stress are derived from free-body diagrams shown in Figure 2-24. The hoop and longitudinal stresses
are principal stresses and do not combine into larger stresses. Because the hoop stress is twice the longitudinal stress, thin-walled cylinders
normally fail by splitting lengthwise.

The tensile stress in a thin-walled sphere or spherical shell caused by internal pressure is also pr/2t.

2-6.1.2 External Pressure. There is no simple means to evaluate stresses in a thin-walled cylinder under external pressure because failure is
by collapse rather than elongation. If it is assumed that:

a. The shell is perfectly round and of uniform thickness,

b. The material obeys Hooke’s law,

c. Radial stress is negligible, and

d. Normal stress distribution is linear;

an expression for collapse pressure (pc, psi) can be derived from the theory of elasticity:

 t 3
pc = KE  
D

The coefficient K depends on the length-to-diameter (L/D) and diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios, the kind of end support, and whether pressure
is applied radially only or radially and at the ends. The curves in Figure 2-25 give K values for material with Poisson’s ratio (µ) of 0.3. For
infinitely long cylinders, K approaches 2/(1-µ2). N on the graphs indicates the number of lobes into which the shell collapses.

2-42
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

200 N = 12 200 N = 12
11 11
100 10 100 10
9 9
8 8
60 7 60 7
_=
40 D 6 _=
40 D 6
t t
5 5
20 20 20 20
4 4
K 50 K 50
10 100 3 10 100 3
6 6
200 200
4 4
500 2 500 2

1000 1000
2 2

1 1
0.4 0.8 2 4 8 20 40 80 200 0.4 0.8 2 4 8 20 40 80 200
_
L _
L
R R
RADIAL EXTERNAL PRESSURE WITH RADIAL AND END EXTERNAL PRESSURE
SIMPLY SUPPORTED EDGES WITH SIMPLY SUPPORTED EDGES

200 200

N =10 N =10
100 9 100 9
80 8 80 8
60 7 60 7
40 6 40 6
5 5
_
D _
D
20 t = 20 t =
K 4 K 4
20 20
10 3 10 3
50 50
6 6
100 100
4 2 4 2
200 200
500 500
2 2
1000 1000
1 1
1 2 4 8 20 40 80 200 1 2 4 8 20 40 80 200
_
L _
L
R R
RADIAL EXTERNAL PRESSURE RADIAL AND END EXTERNAL
WITH FIXED EDGES PRESSURE WITH FIXED EDGES

FROM UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ENGINEERING STATION BULLETIN NO. 12, 11 NOV, 1941

Figure 2-25. Cylinder Buckling Factors, K.

2-6.2 Ring-stiffened Cylinders. A thin-walled cylinder stiffened with circumferential rings can be treated as a series of shorter shells, with
length equal to the ring spacing. Collapse pressure is determined by the relationship for collapse of a simple cylinder. The flexural rigidity
(EIc) required of the combined stiffener and shell to withstand the pressure (p) is found from the following relationship:
pD 3Ls
EIc =
24

where:
Ls = shell length (length between rings)
Ic = combined moment of inertia of the ring and portion of the shell that is assumed to act with the ring

2-43
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

For thick, hollow spheres subject to an internal pressure, p, such that p < T/0.65,

r2 = r1 
(T 0.4p)  1/3

 (T 0.65p) 

where T is the true stress, that is, the stress based on the instantaneous cross section. Solving for T:
0.65pr 32 0.4pr 31
T
r 32 r 31

The maximum tensile stress is on the inner surface, in the direction of the circumference. For external pressure on a thick, hollow sphere with
p < T/1.05,
 T  1/3
r2 r1 
 T 1.05p 

1.05pr 32
T
r 32 r 31

2-7 CONNECTIONS

Welded, riveted, and bolted connections

join metal structures; nailed, screwed, and
bolted connections join wooden structures. EDGE WELD
The type and construction of the connection
is important to the overall strength of the
structure. Connections are a discontinuity
in the structure that must be analyzed
independently of the overall structure. FILLET WELD

2-7.1 Welds. Arc- or gas-welded joints

are strong, efficient, and quickly made. PLUG WELD
Typical welding applications are the
fabrication and installation of patches, BUTT WELD
cofferdams, lifting derricks, parbuckling DOUBLE BUTT
shears, padeyes, etc. WELD

Figure 2-27 illustrates some common

welded joints. American Welding Society CORNER
(AWS) standard weld symbology and WELD
terminology are given in Appendix C.
Most welds require the addition of weld
metal—welding rod, filler wire, etc.—to SEAM WELD
form the joint. The strength of the
connection depends on the properties of the
parent metal, the weld metal, and the
geometry of the weld. In general, the
permissible load (P) on a welded joint is
the product of the allowable stress (S)
multiplied by the minimum cross-sectional Figure 2-27. Welded Joints.
area (a) through which failure occurs:
P = Sa
Allowable stress is yield—or ultimate—stress of the weld metal or adjacent parent metal, whichever is less, divided by a safety factor. Loading
and weld geometry determine whether shear or tensile stress limits weld strength. A butt weld connecting two axially loaded plates or bars is under
simple axial stress. The minimum cross-sectional area is assumed to be the length of the joint times the thickness of the thinner plate and:
Pbutt weld = σmaxlt
where:
σmax = maximum allowable tensile or compressive stress
l = length of weld
t = thickness of thinner plate

2-45
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Practically all other weld types and

geometries are subject to shear or combined CONCAVE FILLET CONVEX FILLET
stresses. Fillet welds are probably the most WELD WELD
common weld type. As shown in Figure
2-28, the end section of a fillet weld ap-
proximates a right isosceles triangle. Fillet
leg size specifies fillet weld size. The min- LEG
imum weld thickness, or throat, is the
THROAT
product of the fillet leg (h) and the sine of
45 degrees. Minimum cross-sectional
(shearing) area is the length of the weld (l)
multiplied by the throat width. Permissible THROAT = 0.707 x LEG
weld load is:
Pfillet weld = s (sin 45°) h l LENGTH

where s is the allowable stress in the weld.

FACE
With a safety factor of 1.5, the allowable MINIMUM SHEAR AREA
shear stress for mild steel is about 14,000 TOE
psi. With this factor of safety, the strength TOE
per linear inch of a fillet weld is 10,000 THROAT
times the decimal weld size.

The strength of joints made in controlled

environments by certified welders
commonly equals or exceeds the strength of
the parent metal. Environmental factors
MINIMUM SHEAR AREA = THROAT x (LENGTH) = 0.707 x LEG x LENGTH
such as salt spray and corroded surfaces
degrade quality of a weld. The strength of
an underwater weld can exceed that of the Figure 2-28. Fillet Weld Geometry.
parent metal and may approach the strength
of dry welds, depending primarily on the
skill of the welder. Ductility of underwater welds will always be less than that of surface welds because of rapid quenching and hydrogen
embrittlement from the surrounding water, increased oxygen uptake because of the higher oxygen pressure, and the characteristics of the welding
arc under pressure. Less ductile welds have lower resistance to shock, impact, and fatigue. The strength assigned to any weld is largely a matter
of judgement, based on the welding
conditions, equipment, and the skill the
SHEAR AREA
welder has demonstrated on test coupons. SHEAR FAILURE t
Welds of doubtful strength may be Psb
proofloaded, if practicable and if the time Psb
for testing does not delay the salvage
operation. Welds in small components can
be tested by suspending an appropriate BEARING FAILURE
weight from a crane with the component as
a link in the lifting rig. BEARING
AREA P
b P b

2-7.2 Bolts and Rivets. Bolted and

riveted connections are analyzed identically.
These connections fail in one of the four
ways illustrated in Figure 2-29:
TENSILE FAILURE

• Shear failure of bolts.

DIA = d
b
TENSION Pt
• Bearing or crushing failure of AREA Pt

the connected plates.

• Tensile failure of the SHEAR PLATE SHEAR

connected plates. AREA x 2

• Double shear of one of the Psp

connected plates if the bolt is Psp
near the edge of the plate.

Figure 2-29. Bolted Joints.

2-46
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The strength of the joint is the minimum load that will cause one of the four modes of failure. For a single bolt or rivet, permissible loads for
each failure mechanism are:
 πd 2
Psb = τy Ay = τy   (bolt shear)
 4 
Pb = σb Ab = σb t d (plate bearing)
Pt = σy At = σy (b d) t (plate tension)
Psp = τy 2 As = ty 2 t L (plate shear)

where:
P = allowable load, with subscript sb, b, t, and sp indicating bolt shear, bearing, tension, and plate shear, respectively
A = area subject to shear, bearing, tension as denoted by subscripts s, b, and t
τy = allowable shear stress = plate or fastener shear yield stress/safety factor
σb = allowable bearing stress = 1.5 times the bolt’s ultimate tensile strength/safety factor
σy = allowable tensile stress = plate tensile yield stress/safety factor
b = plate width
d = bolt or rivet diameter
t = plate thickness
For ductile materials in static loading, stress concentration near round bolt holes is usually neglected. Appendix E includes tables of ultimate
and yield stresses for various materials and standard bolts.
It has been shown that a bolt will not tear
through the free edge of a connected plate 1
if the distance L, measured from the bolt to
the free edge in the direction of force, is CENTROID OF
greater than the diameter of the bolt RIVETS OR BOLTS
multiplied by the ratio of bearing stress to P P
tensile strength of the connected member:
σ 
L ≥  b  d 1
 σu 
P W P

2
where:
L = distance to free edge of
connected member 2 1 2
σb = bearing stress = 1.5 times 3P P/3 P
the bolt ultimate tensile
strength
σu = plate tensile strength
(ultimate stress) 2
d = bolt diameter (a) (b)

An allowable working stress in bearing can

be expressed as: Figure 2-30. Multiple Fastener Joint.

Lσu
σb = ≤ 1.5σy
FS d

where FS is a safety factor. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) recommends a safety factor of 2.0.
When the line of action of the load passes through the centroid of multiple fasteners, as shown in Figure 2-30, the fasteners are assumed to
deform equally and carry an equal share of the load. Shear and bearing stresses under an axial load, P, are distributed so:
P
τ =
nAs

P
σb =
nAb

where n is the number of fasteners. Tensile stress in the plate varies with fastener pattern. As shown in the free-body diagram of Figure 2-30,
the plate at section 1 carries the full load, while the plate at section 2 carries two-thirds of the load.

2-47
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

If the line of action of the applied load does not pass through the centroid of the fasteners, such as in the eccentrically loaded bracket in Figure
2-31, the connection is subject to torsion as well as direct shear. Shear stress in the fasteners resists the rotation of the connected members about
one another. The eccentric loading is statically equivalent to a direct load and a moment. The load carried by any bolt is the vector sum of
the direct force and the moment force as
shown in Figure 2-31. The critical fastener
is the fastener for which the vector sum of
direct and torsional shear stresses is P
greatest. Stresses in the fastener group are
evaluated by the shaft torsion equation (τ = e
T = Pe
Tr/IP), modified by:
P

• The moment Pe, where P is

the applied load and e is the
distance from the point of
load application to the
(a) (b)
centroid of the fastener
group, replaces torque, T. Pd R
Pt

• The distance to the fastener P

in question (usually the

critical fastener) replaces the + =
radius, r. P P

• The polar moment of inertia,

IP, is the moment of the
entire fastener group, based DIRECT LOAD TORSIONAL LOAD COMBINED LOAD
on the parallel axis theorem: (c) (d) (e)

IP = Σri2Ai Figure 2-31. Eccentrically Loaded Connections.

where:

r = radius of the fastener from the centroid of the fastener group

A = cross-sectional area of each fastener

• The total shear stress on any fastener is the vector sum of the shear stresses due to direct load, τD, and torsion, τT:

Per PA
τ = τT + τD , τ T = , τD = A
Ip Σ i

Keeping the eccentricity small and locating fasteners carefully reduces the torsion effect. Eccentrically loaded connections are not desirable
design features and should be avoided.

2-7.3 Connections in Wooden Structures. Nailed or screwed connections fail when forces in line with the fasteners pull them out of the wood,
or lateral loads cause the fasteners to tear through and pull out of the wood. Joint design is a matter of ensuring that enough fasteners are used
to carry the expected pullout and lateral loads, but not so many that the wood splits, or the load area is reduced unacceptably. Wooden pieces
should be fit together smoothly and the fasteners spaced evenly over the joint area so the load is shared evenly.

2-7.3.1 Nails and Spikes. The resistance of wire nails to withdrawal is proportional to the length of embedment, the diameter of the nail, and
to γ2.5, where γ is the oven-dry specific gravity of the wood. Specific gravities for various wood species are given in Appendix E. The safe
withdrawal resistance of common wire nails is given in Table 2-12. Design of the structure should be such that nails are not subject to
withdrawal loads from end grain.

2-48
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-12. Allowable Loads for Common Nails in Side Grain of Seasoned Wood.

All loads in pounds

Size

d 6 8 10 12 16 20 30 40 50 60

Length, 2 21⁄ 2 3 1
3 ⁄4 1
3 ⁄2 4 1
4 ⁄2 5 1
5 ⁄2 6
in.

Type of load Specific Diam, 0.113 0.131 0.148 0.148 0.162 0.192 0.207 0.225 0.244 0.263
gravity, γ in.

Withdrawal load per 0.31 9 10 12 12 13 15 16 18 20 21

in.
penetration 0.40 16 18 20 20 22 27 28 31 33 35

0.44 20 23 26 26 29 34 37 40 43 46

0.47 24 27 31 31 34 40 43 47 51 55

0.51 29 34 38 38 42 49 53 58 63 68

0.55 34 39 44 44 49 57 61 67 73 79

0.67 57 66 75 75 82 97 105 114 124 133

Lateral load 0.60-0.75 78 97 116 116 132 171 191 218 249 276

0.50-0.55 63 78 94 94 107 139 154 176 202 223

0.42-0.50 51 64 77 77 88 113 126 144 165 182

0.31-0.41 41 51 62 62 70 91 101 116 132 146

Note: 1 in.= 2.54 cm; 1 lb = 4.45 N.

The allowable lateral load for nails driven in end grain is two-thirds the values shown above.

The minimum penetration for full lateral resistance for the four groups listed is 10. 11, 13, and 14 diameter from higher to lower specific gravities, respectively.
Reduce by interpolation for lesser penetration; minimum penetration is one-third the above.

The safe lateral resistance of common wire nails driven in side grain is given in Table 2-12, and is proportional to D1.5, where D is nail diameter.
The values in Table 2-12 are for seasoned wood, and should be reduced by 25 percent for wood that is wet or loaded before seasoning. Values
should be reduced by one-third for nails driven into end grain.

Common wire spikes have larger diameters for their lengths than nails. Lateral and withdrawal resistance are the same as for nails. Greater
precautions to avoid splitting—such as drilling lead holes—are necessary.

2-7.3.2 Screws. The resistance of wood screws and lag bolts to withdrawal from side grain of seasoned wood is given by:

P = 2,850γ2D for ordinary wood screws

P = 1,800γ3/2D3/4 for lag screws and bolts

where:

P = allowable withdrawal load, lb/inch penetration of threaded portion

γ = specific gravity of oven-dry wood
D = screw diameter, in.

Structural design should be such that screws are not loaded in withdrawal from end grain. Allowable withdrawal load for lag screws from end
grain is 75 percent of that given by the above formula.

2-49
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Allowable lateral resistance of wood screws embedded seven diameters into the side grain of seasoned wood is given by:

P = KD2

where:

P = allowable lateral load, lbs

D = screw diameter, in.
K = species specific factor
= 4,800 for oak
= 3,960 for southern pine and coastal Douglas fir
= 3,240 for cypress and inland Douglas fir

Lead holes should be about 0.7D for softwoods, 0.9D for hardwoods.

Lateral resistance for lag screws and bolts depends on species and type of side member. Allowable lateral loads for selected bolt/screw sizes
are given in Table 2-13.

Table 2-13. Allowable Loads for Lag Bolts or Lag Screws.

All loads in pounds

Side Length of Diameter of Oven-dry specific gravity of species

member bolt, in. bolt at
shank, in.
0.60 – 0.75 0.51 – 0.55 0.42 – 0.50 0.31 – 0.41

1
11⁄ 2" 4 ⁄4 200 190 170 170 130 120 100 100
1
wood 4 ⁄2 390 250 290 190 210 140 170 110
3
6 ⁄8 480 370 420 320 360 280 290 220
5
6 ⁄8 860 510 710 430 510 310 410 250

1
21⁄ 2" 6 ⁄2 620 410 470 310 340 220 270 180
wood 6 1 1,040 520 790 390 560 280 450 230
3
8 ⁄4 1,430 790 1,080 600 780 430 620 340
8 1 1,800 900 1,360 680 970 490 780 390

1
11⁄ 2" 3 ⁄4 240 185 210 160 155 120 125 100
1
metal 3 ⁄2 550 285 415 215 295 155 240 125
1
6 ⁄2 1,100 570 945 490 770 400 615 320
3
6 ⁄4 1,970 865 1,480 650 1,060 460 850 370
7
10 ⁄8 3,420 1,420 2,960 1,230 2,340 970 1,890 785
12 1 4,520 1,810 3,900 1,560 3,290 1,320 2,630 1,050
16 11⁄ 4 7,120 2,850 6,150 2,460 5,500 2,200 4,520 1,810

2-50
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-7.3.3 Bolted Joints in Wood. Compression is transmitted by butting the timbers, with splice pieces bolted to the sides to maintain alignment
and resist incidental bending and shear. In a tension joint, like that shown in Figure 2-32, stress is transmitted through the bolts and splice
pieces. The width of splice pieces should equal that of the connected timbers; the thickness of wooden splice pieces should be one-half their
width.

Table 2-14 gives allowable loads per bolt

for tension splices with two wooden splice h
pieces (bolts loaded in double shear).
Tabulated loads for parallel-to-grain loading
can be increased by 25 percent when metal
splice pieces are used. When a joint
consists of two members—bolts in single
shear—the strength of the joint is one-half
the tabulated value for a piece twice the
thickness of the thinner member. The safe
load for bolts loaded at an angle θ to the
grain is given by:
PQ
N =
Psin2θ Qcos2θ Figure 2-32. Bolted Splice for Timber Framing.

where:

N = allowable load per bolt and inclination θ to grain, lbs

P = allowable load per bolt in compression parallel to grain, from Table 2-14, lbs
Q = allowable load per bolt in compression perpendicular to grain, from Table 2-14, lbs

The size, spacing, and arrangement of bolts should be such that tension on the net section area and shear along the grain do not exceed the values
given in Appendix E. Bolts should be spaced at least four diameters apart, and at least seven diameters from the end of softwood timbers and
five diameters from the end of hardwood timbers to prevent splitting.

These relationships solve for two angles that are substituted in the equations for σθ and τθ to determine which planes correspond to the maximum
and the minimum stresses.

Table 2-14. Allowable Loads per Bolt Loaded at Both Ends (Double Shear).

Loads in Pounds
Douglas fir-larch, Douglas fir-larch, southern Oak, red and white Western hemlock,
southern pine, pine (med. grain), California California redwood
(dense) redwood (close grain), (open grain), eastern
southern cypress hemlock
Length of Diameter Parallel to Perpen- Parallel Perpen- Parallel Perpen- Parallel to Perpen-
bolt in of bolt, in. grain dicular to to grain dicular to to grain dicular to grain dicular to
main grain grain grain grain
member,
in.

1
11⁄ 2 ⁄2 1,120 500 960 430 830 650 810 280
3
⁄4 1,700 630 1,460 540 1,260 820 1,210 350
1 2,270 760 1,940 650 1,690 980 1,610 420
1 1
2 ⁄2 ⁄2 1,510 840 1,290 720 1,120 1,080 1,190 460
3
⁄4 2,780 1,060 2,370 900 2,060 1,360 2,010 580
1 3,770 1,270 3,230 1,080 2,800 1,640 2,690 690
31⁄ 2 1
⁄2 1,530 1,140 1,310 980 1,130 1,130 1,220 640
3
⁄4 3,360 1,480 2,870 1,260 2,440 1,910 2,600 810
1 5,120 1,770 4,380 1,520 3,800 2,290 3,740 970
51⁄ 2 3
⁄4 3,430 2,220 2,930 1,880 2,540 2,490 2,750 1,270
1 6,080 2,790 5,200 2,380 4,510 3,560 4,860 1,520
11⁄ 4 9,160 3,260 7,830 2,790 6,800 4,210 7,000 1,780

2-51
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-8 STRESSES

A large part of any structural analysis is determining stress levels. A general discussion of the nature of stresses and material properties is
included in Appendix C. The stress in composite structures, combined stresses, and stress concentrations are discussed here.

2-8.1 Stresses in Composite Structures. A composite structure has two or more materials, each carrying part of the load. Unless all the
materials have the same modulus of elasticity, stress levels vary in the materials. If the materials are bound so that deformations in adjacent
layers are the same, composite structures can be analyzed by the transformation method:

a. Select one of the materials (usually the material forming largest part of the structure) as the standard material.

b. For each material other than the standard, calculate an elastic ratio (n = E/Estd).

c. For each material other than the standard material, calculate a transformed area equal to the actual area multiplied by the elastic
ratio, i.e., AT = A(E/Estd). Consider the transformed area to have the same properties as the standard material.

d. For compression or tension members, the total cross-sectional area is the sum of the standard material area plus all the transformed
areas. Stress in each material is:

nF
σ =
AT

e. For beams in bending, the transformed areas must be distributed by changing width so that the dimension parallel to the applied
load is not changed. The centroidal moment of inertia based on the transformed area (IT) is used to calculate bending stress in
any fiber:

nMY
σ =
IT

Shear and bending moment are determined in the usual manner.

The elastic ratio for wood/mild steel is about 1⁄ 16 in compression, and 1⁄ 25 in tension; for aluminum alloy/steel, n is about 1⁄ 3. For glass-reinforced
plastic/steel, n varies from 1⁄ 15 to 1⁄ 30. The figures vary with the precise alloys or mixtures.

2-8.2 Combined Stresses. Simple stresses, such as those determined by flexure or torsion theories, lie in planes perpendicular or parallel to
the lines of action of the forces causing the stresses. Normal (axial) and shear stresses may act in other directions.

Most practical cases of combined stresses

have known normal stresses on two perpen- A σy
τxy
dicular planes and a known shear stress A
τxy τxy
parallel to these planes, as shown on the
θ
element in Figure 2-33. A sign convention σθ
must be followed. Tensile stresses are pos-
itive, compressive stresses negative. Shear σx σx σx
stresses are positive when directed as shown θ τθ
in Figure 2-33, i.e., shear stress is positive τxy
when the stresses on the vertical planes of B C
τxy τxy
the element form a clockwise couple. σy σy
C

Based on the known stresses, shear and

normal stresses on all other planes can be Figure 2-33. Combined Stresses.
found from conditions of equilibrium.
Under any condition of stress, a plane can be found where shear stress is zero. The normal stresses on this plane are the principal stresses; the
principal stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses at the point.

2-52
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

If the element is "cut" along plane AC as shown, conditions of equilibrium show that, in general, both normal and shear stresses act on the plane:

1 1
σθ = (σ σy) (σ σy) cos 2 θ τ sin 2 θ
2 x 2 x

1
τθ = (σ σy) sin 2 θ τ cos 2 θ
2 x

where:

θ = angle between the vertical side of the element to the plane in question, as shown, clockwise if negative, and counterclockwise
if positive

The maximum and minimum normal and shear stresses are given by:

τx τy
σ(max, min) = ± τmax
2

σy )2 4 τxy
2
(σx
τmax = ±
2

The principal planes, containing the principal stresses, are defined by the angles θσ(max, min):

± 2 τxy  2τ 
tan 1  
1
tan 2 θσ(max, min) = ⇒ θσ(max, min) = ± xy

(σx σy) 2  (σx
σy
) 

The planes of maximum shear stress are defined by the angles θτ(max, min):

(σx σy)  (σ σy) 

tan 1  x
1
tan 2 θτ (max, min) = ± ⇒ θτ(max, min) = ± 
2τxy 2  2τxy 

2-8.3 Stress Concentration. Stress

concentrations are abrupt increases in
stress, usually caused by discontinuities, or P P
stress raisers—holes, grooves, notches,
etc.—in the member. Maximum stress
occurs at the boundary of the discontinuity.
Stress level falls with distance from the P P
discontinuity. At distances greater than six
times the maximum dimension of the
discontinuity, the stress field is undisturbed.
Figure 2-34 shows typical concentrated P P
stress patterns. Concentrated stresses
greater than the material ultimate stress
ARROWS INDICATE RELATIVE STRESS LEVEL
cause rupture in brittle materials. In
statically loaded ductile materials,
concentrated stresses higher than the yield Figure 2-34. Stress Concentration.
stress cause local plastic deformation and
redistribution of stress to form a more uniform stress pattern, although the redistribution is not 100-percent effective. The mitigating effects
of yield are much less effective in structures subject to shock and cyclic loading. Stress concentrations are probable initiation sites for fatigue
failure in cyclicly loaded structures.

2-53
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The ratio of maximum stress (σmax) to average stress in the surrounding material (σavg) is the stress concentration factor, k. Maximum stress
is then:

σmax = kσavg

Stress concentration factors for certain

discontinuities are calculated directly. For UNIFORM STRESS σ
an elliptical hole across a uniform stress
field in an infinite plate, the stress
concentration factors at points A and B
shown in Figure 2-35 are: σA
A kA = σ = -1
kA = 1 2b B σB 2a
kB = σ =1+ b
2a 2a
kB = 1 +
b

where:

2a = major axis of the ellipse Figure 2-35. Stress Concentration for Elliptical Opening in Infinite Plate.
2b = minor axis of the ellipse

Cracks are modeled as long, thin ellipses to

determine stress concentration factors, UNIFORM STRESS σ
which increase rapidly as the ratio of length
to width increases. The stress concentration
factor for a hairline crack quickly becomes
r
very large as the crack propagates; the
crack continues to propagate until it reaches
a region of very low stress, or the end of (2b + 2r)
the structure. 2b d k = 21 br {1+ {
b- r

For a circular hole, a = b, and kB = 3.

Stress at the sides of the hole is three times
the general stress and there is compressive
d
stress equal to the general tensile stress at
the top and bottom of the hole.
σ
A square hole with sides parallel and
perpendicular to the stress field can be
treated as two ellipses oriented as shown in Figure 2-36. Stress Concentration for Square Opening in Infinite Plate.
Figure 2-36. Maximum stress concentration
factor (at the corners) is approximately:

 
1 b  2b 2r 
k = 1
2 r 
 b r 

where:

2b = length of diagonal of square hole

r = corner radius

2-54
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Figure 2-37 shows the variation in stress concentration factor for square holes in infinite plates with sides parallel to and at 45 degrees to the
stress field. The curves show that:

• Square holes with sides

parallel to the stress field 10
cause lower concentrated 9
stresses than holes with sides b
at an angle to the stress field. 8

• Stress concentration factor is

7 r
r
constant for r/b ratios greater 6
than 1⁄ 2.
5
k
• Holes with corner radii less 4
than 1⁄ 20 of the side length
cause very high concentrated 3
stresses. 2 r
b
Figure 2-38 shows a rectangular hole with r
1
radiused corners in a finite plate under 0
uniform tension. This condition is similar 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
to a large hatch or a large hole in side or r
shell plating with dressed edges. An b
empirical relationship (Maximum Stress
Concentration at Rectangular Openings Figure 2-37. Stress Concentration for Square Openings in Infinite Plates.
with Rounded Corners in Plates of Finite
Dimensions, M. Gibzstein, European
Shipbuilding, 1965) gives the stress concentration factor:

 
1 0.4B/b  0.926  b 2  
k =  1 0.577 ( 0.24)  
2 0.4l/B  1.348 0.82620r/B  B  

where:
B =
width of plate
b =
width of rectangular hole
l =
length of rectangular hole
r =
corner radius
maximum local stress
k =
mean stress at AA

The stress concentration factor is referred to the stress at the reduced section, not the stress in the clear plate. Maximum stress occurs about
5 to 10 degrees around the corner from the side parallel to the stress field, zero stress 50 to 70 degrees around. A rectangular hole oriented
with the long sides parallel to the stress field causes stress concentrations 40 to 50 percent lower than the same hole with its long sides
perpendicular to the stress field.

MAX. STRESS
A
ZERO STRESS

B b r

Figure 2-38. Stress Concentration for Rectangular Opening in Finite Plate.

2-55
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Experimentally determined stress concentration factors for other types of discontinuities are shown in the curves in Figure 2-39. The k factors
are referred to stress at the reduced sections.

A useful field expedient is to use a variety of large, empty food and beverage cans as templates for radiusing hole and plate corners. Patches
have no effect on the stress concentration caused by plate openings unless they are made an integral part of the structure.

4.0 3.0 3.0

T d r r
D
3.6 T 2.6 D d 2.6 M D d M
B A
J = πD3 - dD2 (approx)
c 16 6 2.2
k 3.2 2.2 D/h = 1.02
D/h = 1.50 1.05
k, A k k
1.10 1.1
2.8 1.8 1.8 1.3
k, B 3

2.4 1.4 1.4

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 1.05
d/D 1.02
1.0 1.0
(a) ROUND SHAFT IN TORSION 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
WITH TRANSVERSE HOLE r/D r/d
(b) RECTANGULAR FILLETED BAR IN (c) RECTANGULAR FILLETED
TENSION OR SIMPLE COMPRESSION BAR IN BENDING

2.6 3.0 3.0

r r
T r T
D d M D d M
2.2 2.6 D d 2.6

D/d = 1.50
k 1.8 1.10 2.2 2.2 D/d = 3
1.05 D/d = 2 1.5
1.02 k 1.33 k
1.10
1.4 1.8 1.20 1.8 1.05
1.09 1.02

1.0 1.4 1.4

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
r/d
1.0 1.0
(d) ROUND SHAFT WITH SHOULDER 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
FILLET IN TENSION.
r/d d/D
(e) ROUND SHAFT WITH SHOULDER (f) ROUND SHAFT IN TORSION WITH
FILLET IN TORSION TRANSVERSE HOLE

3.0 3.0 2.6

r r T r T
2.6 D d 2.6 M D d M 2.2 D d

2.2 2.2 k 1.8

D/d = 1.30
k k 1.05
1.02
1.8 1.8 1.4

D/d = 1.50 D/d = 1.50 1.0

1.4 1.15 1.4 1.05 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.05 1.02
1.02 r/d
1.0 1.0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 (i) GROOVED ROUND BAR IN TORSION
r/d r/d
(g) GROOVED ROUND BAR IN TENSION (h) GROOVED ROUND BAR IN BENDING

Figure 2-39A. Theoretical Stress Concentration Factors.

2-56
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

3.0 3.0 3.0 r

d/h w d
2.8 2.6 = 2.6 w d
w d
0.2 0 M M
5 h
2.6 2.2 0.5 2.2
k k 1.0 k
2.4 1.8 2.0 1.8 w/d = 3
∞ 1.5
2.2 1.4 1.4 1.2
1.1
1.05
2.0 1.0 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
d/w d/w r/d
(j) BAR IN TENSION OR SIMPLE (k) RECTANGULAR BAR WITH A (l) NOTCHED RECTANGULAR BAR IN
COMPRESSION TRANSVERSE HOLE IN BENDING TENSION OR SIMPLE COMPRESSION

3.0 3.0 11
r
d h/w = 0.35
2.6 M w d M 2.6 9 d
d
M M
w/d = ∞ w t
2.2 2.2 7
k 1.5
k k
1.10
1.8 1.8 5

1.05 h/w = 0.50

1.4 1.4 3
1.02
1.0 h/w >
= 1.0
1.0 1
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
r/d d/D d/w
(m) NOTCHED RECTANGULAR (n) ROUND SHAFT IN BENDING WITH (o) PLATE LOADED IN TENSION BY A PIN THROUGH
BAR IN BENDING A TRANSVERSE HOLE A HOLE. WHEN CLEARANCE EXISTS, INCREASE
kt 35 TO 50 PERCENT. (M. M. FROCHT AND H. N.
HILL, "STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS
AROUND A CENTRAL CIRCULAR HOLE IN A
PLATE LOADED THROUGH A PIN IN HOLE,"
J. APPL. MECHANICS, VOL 7, NO. 1, MARCH 1940)

NOTE: UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, THESE FACTORS ARE FROM, "DESIGN FACTORS FOR
STRESS CONCENTRATION," BY R. E. PETERSON, MACHINE DESIGN, VOL. 23, NO. 2
FEBRUARY 1951, NO. 3, MARCH 1951 NO. 5, MAY 1951.

Figure 2-39B. Theoretical Stress Concentration Factors.

2-9 TORSION

Shafts or bars subjected to torsional moment develop internal resisting moments through shear stress. For circular shafts, cross sections are
assumed to remain plane sections and torsional shear stress varies directly with radius; shear stress at radius, r, is:
Tr
τ =
Ip

where:

τ = torsional shear stress, [force/length2] IP = polar moment of inertia, [length4] = πd4/32

T = torque, [force-length] d = shaft diameter, [length]
r = shaft radius, [length]

A cross section of the shaft will be rotated through some angle, θ:

Tl
θ =
GIp

where:

θ = angle of rotation, radians

l = length of the shaft from the fixed end to the section in question, [length]
G = material shear modulus (ratio of shear stress to shear strain), [force/length2]

2-57
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

For a circular shaft subjected to both torsion and static bending, stress at any point is a combined stress consisting of torsional shear and flexural
stress. Maximum shearing stress (τmax) is:
1/2
σ2
τmax = τ2
4

where:

σ = flexural stress
τ = torsional shear stress

In shafts of noncircular cross section subjected to torsion, cross sections are warped and stress does not vary directly with distance from the
centroid. Maximum stress usually occurs at a point on the perimeter of the cross section nearest the axis of twist. There is no stress at the
corners of square and rectangular sections. For rectangular sections, Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition, gives
approximate expressions for the maximum internal resisting moment and angle of rotation:
2
TR = b 2hτ
9

Tl
θ =
βGb 3h

where:

TR = internal resisting moment, [force-length] θ = angle of rotation, radians

τ = allowable shear stress, [force/length2] l = length of the shaft from the fixed end to the section in
T = torque, [force-length] question, [length]
b = width of rectangular section, [length] G = material shear modulus, [force/length2]
h = height of rectangular section, with h greater than β = twisting factor, a function of h/b, taken from Table 2-15
b, [length]

Table 2-15. Twisting Factors for Rectangular Shafts.

h/b 1.00 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 ∞

β 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333

For composite sections—angles, T-shapes, etc.—the maximum resisting moment is:

TR = G θ β h b 3

where θ is the maximum acceptable twist angle, and the summation is applied to each of the component rectangles of the section.

Relationships for torsional resisting moment and angle of twist for other cross sections are given in Table 2-16.

2-58
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 2-16. Torsion Relationships for Shafts of Various Cross Section.

Angular twist,θ1 (length = 1 in., radius = 1 in.)

Cross Section Torsional resisting moment, Mt
In terms of torsional moment In terms of max shear

π Mt 32 Mt Sv 1
d 3Sv = 2 max

16 GIp πd 4 G G d

π D4 d4 32 Mt Sv 1
d Sv 2 max

16 D π(D 4 d 4 ) G G D

D
B
π 16 b 2 h 2 Mt Sv b2 h2
h A b 2hSv max

16 π b 3h 3 G G bh 2
(h > b)
b

h 2/9 b 2hSv b 2 h 2 Mt Sv
3.6 b2 h2
b 3h 3 G 0.8 max

(h > b) G bh 2
b

h 2/9 h 3Sv 7.2

1 Mt Sv 1
1.6 max

h4 G G h
b

b
b3
Sv 1 Mt Sv 1
46.2 2.31 max

b b 20 b4 G G b

b b3 1 Mt Sv 1
Sv 0.967 0.9 max

1.09 b4 G G b
b

*When h/b = 1 2 4 8
Coefficient 3.6 becomes = 3.56 3.50 3.35 3.21
Coefficient 0.8 becomes = 0.79 0.78 0.74 0.71

Notes: (1) Svmax at circumference.

(2) Svmax at outer circumference.
(3) Svmax at A; SvB = 16Mt/πbh 2.
(4) Svmax at middle of side h; in middle of b, S = 9M t/2bh2.
(5) Svmax at middle of side.

From Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw Hill, 1987

2-59
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-10 IMPACT

A load is suddenly applied if the duration of load application is less than one-half the fundamental natural period of vibration of the load-bearing
member. Under impact, a compression wave propagates through the member, producing a maximum stress that is many times larger than for
a statically applied load. An exact determination of the stress is difficult, but impact stress can be approximated by applying conservation of
kinetic and strain energy:

 
W  3W 
si = s
Wb  3W + Wb 


where:

si = impact stress, [force/

length2] BROKEN
LONGITUDINALS
s = static stress, [force/length2]
SHELL DAMAGE SEVERELY DAMAGED
= W/A for an axial load, LONGITUDINALS
My/I for a beam in bend-
ing, Tr/IP for a circular
HOLE SURROUNDED
shaft in torsion, etc. BY UPSET AND
W = weight of the impacting BUCKLED PLATING
mass, [force]
Wb = weight of the impacted
object, [force]

The following relationship provides a better LIGHTLY DAMAGED

estimate of impact stress when the ratio LONGITUDINALS
W/Wb is small:

W 2
si = s + s +
Wb 3
NEW STIFFENERS
TIED INTO EXISTING
BY STRUCTURALLY
A more complete discussion of impact CONTINUOUS WELDS
stress can be found in Marks’ Standard
Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth STRUCTURAL
Edition; Avallone and Baumeister; McGraw REPAIR
Hill, 1987.

2-11 STRUCTURAL REPAIR AND

REINFORCEMENT

BUCKLED AND TORN

PLATING CUT AWAY
Structural repair and reinforcement is one TO SMOOTH CONTOUR
of the most difficult tasks undertaken by a AND REPLACED WITH
salvage engineer. Properly designed and DEFORMED WELDED PATCH
installed structural repairs can save very STIFFENERS
CUT AWAY AND
badly damaged ships; improperly designed REPLACED
installed repairs may worsen the situation
caused by the damage and may lead to the
Figure 2-40. Rigid Bridge.
loss of the ship. When ships, particularly
lightly constructed ships, are subjected to
extreme shock-loading from underwater explosions or collision, the hull can whip violently and subsequent damage can occur, remote from the
major damage. Ships that have suffered shock must be inspected throughout for hull damage.

2-60
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Flexible bridges can carry only tensile loads. The type and size load are controlled by weight and buoyancy distribution in the ship. It is
extremely difficult t o control loads on flexible bridges and ensure that flexible members share the load equitably. In salvage, flexible bridges
are used only as a last resort when it is impossible to install rigid patches or bridges. Flexible bridges would appear to be an excellent solution
to a difficult problem. In practice, however, they are difficult, unpredictable, unreliable, and dangerous; they should be avoided. Although
flexible bridges can be installed very quickly and can be used for temporary stabilizing during emergencies or damage control efforts, they should
be replaced with rigid bridges as soon as possible. Flexible bridges may also be used to hold separated, plating stationary long enough for the
welding required to install rigid bridges.

2-11.1.2 Cracks. Cracks, particularly in

high-stress areas, are dangerous. Cracks HOLE DRILLED AT EACH END
may propagate and lead to serious failure. OF THE CRACK TO STOP
PROPAGATION OF CRACK
Athwartships and vertical cracks are the
most dangerous because they lie across the
general bending stress field. Oblique cracks
in shell or deck structures are also
B
dangerous because they have an athwart-
ships or vertical component. Because of the A
extreme stress concentrations at their ends,
cracks propagate to areas of low stress
before stopping. Cracks starting in high-
yield steels grow to great lengths in the sur-
rounding lower yield plating. Drilling crack A AND B - 6" MINIMUM
ends stops propagation in steel. Continuity CORNER RADIUS 3" OR 1/8 WIDTH
is restored to the member by using a doub- OF PLATE
ler, as shown in Figure 2-42. Doublers
should not be placed over cracks without Figure 2-42. Welding Repair to Crack.
drilling the ends, as the crack will grow past
the doubler. Cracks in areas that will not be
highly stressed at any time during the operation are less dangerous than those in high-stress areas, and may be repaired or left alone, depending
upon their size, location, orientation, and stress levels. Each crack should be evaluated individually and monitored for growth during the operation.

Drilling cannot dead-end cracks in aluminum. Cracks in aluminum must be completely ground out and welded from both sides, or the cracked
plating cut out and replaced with an insert plate. Doubler plates on aluminum do not provide resistance to crack propagation and add stress
concentrations where new cracks can begin.

2-11.2 Buckled Structure. Buckled structure may carry almost its entire design tensile load but has essentially no ability to carry compressive
loads. Ideally, all buckled plating and stiffeners should be cut away and replaced.

If the stiffeners have buckled or tripped, but the plating is not deformed seriously, the damaged portions of the stiffeners may be cut out and
replaced. Reinforcing stiffeners are laid in the plane of the tripped stiffeners and tied into undamaged sections at the ends, or placed externally
and terminated as described in Paragraph 2-11.1.1. The reinforcing stiffener should extend into the sound portion of the existing stiffener by
a length not less than six times the web depth. The flange should be cut off at an angle as shown in Figure 2-43.

Reinforcement of deformed plating against shear and compression is limited by the effective attachment of doubler plates and stiffeners. When
stiffening buckled structure, the salvage engineer must be aware of the contribution of the plating to the strength of the plating-stiffener
combination. A one-to-one replacement of stiffeners does not restore the strength of the section adequately. Sufficient material must be provided
in the stiffeners to restore the sectional area of the ineffective plate. This material may be provided in one of three ways:

• Large stiffeners, carried well past the damage and clear of high-stress areas, and tied in to sound structure effectively.

• Closely spaced intermediate stiffeners—spaced as closely as the amount of sectional area required and welding access
permit—placed between the primary stiffeners. Intermediate stiffeners must be carried well beyond damaged structure and
terminated as described in Paragraph 2-11.1.1.

• A combination of large stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners.

To reduce the stress concentrations that occur at the lower edges of tees in way of wrinkled plate, stiffeners should have lower flanges provided
by the shape itself or by strips of plating under the longitudinals. The maximum contact between damaged structure and reinforcement is
desirable.

2-62
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

2-11.3 Openings. Holes are cut in a

ship’s structure for access, cargo handling,
ventilation, engineering systems, etc.
Salvors cut temporary openings to provide
TRIPPED
access for pump suctions or discharges, STIFFENER
electrical leads, hydraulic hoses, etc. While
it is preferable to restore the structural
integrity of damage openings as described
in Paragraph 2-11.1; in some situations it
may be preferable to simply reinforce the
opening. Design criteria for the geometry,
orientation, and placement of openings are
used as guidelines when making openings,
and when reinforcing structures surrounding
openings.

Holes are potential sources of structural FULL HEAVY ANGLE TIED

failure; they reduce the amount of material PENETRATION INTO UNTRIPPED
FILLET WELDS PORTION OF STIFFENER
available to carry load and introduce stress
concentrations. Structure is guarded against FLANGE CUT
undue weakening by: AT 6:1 SLOPE

• Eliminating and consolidating

openings where possible.

• Avoiding openings in highly DAMAGED PORTION

OF STIFFENER CUT
stressed areas. OUT AND REPLACED
FULL
PENETRATION
• Adopting geometry and FILLET WELDS
(BOTH SIDES)
orientation that reduce stress
concentration. WEB AND FLANGE
CUT AT 45˚ ANGLE
AND BUTT WELDED
• Limiting opening size. TO MATCHING CUTS
IN SOUND STIFFENER

• Compensating for removed

material with doubler or Figure 2-43. Repairing Tripped and Buckled Stiffeners.
insert plates.

• Compensating for reduced rigidity with free-edge stiffening.

The location and size of damage openings is beyond the control of salvors, but their adverse effect can be mitigated. Damage holes must be
enlarged to radius corners, or otherwise modify their geometry. Methods to predict and reduce stress concentration are discussed in Paragraph
2-8.3. Compensation and the effects of cuts in stiffeners are discussed in the following paragraphs.

2-11.3.1 Compensation. Compensation is used if the presence of an opening will cause unacceptable stresses in the remaining plate. Three
forms of compensation are commonly used in ships:

• Free-edge stiffening.

• Doubling.

• Heavy insert plates.

2-63
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Free edges are stiffened with flat bar or

tubing rings (face bars) welded around the T
periphery of the cut, as shown in Figure REINFORCEMENT
2-44. Flat bar or tubing rings are easier to A h
install than insert plates, and generally PLATE
more efficient than doublers. In some lo- INTERCEPT PLATE t
AREA = tT
cations, flat bar reinforcements may be trip
hazards or unwanted obstructions. Re- CLEAR
inforcing ring dimensions are specified in OPENING
terms of cross-sectional area, A, as shown
in Figure 2-44. Minimum cross-sectional (b) FLAT BAR
area of the reinforcing ring is given by:
Ar = A + tT A T

where:
PLATE t
Ar = total cross-sectional area of
the reinforcing ring, in2 tT
A = cross-sectional area of the (a) FACE BAR WELDED AROUND
reinforcement (shaded area PERIPHERY OF OPENING (c) TUBULAR
in Figure 2-44), in2
tT = "plate intercept area," in2
T = reinforcing bar thickness, in. Figure 2-44. Free-Edge Stiffening.
t = thickness of reinforced
plate, in.

Values for A can be taken from the design rules in Table 2-17. The depth of the ring should be less than 16 times the plate thickness, preferably
less than 8 times the plate thickness. The face bar should be as thick as the plating if possible, but at least 1⁄ 4-inch thick. Good practice is make
the ring depth approximately equal to plate thickness plus 11⁄ 4 inches, using a bar thickness that will make up the required area. Reinforcing
rings should be of the same material as the plating and be attached with 100-percent-effective welds.

Table 2-17. Design Rules for Edge Stiffening.

For openings in the strength envelope (outside plating, strength decks, inner
bottom, longitudinal framing):
30 bt
A = for b ≥ 2a
b 100
18 bt a
A = for b ≤
b 100 2
30 bt a
A = for ≤ b ≤ 2a
b 100 2

For openings in transverse framing and bulkheads:

12 dt
A = for circular openings
d + 100
16.8 wt
A = for square openings with rounded corners
1.4w + 100
12 (0.4w + l ) t
A = for rectangular openings with rounded corners
0.4w + l + 100

where:
A= cross-sectional area of the reinforcement (shaded area in Figure 2-44), in2
t = thickness of reinforced plate, in.
b = transverse dimension of opening, in.
a = longitudinal dimension of opening, in.
d = diameter of circular opening, in.
w= width of rectangular or square opening, in.
l = length of rectangular opening, in.
From U.S. Navy Design Data Sheet DDS 100-1, Reinforcement of Openings in Structure of
Surface Ships, Other than in Protective Plating

2-64
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Doubler plates are welded to the plate

around the periphery of an opening, as
shown in Figure 2-45, to compensate for the
material removed. Doubler plates should be DOUBLER
of the same material as the plating, and can
be installed on one or both sides of the plat- SEAM
ing. The thickness of doubler plates should BASIC OPENING
be approximately equal to that of the cut DOUBLER
plating. The width of the doubler plate is
dictated by the cross-sectional area that must DECK
be added to reduce stress to acceptable
levels. A good rule of thumb is to make the
doubler wide enough that the cross-sectional
area of the doubler plate along the sides of
DOUBLER PLATE
the opening equals that of the removed COMPENSATES FOR DOUBLER FILLET WELDS
plate. It is common practice to surround the MATERIAL REMOVED PLATE
opening with the doubler plate, although the
middle portion of the sides of the opening
perpendicular to the stress field do not re- DOUBLERS CAN BE PLACED ON BOTH SIDES
quire reinforcement, because these areas are IF WIDTH OBSTRUCTED ON ONE SIDE
largely relieved of stress by the presence of
the opening.
STANCHION
Heavy insert plates, in the plane of the plat-
ing, compensate for the material removed
by the opening. Insert plates are more ef-
ficient structurally than edge stiffening or
doublers, but are more difficult to install
and require an oversize opening to be cut.
Insert plates are the preferred method of
compensation in ship construction, but are
seldom used in salvage.
2-11.3.2 Cuts in Stiffeners. Indiscrim- STIFFNER
inate cuts in shell and deck stiffeners are a
serious source of weakness. The following PARTIAL DOUBLERS ON BOTH SIDES OF PLATING TO AVOID OBSTRUCTIONS
rules apply to stiffeners carrying distributed
loads:
Figure 2-45. Doublers.
• Stiffener webs should not be
cut within the high-shear
stress regions shown in Figure
2-46 (bounded by a distance
from a support equal to one- 1/8 SPAN 3/4 SPAN
eighth the span), with the ex- SUPPORTED NO CUTS EXCEPT ROUND HOLES
ception that round holes with PLATE NOT EXCEEDING 1/8 D
diameter less than one-eighth NOT OVER 1/3 D WITHOUT COMPENSATION
NOT OVER 1/2 D IN ANY CASE
the web depth are acceptable.
1/3 D OR LESS
• Unreinforced cuts and open-
ings with lateral dimension D
not exceeding one-third the 2/3 D 2/3 D
depth of the web are usually
permissible in the middle SUPPORT SUPPORT
three-quarters of the span.
CUTS USUALLY PERMISSIBLE WITHOUT COMPENSATION
• Length of openings should not
exceed twice their depth to
avoid secondary bending of
the small beams formed by
the portions of the stiffener
remaining above and below
the opening (see Figure 2-46).

• Openings should be separated FAILURE IN "SECONDARY BENDING" AT HOLE

longitudinally by a distance
equal to or greater than two-
thirds the depth of the web. Figure 2-46. Cuts in Stiffeners.

2-65
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

• Openings should be located close to the supported plating, because the neutral axis of the stiffener-plating combination lies near the
plating; loss of material at the neutral axis causes little reduction in stiffener bending strength.

• Stiffener flanges should not be cut without compensation, unless it is determined that the flange has excess strength in way of the
cut.

Large concentrated loads can change shear distribution in the stiffener significantly. The effect of openings is determined on a case-by-case basis.

2-11.3.3 Compensation for Cuts in Stiffeners. Openings in stiffener webs deeper than the limits recommended above should be reinforced with
a doubler plate on the web, as shown in Figure 2-47, to restore the shear strength of the web. A face bar around the periphery of the opening
does not restore web shear strength. Face bars around openings that exceed the recommended length reinforce the remaining portion of stiffener
against secondary bending. To permit
effective reinforcement, openings should not
be deeper than one-half the depth of the
web, or longer than one and one-half times
the depth of the web. For larger openings,
the depth of the beam should be increased
locally, as shown.

2-11.3.4 Damage Openings. Location and

size determine if damage openings require
structural patches, reinforcement, or
compensation. If the material remaining DOUBLER TO INCREASED DEPTH IN
RESTORE WEB WAY OF UNAVOIDABLE
around a hole can carry anticipated loads, AREA IN SHEAR LARGE CUT
after accounting for stress concentration, no
structural repairs are necessary. Dressing
the edges of the hole to leave smooth
contours and radiused corners reduces stress
concentration. Dimensions (as dressed) and
locations of damage openings should be
compared to the criteria described above to
determine the requirement for compensation
or reinforcement. FLAT BAR RING OR ANGLE IRONS TO
RESTORE STRENGTH IN SECONDARY BENDING
2-11.3.5 Existing Openings. Hatches,
doors, and other openings in the ship are
Figure 2-47. Compensation for Oversize Cuts in Stiffeners.
usually compensated for design stresses, or
located in low-stress areas, without
reinforcement. The same is generally true for openings created by later planned modifications. Unusual loading or damage can alter stress patterns
and levels—openings that were adequately designed for normal service may require reinforcement under salvage conditions. It is not practical
to re-evaluate every opening on the ship, but openings in areas subject to unusually high loading should be examined and reinforced as required.

2-11.4 Reinforcing Undamaged Structure. Undeformed plating and stiffeners are usually reinforced adequately with simple doubler plates and
shapes. Tripping brackets, or gussets, are used to increase the ability of stiffeners and stiffener-plating combinations to carry compressive loads.
Free-edge stiffening, similar to that used to reinforce openings, increases compressive and lateral load bearing ability of plating.

2-11.5 Increased Stresses Caused by Reinforcement. Reinforcing only one flange of a girder may increase stress to unacceptable levels as the
neutral axis migrates towards the reinforced flange, increasing the distance to the outer fibers of the unreinforced flange. Excessive reinforcement
should be avoided and the changes in section properties resulting from reinforcement examined carefully. When it is not possible to reinforce both
flanges of a hull girder (as when the ship’s bottom is not accessible), it may be better to leave the accessible (upper) flange unreinforced and limit
stresses by careful load management.

2-66
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Allowable stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29, 2-45, 2-46

Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-30, 2-52, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-65, 2-66
Asymmetrical sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Attachment points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-60, 2-66
Beam Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-4
Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-5, 2-14, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-52, 2-65
Bearing stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-47
Bending . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-51, 2-52, 2-58,
2-60, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66
Bending loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6
Bending stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-30, 2-32, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-52, 2-62
Bending stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-36, 2-38
Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Bolted connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45
Bolted joints in wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51
Bolts and rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46
Bottom plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3
Bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
Bridging discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Brittle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-53
Broken or missing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Buckled structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62
Butt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45, 2-61
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-13
Cantilever beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30
Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63
Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-32
Centroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15, 2-30, 2-36, 2-47, 2-48, 2-58
Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 2-33, 2-40, 2-41
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-37
Combined stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-46, 2-52
Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-65, 2-66
Compensation for cuts in stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
Compression blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Compressive stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-15, 2-36, 2-45, 2-54
Concentric beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-45, 2-46, 2-48
Connections in wooden structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-45, 2-47, 2-65
Continuous beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-33
Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52
Crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-54, 2-62
Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-54, 2-62
Cross-stiffened grillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Curved beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33
Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-5, 2-6, 2-42, 2-55, 2-56
Cuts in stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-65, 2-66
Cyclic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-53
Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-43, 2-44
Cylinders and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44

2-67
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 2-60, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-66

Damage openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63, 2-66
Damaged strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-62, 2-65
Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-39, 2-40
Design curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-6
cross-stiffened grillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
repeating stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-13, 2-55, 2-64, 2-66
Distributed loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-15, 2-30, 2-65
Doubler plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-62, 2-65, 2-66
Ductile materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-40, 2-47, 2-53
Eccentric loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
Eccentric loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
Effective breadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-6
Effective length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-52
Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-7, 2-12, 2-29, 2-30, 2-37, 2-42, 2-52
Endurance limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46
Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-44, 2-52, 2-53
Existing openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
External pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45
Face bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-64, 2-66
Factor of safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-46, 2-53
Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29
Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-62, 2-66
Flat plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39, 2-41
Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-33, 2-35, 2-52
Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-32, 2-33, 2-47, 2-48
Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-3
Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12, 2-61
Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38, 2-64
Free-body diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-13, 2-29, 2-61
Grillage instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12
Grillages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5, 2-12
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Hatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-55
Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Herzog formula for stiffened panels under uniaxial compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Hog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32, 2-62
Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15, 2-42
Hull girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-13, 2-29, 2-61
Hull strength in salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Hull structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
I-beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-35
Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-46, 2-60
Inter-frame flexural buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12
Inter-frame tripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12
Internal pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45
Keel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Kern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-39
Length . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-33, 2-36, 2-37, 2-39, 2-40, 2-41, 2-42, 2-43, 2-45, 2-46, 2-48, 2-49, 2-50, 2-51,
2-54, 2-55, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, 2-61, 2-62, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66

2-68
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-45, 2-46

Loads . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-12, 2-14, 2-15, 2-30, 2-32, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-47, 2-48, 2-49, 2-50, 2-51, 2-61, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66
Long and short columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37
Longitudinal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-42, 2-44, 2-61, 2-64
Longitudinal strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Longitudinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-4, 2-62
Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-40, 2-47, 2-52, 2-53
Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-5, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-29, 2-30, 2-37, 2-52, 2-57, 2-58
Moment . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-37, 2-39, 2-43, 2-48, 2-52, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59
Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-29, 2-32, 2-35, 2-37, 2-43, 2-48, 2-52, 2-57
Nails and spikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
neutral axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13, 2-15, 2-29, 2-39, 2-66
Oblique loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-32
Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-55, 2-56, 2-61, 2-63, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66
Padeyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45
Panting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Parbuckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-45
Patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Plastic deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-13, 2-53
Plastic stress and residual strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-39, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66
Plate failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12
Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-55, 2-61, 2-62, 2-64, 2-65, 2-66
Poisson’s ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6, 2-40, 2-42
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-40, 2-42, 2-43, 2-44, 2-45, 2-46
Program of Ship Salvage Engineering (POSSE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-30, 2-37, 2-45, 2-52
Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-29, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-42, 2-44, 2-48, 2-54, 2-57, 2-59, 2-63
Reinforcing undamaged structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-12, 2-60, 2-61, 2-66
Repeating stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Residual stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Residual stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12
Ring-stiffened cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-43
Riveted connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-46
Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47
Sag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-13, 2-15, 2-42, 2-46, 2-60, 2-61, 2-62, 2-65, 2-66
Salvage operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13
Salvors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-63
Scantlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-49, 2-50
Section Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-4, 2-15, 2-29, 2-32, 2-36, 2-39, 2-56, 2-57, 2-58, 2-62
Shear . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-32, 2-33, 2-39, 2-44, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-51, 2-52, 2-53, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, 2-61,
2-62, 2-65, 2-66
Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-57, 2-58
Shear strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-66
Shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-6, 2-7, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-52, 2-53, 2-57, 2-58, 2-65
Sheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Sheer strake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Shell plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-4, 2-55
Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-14, 2-60, 2-63, 2-64
Shoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Side plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
slenderness ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36, 2-37
Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-14, 2-30, 2-33, 2-65
Specific gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48, 2-49, 2-50

2-69
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42, 2-44, 2-45

Statically determinate beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-37, 2-46, 2-47, 2-52, 2-62
Stiffened plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 2-6, 2-13
Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-32, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-65, 2-66
Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13, 2-44, 2-57, 2-60
Strake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-13
Strength . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-36, 2-37, 2-39, 2-42, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-51, 2-62, 2-64, 2-66
Stress . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-30, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, 2-38, 2-39, 2-40, 2-42, 2-44, 2-45,
2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-51, 2-52, 2-53, 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-57, 2-58, 2-60, 2-61, 2-62, 2-63, 2-65, 2-66
Stress concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-47, 2-53, 2-54, 2-55, 2-56, 2-61, 2-63, 2-66
Stresses 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-13, 2-14, 2-15, 2-29, 2-32, 2-36, 2-38, 2-39, 2-42, 2-44, 2-46, 2-47, 2-48, 2-51, 2-52, 2-53, 2-55,
2-61, 2-63, 2-66
Stresses in composite structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52
Structural repair and reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60
Strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38, 2-39
Struts and columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36
Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30, 2-32, 2-40
Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Tensile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-12, 2-15, 2-38, 2-42, 2-45, 2-46, 2-47, 2-52, 2-54, 2-61, 2-62
Theory of flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14, 2-15
Thick-walled cylinders and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44
Thin-walled cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Thin-walled cylinders and spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-42
Tidal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6, 2-7, 2-48, 2-52, 2-57, 2-58, 2-59, 2-60
Ultimate strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12, 2-13
Ultimate strength computer programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-63
Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2, 2-12, 2-60
Web frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1, 2-2, 2-46, 2-60, 2-62
Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3, 2-45, 2-46, 2-64
Whip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-60
Wire rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-61
Working stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-37, 2-47
Yield strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7, 2-12, 2-13

2-70