Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
March, 2003
1
Table of Contents
Reservoir Engineering..............................................................................................4
1. DARCY’S LAW........................................................................................................................................................4
Expression..................................................................................................................................................4
Darcy’s law in field metric units................................................................................................................4
Darcy’s law in radial steady-state flow......................................................................................................4
Darcy’s law in radial flow pseudosteady-state flow..................................................................................4
2. OOIP/RESERVES...................................................................................................................................................5
OOIP- Original Oil in Place......................................................................................................................5
Reserves......................................................................................................................................................5
3. SKIN FACTOR........................................................................................................................................................6
Definition....................................................................................................................................................6
The additional pressure drop due to skin effect, ∆ps.................................................................................6
Example......................................................................................................................................................6
4. DIFFUSIVITY EQUATION, FLOW REGIMES...........................................................................................................7
Diffusivity equation in radial form............................................................................................................7
Semi steady state (or pseudo steady-state).................................................................................................7
Steady state.................................................................................................................................................7
5. WELL TEST ANALYSIS..........................................................................................................................................8
Pressure Drawdown or Injectivity.............................................................................................................8
Buildup or Falloff......................................................................................................................................8
6. WATER INJECTION COMPENSATION..................................................................................................................10
7. IMMISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT (WATERFLOODING)............................................................................................11
Linear water fractional flow equation, fw................................................................................................11
Average water saturation..........................................................................................................................11
8. MATERIAL BALANCE METHODS........................................................................................................................12
General equation......................................................................................................................................12
FE method (solution gas drive)...............................................................................................................13
GASCAP Method......................................................................................................................................14
Havlena – Odeh Method..........................................................................................................................15
Campbell Method.....................................................................................................................................16
Pressure match methods (any reservoir).................................................................................................17
Production Engineering.........................................................................................18
1. BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE (BHP) IN ESP PUMP WELLS.................................................................................18
Vertical well case......................................................................................................................................18
Deviated wells (subtract a constant correction).......................................................................................19
Units conversion.......................................................................................................................................19
2. OIL FLOW RATE BASED ON TOTAL LIQUID AND WATER CUT.........................................................................20
Volumetric flowrate..................................................................................................................................20
Mass flowrate............................................................................................................................................20
Example....................................................................................................................................................20
Units conversion.......................................................................................................................................20
3. PRODUCTIVITY INDEX PI...................................................................................................................................21
Definition..................................................................................................................................................21
PI for steady state flow to a vertical well.................................................................................................21
PI for pseudosteady – state flow to a vertical well...................................................................................21
PI calculation given qL, pwf and pR...........................................................................................................21
4. INFLOW PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP (IPR).................................................................................................22
Vogel model in dimensionless form.........................................................................................................22
General IPR based on Vogel’s model.......................................................................................................22
General IPR based on Fetkovich’s model...............................................................................................22
Example problem (IPR)...........................................................................................................................22
5. FLOW EFFICIENCY..............................................................................................................................................23
Definition..................................................................................................................................................23
FE for steady-state flow...........................................................................................................................23
FE for pseudosteady-state flow................................................................................................................23
6. CALCULATIONS FOR ENHANCEMENT CANDIDATE SELECTION........................................................................24
2
Enhancement............................................................................................................................................24
Calculation of potential oil rate increment.............................................................................................24
7. CALCULATIONS FOR FRACTURING WELL CANDIDATE SELECTION ................................................................25
Calculation of potential oil rate increment.............................................................................................25
8. ESP PUMP DESIGN..............................................................................................................................................26
9. FRACTURE EFFICIENCY......................................................................................................................................27
Definition..................................................................................................................................................27
10. FRACTURE DESIGN EQUATIONS.......................................................................................................................28
Rock mechanics parameters....................................................................................................................28
Fluid volume pumped (Vi)........................................................................................................................29
Fracture volume (Vf)................................................................................................................................29
Volume lost into the reservoir (VLp).........................................................................................................29
Fracture half length or penetration (L)..................................................................................................29
Dimensionless fracture conductivity (FCD)............................................................................................29
11. MD, TVD AND TVDSS.....................................................................................................................................30
12. SINGLE PHASE PRESSURE DROP IN CASING OR TUBING................................................................................31
Pressure drop in casing or tubing............................................................................................................31
Pressure drop in annular.........................................................................................................................32
13. FLOW THROUGH CHOKES................................................................................................................................33
Gilbert equation (water/oil, producing gas)............................................................................................33
Example....................................................................................................................................................33
Poettmann and Beck’s charts...................................................................................................................33
14. MULTIPHASE PRESSURE DROP IN CASING OR TUBING..................................................................................34
General pressure drop expression...........................................................................................................34
Orkiszewski’s correlation.........................................................................................................................34
Bubble flow...............................................................................................................................................35
Slug flow...................................................................................................................................................35
Continuous oil phase................................................................................................................................36
Continuous water phase...........................................................................................................................36
15. OIL PVT PROPERTIES......................................................................................................................................37
Oil specific gravity and API gravity.........................................................................................................37
Bubble pressure or saturation pressure..........................................................................37
Dead oil viscosity......................................................................................................................................37
Oil viscosity above bubble point pressure................................................................................................37
Oil formation volume factor (Standing)..................................................................................................38
16. GAS PROPERTIES...............................................................................................................................................39
Real gas equation of state (EOS).............................................................................................................39
Gas FVF...................................................................................................................................................39
Gas viscosity..............................................................................................................................................39
17. DECLINE CURVE EQUATIONS...........................................................................................................................41
General mathematical expression............................................................................................................41
Exponential or constant decline..............................................................................................................41
Hyperbolic decline....................................................................................................................................41
Harmonic decline.....................................................................................................................................42
Formation Evaluation............................................................................................43
1. SHALE VOLUME BY GR AND SP........................................................................................................................43
Definition: shale content, Vsh...................................................................................................................43
GR – natural gammy ray log....................................................................................................................43
SP – spontaneous potential......................................................................................................................43
2. POROSITY FROM POROSITY LOGS.....................................................................................................................44
Porosity of clean reservoirs (Vsh=0).........................................................................................................44
Porosity of shaly reservoirs, shale content correction............................................................................44
3. ARCHIE’S EQUATIONS.........................................................................................................................................45
Formation factor......................................................................................................................................45
Formation resistivity index, I...................................................................................................................45
Example....................................................................................................................................................45
Correction for shale content (Vsh)............................................................................................................46
Example....................................................................................................................................................46
3
4
Reservoir Engineering
1. Darcy’s Law
Expression
A dp
q k
dx
where
q – single phase flow rate, cm3/sec
k – permeability, Darcy
A – flow area, cm2
dp – pressure drop, atm
dx – flow length, cm
The units used in the law are called Darcy units. Note: 1 md=10-15 m2, 1Darcy=1 m 2
Rank of the formation based on permeability
<1 md - Very low
1 to 10 md - Low
10 to 50 md - Medium
50 to 200 md - Average
200 to 500 md - Good
>500 md - Excellent
A dp
q 8.64 10 3 k
B dx
Where q – volumetric flow rate at stock tank conditions, m3/day
k – permeability, mD
B - formation volume factor of the fluid, m3/m3
A – flow area, m2
dp – pressure drop, atm
dx – flow length, m
kh p e p wf
q 5.435 10 2
B ln re / rw S
where
pe – reservoir pressure at outer boundary radius re, bars
pwf – bottom-hole pressure (BHP) at rw, bars
re – outer boundary radius, m
rw – wellbore radius, m
S – skin factor, dimensionless
h – formation thickness, m
kh p e p wf
q 5.435 10 2
B ln re / rw 0.75 S
5
2. OOIP/Reserves
h (1 S w )
N Bo
dA
where
N – OOIP at standard conditions, sm3
h – reservoir thickness, m
φ – reservoir porosity, fraction
Sw – water saturation, fraction
Bo – oil FVF, m3/sm3
Remark: all the quantities in the integrant will vary arealy in general,
So numerical integration is needed to calculate the OOIP
Reserves
6
3. Skin Factor
18.4qB
p s S
kh
where
q – volumetric oil flow rate at stock tank conditions, m3/d
B – oil FVF, m3/m3
h – formation thickness, m
µ - oil viscosity, cp
Δps - pressure drop, atm
Example
Assume a well has a radius rw= 10cm (0.328ft), and a damage radius rs = 3.328ft, drilling
mud invasion and partial perforation results in k/ks = 5, the well is producing 50 m3/d of
oil with viscosity 1.3cp and FVF 1.21 m3/m3, reservoir thickness at the well location is
about 15m, what would be the skin effect?
3.328
Skin factor: S (5 1) ln 9 .3
0.328
18.4 50 1.21 1.3
Pressure drop due to skin: p s 9.3 19.3atm
5 15
Notes
7
4. Diffusivity Equation, Flow Regimes
Transient flow, pressure, so as flow rate, changes with time t and radius r, i.e.,
p
f (r , t )
t
This flow state is also called infinite acting. It is assumed that the pressure
response in the reservoir is not affected by the outer boundary.
Steady state
p
0
t
This applies to a constant pressure boundary or the pressure is maintained in the
reservoir due to natural flow influx or fluid injection, such as water injection.
Buildup or falloff
21.5qBo t p t
pi p ws (t ) ln
kh t
21.5qBo
Permeability: k
mh
pi p1hr k t 1
Skin factor: S 1.1513 log 3.2275 log p
m c r 2 t
t w p
where
pws(∆t) – bottom hole pressure during the buildup phase, bar
tp – production or injection time, hours
tp
q 24hours
qlast
∆t – shut in time, hours
m - the slope of the straight line on a graph of pws versus log(tp+∆t)/ ∆t
9
6. Water Injection Compensation
10
Definition: cumulative compensation
C m (%)
q B i w
100%
q B q
o o w Bw
where
ΣqiBw – cumulative water injected into the entity from the injector(s).
ΣqoBo – cumulative oil production from the entity at reserevoir conditions.
ΣqwBw – cumulative water production from the entity at the reservoir conditions.
Bo – oil FVF.
Bw – water FVF.
Explanation
This parameter tells roughly how the reservoir pressure is maintained by water injection.
Local practice suggests that a value of Cm between 110% to 120% would indicate good
reservoir pressure maintenance by water injection.
11
7. Immiscible Displacement (Waterflooding)
where
A – area of the linear system, m2
fw – water fractional flow, fraction
k – absolute permeability, md
kro, krw – relative permeabilitiy of oil and water, respectively
µo, µw - oil and water viscosity, cp
ρo, ρw – oil and water density, g/cm3
L – distance along direction of flow, m
Pc = po – pw, – capillary pressure, atm
qt – total flow rate, qo+qw, m3/d
α – angle of the linear system from horizon, degrees
12
General equation
B
gi
Efw = Expansion of the connate water and reduction in the pore volume,
m3/sm3
C w S wi C f
= 1 m Bo P
1 S wi
Cw, Cf = water, formation, compressibility, respectively, atm-1
Swi = initial water saturation, fraction
P = pressure drop, atm
We = cumulative natural water influx, m3
=U×S(p,t)
U = aquifer constant, m3/atm
S(p, t) = aquifer function
Assume We = 0,
13
F = NEt
Plot: F vs Et through origin, N=Slope
GASCAP method
14
F Eg
N mN
Eo Eo
F Eg
Plot: vs , N =Y intercept, mN=Slope
Eo Eo
15
F W S
N e N U
Et Et Et
F W S
Plot: vs e or , N =Y intercept, U = Slope
Et Et Et
Campbell method
Water drive
16
F
Plot: vs F , N =Y intercept
Et
F
Et
No net water influx
17
Production Engineering
18
1. Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) in ESP Pump Wells
Vertical well case
BHP Pcsg o Z pump Z FL m ( Z pzt Z pump )
10 10
Where
m wWc o 1 Wc - oil/water mixture density between the pump
intake and the top depth of the pay zone.
ρw – water density, g/cm3
ρo -- oil density, g/cm3
Note that surface oil density is actually used in the calculation.
Wc-- water cut, fraction
Z ’s – true vertical depths in downward direction, m
Zpump – measured pump depth, m
ZFL – fluid level depth, m
Zpzt – top depth of the pay zone, m
Pcsg – casing pressure (casing/tubing annular pressure), atm
BHP – bottom-hole pressure, atm or bars (kg/cm2)
The coefficient, 1/10, comes from the following units conversion
g g kg 100cm 1 kg 1
cm 3 m cm 3 1000 g m m 10 cm 2 10 atm
Note that it is assumed in the calculation that it is pure oil above the pump and oil/water
mixture between the pump and the top of the pay zone. Further, the oil and water
densities are equal to their densities at the surface conditions and the oil/water mixture
density can be estimated in terms of water cut measured at surface condition.
Tubing
ZFL
Oil Oil
Pump
Zpump
●●●●● Pump Intake
Water/oil mixture
Zpzt
19
o MD TVD
BHP
( Z pump Z FL
)
Z pump Z FL
10
Z pzt
m MD TVD
( Z pzt Z pump ) Z pzt Z pump
10
Z pzt
Note that |MD-TVD| is termed as deviation, it is the difference between the measured
depth and the true vertical depth of the pay zone.
Note also that all Z’s have the same meaning as in the vertical well case, but they are all
measured depths along the deviated wellbore. Therefore, a prime is used to distinguish.
Units conversion
Volumetric flowrate
20
q 0 q L (1 Wc ) , m3/day
Mass flowrate
M 0 q L 1 Wc 0 , tones/day
Where
qL -- total liquid rate, m3/day
ρo – oil density at surface conditions, g/cm3
Wc -- water cut, fraction
Mo – oil mass rate, tones/day
Example
A ESP well is producing 80 m3/d of liquid (oil+water), surface measurement gives 16%
water cut, suppose that oil density is 0.82 g/cm3, then the oil rates would be,
q o 80 (1 0.16) 67.2m 3 / d
M o q o 67.2 0.82 55.1tons / d
Units conversion
1 barrel = 0.159 m3
1 m3 = 6.29 barrels
1 g/cm3 = 62.43 lb/ft3
1 lb/ft3 = 0.01602 g/cm3
3. Productivity Index PI
21
Definition
q
PI
p R p wf
Where
q – flow rate, sm3/d or stb/d
pR – average pressure of the drainage area around the well bore, can be
represented by the static fluid level, bar or psi
pwf – flowing bottom-hole pressure, bar or psi
PI – productivity index, (sm3/d)/bar or (stb/d)/psi
0.05435 kh
PI
r
B ln e 0.75 S
rw
PI calculation given qL, pwf and pR
qL
, if p wf pb
p p pb 1 0.2 p wf p
2
p 0.8 wf
PI R b
1.8 b pb
qL
, if p wf pb
p R p wf
Where:
pb - bubble point pressure (saturation pressure), atm
pwf - flowing bottom-hole pressure, atm
pR-- reservoir pressure, atm
qL -- total liquid rate, m3/day
PI – productivity index, (m3/day)/atm
22
q
p wf p
2
1 0.2 0.8 wf
q max p res p res
where q – flow rate at flowing BHP pwf, less than bubble point pressure
qmax – maximum flow rate at pwf =0
pwf – flowing BHP
pres – reservoir pressure
An oil well is producing at a stabilized rate of 20 sm3/d at a flowing BHP pwf = 80 bars. The
average reservoir shut-in static pressure, pres = 100 bars. Calculate maximum possible flow
rate at pwf = 0, and producing rate if a new pump were installed to lower flowing BHP to 50
bars. Make the calculations using Vogel’s model.
3. Vogel IPR
2
q 80 80
1 0.2 0.8 1 0.16 0.512 0.328
q max 100 100
50 50
2
q p wf 50 q max 1 0.2 0.8 61 0.7 42.7( sm / d )
3
100 100
5. Flow Efficiency
Definition
23
PI actual
FE
PI ideal
Enhancement
24
Lower the flowing bottom-hole pressure (or correspondingly dynamic fluid level) from the
current higher value to 50 bars by changing a bigger size pump. Apparently, this is applicable
only to producing wells with a running pump (whether it is ESP or Sucker Rod pump).
qo=qL (1-Wc/100)ρo where ρo is the oil density in g/cm3 and Wc is the water cut in
percentage
Oil rate after enhancement, in tones per day, assuming on change in Wc.
∆qo= qoenh-qo
Otherwise
pb p wf p wf
2
PInew p res p b 1 0.2 0.8 , p wf 50atm, p wf pb
Frac
qL
1. 8 p p
b b
Note that the enhancement pressure 50atm is used in the calculations above.
Oil rate after fracturing, in tones per day, assuming on change in Wc.
∆qo= qofrac-qo
Target
26
Identify a pump of the largest possible diameter that can be run in the well. The target
efficiency should be within its recommended operating range and close to its peak efficiency
Selection data
1. Mechanical Data
Casing/tubing size
Well depth /Deviation/Perforation Depth
2. Production Data
Current/potential production rate
Oil rate /water cut/GOR
Static BHP / fluid level
Producing BHP / fluid level
Bottom hole pressure
System backpressure from flowline, separator and choke
3. Fluid Data
Oil/gas/water properties
4. Power Supply
Voltage/frequency
Capacity of the service
Quality of the service
Total dynamic head (TDH) for the number of stages in the pump
True vertical lift distance from the producing fluid level to the surface
Friction loss in the tubing string
Wellhead pressure
Pump performance curve review for optimal producing range and peak efficiency
9. Fracture Efficiency
Definition
27
qo post frac q o pre frac
q0 pwf 0 q 0 pre frac
where
qo|post-frac and qo|pre-frac are the oil flowrate after fracture and before fracture in
t/d, calculated from the total liquid rate in m3/d and water cut.
qo|pwf=0 is called Absolute Open Flow (AOF) rate of oil at pwf = 0, which can
be calculated from the following equation,
p Wc Wc
qo pwf 0 PI p res pb b 1 o PI p res 0.444 pb 1 o
1.8 100 100
Practically the fracture efficiency could be calculated by the actual oil rate increment
divided by the designed oil rate increment
Where qo|skin=-4.7 is the potential oil rate based on an assumed skin factor -4.7.
Concepts
28
Stress (σ) – force per unit area
Strain (ε) – under stress, change in length (δ), compared to the original length (l) is
called strain
shear stress
G
angle of deformation in radians
, Gd 2.15 10 8
t s2
Parameter relationship
9 KG E 3KE E
E , 1, G , K
3K G 2G 9K E 3(1 2 )
where Δts and Δtc are shear wave and compressional wave travel time from logs, µs/ft
ρ – rock bulk density, lb/ft3
Vi = qi×tp
3
Where qi – total injection rate, m /hour
tp – pumping time for a treatment, hour
29
Fracture volume (Vf)
Vf = hf ×w×2L = η×Vi
Where
hf – average, gross fracture height
w- average fracture width
L – fracture half length or penetration
η - the fluid efficiency
V LP 6C L hL L t p 4 LhL S p
where CL – the fluid loss coefficient (typically 0.0005 to 0.05ft/min0.5)
hL – fluid loss height
Sp – spurt loss (typically from 0 to 50 gal/100ft2)
qi t p
L
6C L hL t p 4hL S p 2 wh f
k f wf
FCD
kx f
Where
xf – fracture half-length, m
wf – fracture width, m
k – reservoir permeability, md
kf – permeability of proppant in the fracture, md
kf wf – fracture conductivity, md.m
Note: FCD is the ratio of the ability of fracture to carry flow divided by the ability of the
formation to feed the fracture.
Fracture Conductivuty
Dimensionless Pressure, PD
Dimensionless Time, tD
Time to Pseudo Radial Flow, tprf
Time to Pseudo Steady State Flow, tpss
Skin Factor Based on PSS pD
30
11. MD, TVD and TVDSS
31
12. Single Phase Pressure Drop in Casing or Tubing
A critical value (Re)c = 2100. Laminar flow: Re ≤ (Re)c; Turbulent flow: Re > (Re)c.
For an annular
0.8165( d o d i )v
Re
Where,
do - outer diameter of the annular (m)
di - inner diameter of the annular (m)
The critical velocity vc is the velocity at the critical Reynolds number. If v vc , the flow is of
the laminar type.
where
L - length (m)
v - fluid velocity (m/min)
q - flow rate (liter/min)
do - outer diameter (m)
di - inner diameter (m)
- fluid dynamic viscosity (cp)
- fluid density (kg/dm3)
Control production rate from a well. It should be selected so that the fluctuations in the
line pressure downstream of the choke have no effect on the well flowrate.
33
Gilbert equation (water/oil, producing gas)
435GOR 0.546 qt
pt 1.89
Sc
where
pt – tubing pressure, psi
GOR – gas/liquid ratio, 103scf/bbl
qt – gross liquid rate, b/d
Sc – choke size in 1/64 in
Example
It is desired to produce a well at 100b/d oil, the producing GOR is 4×103 scf/bbl. At this
rate, the tubing pressure is 1800psi, estimate the choke size.
1.89 435GOR 0.546 qt 435 4 0.546 100
Sc 0.87
pt 1800
Sc = 7.4 (1/64 in), a 8/64in choke can be used
Multiphase flow in vertical pipes may be categorized into four different flow regimes, which are
bubble flow, slug flow, transition flow and mist flow. Complete sets of pressure traverses for
34
specific flow conditions, tubing/casing sizes and fluid properties have been published and can be
used for hand calculations.
Here Orkiszewski’s correlations for bubble flow and slug flow are given only as reference. Due
to this, English units will be applied to the equations.
Remark: the key to Δp calculation is to evaluate ρavg and τf for different flow regimes.
Orkiszewski’s correlation
v gD
A
at the bubble slug boundary
0.2218vt2
LB 1.071
dH
but LB 0.13
at the slug-transition boundary
36v gD qL
LS 50
qg
and at the transition-mist boundary
0.75
v q
LM 75 84 gD L
q
g
where
v gD - dimensionless gas velocity
vt - total fluid velocity (qt/A), ft/s
L - liquid density, lbm/cu ft
- liquid surface tension, lbm/sec2
L - flow regime boundary, dimensionless
dH - hydraulic pump diameter, ft
dg - gas flow rate, cu ft/sec
g - acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2
A - flow area of pipe, sq ft
35
Bubble flow
The average flowing density in bubble flow is calculated from the following equation,
which volumetrically weights the gas and liquid densities.
g g f g 1 f g L
The following gas fraction fg in bubble flow is given by
1 qt
2
4q
1 q
f g 1 t g
2 vs A vs A vs A
where the slip velocity, vs is the difference between the average gas and liquid velocity.
Griffith suggests the use of an approximate value of vs = 0.8 ft/sec for bubble flow
The friction loss gradient for bubble flow is based on single-phase liquid flow.
f L v L
2
f
2 g c d H cos
where
qL
vL
A1 f g
1488 L d H vL
N Re
L
Where
dH - the hydraulic pipe diameter, ft
L - Liquid viscosity
Slug flow
0.5
2 13.59 L
vb 0.5vbi 0.5 vbi
L dH
vbi 0.251 8.74(106 ) N Re gd H
vb 0.35 8.74(10 6
) N Re gd H
f L vb2 qL vb A
f
2 g c d H cos qt vb A
36
Continuous oil phase
When vt <10
0.0127
1.415
log L 1 0.284 0.167 log vt 0.113 log d H
dH
When vt >10,
0.0274
1.371
log L 1 0.161 0.569 log d H
dH
0.01
log vt 1.571 log L 1 0.397 0.63 log d H
dH
When vt<10,
0.013
1.8
log L 0.681 0.232 log vt 0.428 log d H
dH
When vt>10,
0.045
0.799
log L 0.709 0.162 log vt 0.888 log d H
dH
141.5 141.5
o , o
API 131.5
131.5 o API o
where
37
γo – oil specific gravity
o
API – oil API gravity
R
0.83
Pb 18.2 s
o
10 0.00091TR 0.0125 API 1.4
r
g
where
Rs – produced gas/oil ratio, scf/bbl
γg - gas specific gravity
TR – reservoir temperature, oF
1000
where
µob –oil viscosity at bubble point pressure Pb, cp
µo –oil (undersaturated) viscosity, cp
pR – reservoir pressure, psi
Pb – bubble point pressure, psi
Bo Bob Exp C o ( Pb p R )
where
38
Bob – oil FVF at or below bubble point pressure, RB/STB
Bo – oil FVF above Pb, RB/STB
Co – oil compressibility, psi-1
γg - gas specific gravity
TR – reservoir temperature, oF
Gas FVF
zT
B g 0.00350958
p
T – temperature, oK
p – pressure, bar
Bg – gas formation volume factor, res m3/std m3
Gas viscosity
Y 1 exp Y 5
g
10 4
where
Y1
9.4 0.02M 1.8T 492 1.5
209 19 M 1.8T 492
Y 5 Y 2(Y 4) Y 3
M
Y 4 0.007532
Bg
Y 3 2.4 0.2Y 2
986
Y 2 3.5 0.01M
1.8T 492
M 28.9 g ( Lee et al.)
µg – gas viscosity, cp
z factor
Definition
Vactual
z
Videal
where Vactual – actual volume of gas at a specified temperature (T) and pressure (p)
Videal – ideal volume of gas at the same T and p
Correlation
40
A A A A A A 2
z 1 A1 2 33 44 55 pr A6 7 28 pr
T pr T pr T pr T pr T pr T pr
A A pr
2
T
A9 7 28 r5 A10 1 A11 pr
2
T3
exp A11 pr
2
pr T pr pr
Where
0.27 pr T p
pr , T pr T , Ppr P
zTr pc pc
Ppc and Tpc – pseudo critical pressure and temperature which can be
calculated by
Ppc 756.8 131.07 g 3.6 g2
T pc 169.2 349.5 g 74.0 g2
with γg – gas specific gravity ranging from 0.57 to 1.68.
dq / dt
D Kq n
q
Where,
q - production rate, cubic meters per day, month or year
t - time, day, month
K - constant
n - exponent
41
Note: The decline rate in this equation can be constant or variable with the time yielding
three basic types of production decline.
1
qin qi1 n qt1 n
qt qi 1 nDi t , Qt
n
1 n Di
Where Di = initial decline rate
Harmonic decline
dq / dt
D Kq
q
Where n = 1 and for initial condition
Di
K
qi
The rate – time and rate – cumulative relationships are given by:
qi qi q
qt , Qt ln i
1 Di t Di q t
Note also that both harmonic and exponential declines are special cases of the
hyperbolic decline.
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Formation Evaluation
43
Where
GR – GR of reservoir
GRsand – GR of thick clean sand without hydrocarbon, minimum
GRshale – GR of pure shale, maximum
Non-linear correction
2 GRc 1
Vsh 100%
2c 1
Where coefficient c depends on formation age,
Jurassic formation c=3.7, older formation c=2
SP – spontaneous potential
SP
Vsh SP 1 100%
SSP
where
SP – SP of the reservoir
SSP –Static SP in thick/clean sand without hydrocarbon content.
Neutron Porosity
N Nma
N
Nmf Nma
ΦN – neutron of reservoir in limestone porosity units, percentage
ΦNma – matrix neutron (sandstone: -4~-6%; limestone:0; dolomite: 2%)
ΦNf – neutron of mud filtration, approximately 100%
Density Porosity
44
b ma
D
mf ma
ρb– density of reservoir, g/cm3
ρma – matrix density (sandstone: 2.65; limestone:2.71; dolomite: 2.87)
ρmf – density of mud filtration, approximately 1g/cm3
Acoustic Porosity
t t ma 1
S
t f t Nma C p
Δt– time interval of the reservoir formation, µs/m
Δtma – transit time of matrix (sandstone: 182.1; limestone:155.8; dolomite: 142.7)
Δtmf – transit time of mud filtration, approximately, 680µs/m.
Cp – compaction factor, can be estimated from Δtsh/30.48
Where Δtsh is the transit time in adjacent shale.
Neutron Porosity
N Nma Nma
N Vsh Nsh
Nmf Nma Nmf Nma
Density Porosity
b ma ma
D Vsh sh
mf ma mf ma
Acoustic Porosity
t t ma 1 t t ma
S Vsh sh
t f t Nma C p t mf t ma
3. Archie’s Equations
Link resistivity log value to water saturation and porosity log value, experimental
results, for saturation calculation from formation resistivity
Formation factor
R a
F o m
Rw
where
a - lithology coefficient ( 1 in general is a good estimate) and
m – porority cementation index ( 2, in general)
Rw – formation water resistivity, Ωm, can be calculated from SP
Ro – resistivity 100% water-saturated formation with water resistivity Rw, Ωm
φ - porosity determined by porosity logs (Acoustic/Neutron/Density), fraction
45
F - formation factor (constant for a given sample)
Ro FRw aR
Sw n n n mw
Rt Rt Rt
Where
Rt – the true formation resistivity, Ωm
n – saturation coefficient, =2 in general.
Sw – water saturation of the formation, fraction
Note that the Archie equations are satisfied for clean formations (sandstone with very
little shale content). For shaly-sand, shale correction is needed.
Example
A clean consolidated sandstone formation has Rt = 10Ωm, if the porosity and water resistivity
are 15% and 0.05Ωmrespectively, Calculate Ro and Sw and determine whether the formation
is oil-bearing?
1.13
Solution: use F 1.73 for example, F = 1.13/0.151.73 = 30
Ro = FRw = 30 × 0.05 = 1.5Ωm<<Rt the formation is possibly oil-bearing.
Sw = (Ro/Rt)0.5 = 0.387 (38.7%)
Oil saturation = 1 – Sw = 61.3%
Simandoux equation
0 .4 R w v v sh2 5 e2
Sw
sh
e2 Rsh Rsh2 Rt Rw
where
vsh – shale content determined by shale indicator curves (SP, GR, etc),
fraction
Rsh – shale resistivity taken from the neighboring shale, Ωm
φe – effective porosity that excludes the shale effect
Fertle-Hammack equation
46
FRw v R
Sw sh w
Rt 0.4 Rsh e
where F reflects effective porosity too. Other parameters are the same
as above.
Example
A shaly sandstone reservoir has the following log data and parameters:
F=0.81/φe2 = 0.81/0.182 = 25
Sw = (FRw/Rt)0.5 = 25×0.05/5 = 0.5 (50%)
0.4(0.05)
0.2 0.2 2 5 0.18 2
Sw 0.388 (38.8%)
0.18 2
1
12 0.05 5
47