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Mobile Learning in Southeast Asia: Opportunities and Challenges

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-54146-9_2

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Metadata of the chapter that will be visualized online
Chapter Title Mobile Learning in Southeast Asia: Opportunities and Challenges
Copyright Year 2015
Copyright Holder Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Corresponding Author Family Name Farley
Particle
Given Name Helen
Suffix
Division/Department Australian Digital Futures Institute
Organization/University University of Southern Queensland
Street Y304, Toowoomba Campus, West
Street
City Toowoomba
State QLD
Postcode Q 4350
Country Australia
Phone +61 7 4631 1738
Email helen.farley@usq.edu.au
Author Family Name Song
Particle
Given Name Helena
Suffix
Division/Department Faculty of Creative Multimedia
Organization/University Multimedia University, Malaysia
Street Persiaran Multimedia
City Cyberjaya
State Selangor
Postcode 63100
Country Malaysia
Email helena.song@mmu.edu.my
Abstract Mobile learning has been adopted to a varying extent across the countries
of Southeast Asia. Though mobile learning initiatives in the UK, Europe,
the USA, and Australia are well-documented, much less in known about
mobile learning initiatives in Southeast Asia. This region is culturally and
economically diverse, containing both developed countries such as
Singapore and developing countries including East Timor. This range of
economic development means that the penetration of telecommunications
technologies, including infrastructure to support mobile and internet
networks, varies vastly, and the extent to which this technology is used
for learning similarly varies. This chapter begins with an examination of
 the mobile device market penetration in the various countries of Southeast
Asia and the particular demographics of those users. Internet censorship
potentially will impact on mobile learning initiatives in some countries and
this is examined briefly. The status of mobile learning in a cross-section of
Southeast Asian countries will be examined, with a particular focus on
government policies, critical infrastructure, and notable mobile learning
initiatives. The chapter concludes with a review of the enablers and
barriers to mobile learning in Southeast Asia and a look at future
directions.
Keywords Mobile learning - M-learning - Mobile device penetration - Southeast Asia -
(separated by “-”) Mobiles for development - Staff development - Internet - Broadband -
Higher education
 Handbook of Mobile Teaching and Learning
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-41981-2_2-1
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

1 Mobile Learning in Southeast Asia: Opportunities and Challenges

2 Helen Farleya* and Helena Songb
a
3 Australian Digital Futures Institute, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
b
4 Faculty of Creative Multimedia, Multimedia University, Malaysia, Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia

5 Abstract
6 Mobile learning has been adopted to a varying extent across the countries of Southeast Asia. Though
7 mobile learning initiatives in the UK, Europe, the USA, and Australia are well-documented, much less in
8 known about mobile learning initiatives in Southeast Asia. This region is culturally and economically
9 diverse, containing both developed countries such as Singapore and developing countries including East
10 Timor. This range of economic development means that the penetration of telecommunications technol-
11 ogies, including infrastructure to support mobile and internet networks, varies vastly, and the extent to
12 which this technology is used for learning similarly varies. This chapter begins with an examination of the
13 mobile device market penetration in the various countries of Southeast Asia and the particular demo-
14 graphics of those users. Internet censorship potentially will impact on mobile learning initiatives in some
15 countries and this is examined briefly. The status of mobile learning in a cross-section of Southeast Asian
16 countries will be examined, with a particular focus on government policies, critical infrastructure, and
17 notable mobile learning initiatives. The chapter concludes with a review of the enablers and barriers to
18 mobile learning in Southeast Asia and a look at future directions.

19 1 Introduction
20 Southeast Asia is a diverse region consisting of both developed countries and developing countries. It is
21 not only economically diverse but also culturally diverse, shaped by extremes of climate, a diversity of
22 religions, politics at both ends of the spectrum, and a multitude of languages. Southeast Asia incorporates
23 the archipelagos of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia with East Timor, Singapore, Cambodia,
24 Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. Given this diversity, it is unsurprising that the levels of
25 infrastructure available for information and communication technologies also varies between countries,
26 even between neighboring countries.
27 This chapter will first look at how access to internet and to mobile internet varies across the countries of
28 Southeast Asia. Necessarily mobile learning requires access to mobile devices, so rates of ownership,
29 affordability, and access across a number of countries in the region are detailed. Internet censorship is a
30 significant factor, potentially impacting on mobile learning initiatives. How internet censorship varies
31 between various Southeast Asian countries is briefly examined along with what is specifically censored in
32 each case. The following part of the chapter focuses on a cross-section of Southeast Asia countries,
33 looking at their own particular context and examining significant mobile learning initiatives that have
34 been deployed. The chapter concludes with an examination of the barriers and enablers to mobile learning
35 in Southeast Asia and a consideration of the future direction of mobile learning in the region.

*Email: helen.farley@usq.edu.au

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36 2 Access to Internet and Mobile Internet in Southeast Asia

37 On May 16, 2011, the United Nations declared that access to the internet was a human right. That
38 statement has implications for governments in terms of the provision of infrastructure, hardware, social
39 access, and so on (La Rue 2011). In Southeast Asia, there are three distinct levels of broadband internet
40 penetration (Deibert et al. 2012). In the first grouping are Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore which have
41 high levels of mobile, broadband, and computer penetration. The second group is made up of the middle-
42 income countries, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. These countries have high levels of
43 mobile penetration, but quite low levels of broadband internet and computer penetration. The third
44 grouping includes Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar, which have low levels of mobile, broadband internet,
45 and computer penetration (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). Even though many do not have access to reliable
46 broadband internet, the demand for internet and associated services is rapidly increasing (Jeroschewski
47 et al. 2013). Counterintuitively, the number of internet users is growing more quickly than the number of
48 internet subscriptions. Public access points, including internet cafes, account for this difference. For
49 example, in Indonesia, around 7,500 “Warnets” short for “Warung Internets” supply affordable internet
50 access to people in Java. Similarly, in the Philippines and Thailand, internet or cyber cafes provide
51 affordable internet access to those who could not afford a connection in their home (Jeroschewski
52 et al. 2013). Even with these constraints, the region has made remarkable progress in the last 10 years
53 (So 2012).
54 Broadband internet penetration is restricted in most countries within Southeast Asia due to the poor
55 infrastructure. This is mostly attributable to a lack of private investment coupled with the severely limited
56 capacity of the people to pay for services (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). Singapore and Malaysia are the
57 significant exceptions to this technological deficit. New investors have focused their resources on
58 providing infrastructure for mobiles rather than for broadband internet (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). In
59 addition, a lack of access to electricity in Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos necessarily limits the uptake of
60 computer technologies. This is especially true in rural regions in these countries where the demand is not
61 high and the disposable income of the residents is lower (Jeroschewski et al. 2013).
62 In many developing countries, and those of Southeast Asia are no exception, mobile technologies have
63 been adopted at greater rates, as compared to personal computers, also because tablets and smartphones
64 are more affordable and easier to use (Zambrano et al. 2012). Even with the emphasis on supporting
65 infrastructure for mobiles, there are three factors that hinder the penetration of mobile broadband. The first
66 is lack of knowledge of potential users about the availability of mobile internet and the services it can
67 facilitate (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). The second factor relates to affordability. The cost of buying a phone,
68 a sim card, and any upfront fees associated with holding a mobile account can account for a large
69 proportion of a person’s income (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). The third significant barrier is the lack of
70 availability of internet-enabled phones, particularly smartphones in some areas. In most areas, feature
71 phones are still the main kind of phone available (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). In some areas this is rapidly
72 changing and one in four people own a smartphone as they become more affordable (Jeroschewski
73 et al. 2013). Southeast Asia benefits from its relative proximity to China where many unbranded,
74 affordable smartphones are being manufactured (Jeroschewski et al. 2013) with some being used for
75 mobile learning (see chapter “▶ Mobillizing the Middle Kingdom – Bringing M-Learning to a Chinese
76 High School”). Even so, in many countries in Southeast Asia, there is potentially a very large digital
77 divide which often restricts access to education (Bandalaria 2005).

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78 3 Internet Control and Censorship

79 Governments across Southeast Asia have to balance the increasing sophistication and availability of
80 emerging ICTs on the one hand with social stability, cultural values, and security on the other (Deibert
81 et al. 2012). In this region, there are some of the world’s most liberal societies and some of the world’s
82 most restricted, all in close proximity (Deibert et al. 2012). Along with the growing dominance of mobile
83 technologies in the marketplace, there is a corresponding increase in governments’ abilities to monitor and
84 control access to the internet and all that can be retrieved with it. This monitoring generally manifests in
85 the form of centralized filtering mechanisms, regulators to monitor content, and prosecutors to address
86 transgressions (Deibert et al. 2012).
87 Myanmar and Vietnam are among the most restrictive regimes with a particular focus on the restriction
88 of independent media, material that could be considered to be politically sensitive, pertaining to human
89 rights or political reform (Deibert et al. 2012). A report by the Berkman Centre of the Internet and Society
90 (2006) revealed that Vietnam has sophisticated and effective filtering systems that resemble those of
91 China. It is important for educators to understand the extent to which internet censorship may impact on
92 mobile learning in Vietnam. Social networks, for example, are often used in mobile learning scenarios to
93 encourage collaboration and sharing of information. In Vietnam, however, local authorities partially or
94 wholly block access to sites such as Facebook (Subramanian 2012). Only a third (33 %) of consumers in
95 Vietnam over the age of 15 have a social media profile on a platform called Zing Me and 28 % have an
96 active Facebook profile (Nielsen 2011). Though a previous investigation of internet censorship showed no
97 active censoring of information in Indonesia, more recent investigations suggest that pornography, select
98 political and blasphemous content, and internet-tool-related content are censored. In Thailand, content
99 related to politically sensitive events is filtered. In 2009, 44,000 websites were actively blocked by the
100 nation’s government (Deibert et al. 2012). By way of contrast, Singapore only censors a relatively small
101 number of sites, generally of a pornographic nature (Deibert et al. 2012). There is no evidence of filtering
102 in Malaysia or the Philippines (Deibert et al. 2012).

103 4 Ownership of Mobile Devices in South East Asia Countries

104 Data suggests, that in some regions, mobile devices are being purchased instead of computers. In
105 countries such as Cambodia and Laos, people won’t have access to a PC, but they will have access to a
106 mobile phone (So 2012). This popularity of mobile devices is reflected in rates of mobile subscriptions as
107 compared to the population. Commonly across Southeast Asian countries, there are more mobile phone
108 subscriptions than people. The level of mobile phone subscriptions in Singapore is 153 %, in Vietnam is
109 149 %, in Malaysia is 141 %, in Cambodia is 132 %, in Thailand is 120 %, in Indonesia is 115 %, in Brunei
110 is 114 %, and in the Philippines is 107 %. Even in a relatively economically disadvantaged country such as
111 Laos, there are still roughly as many subscriptions as people (102 %) (Greene 2013).
112 Smartphones have more affordances to be leveraged for mobile learning, though levels of smartphone
113 ownership as compared to feature phones remains relatively low across most of Southeast Asia. Of mobile
114 phone users, the percentage of those who own smartphones are 15 % in the Philippines, 23 % in Indonesia,
115 49 % in Thailand, 80 % in Malaysiam, and 87 % in Singapore (Greene 2013). These figures are based on
116 data collected by Nielsen Holdings who tend to concentrate their research on urban areas (Greene 2013).
117 Those figures are generally lower for the countries overall. Data collected by Pew Research indicates that
118 in Malaysia, 89 % own a mobile and 31 % own a smartphone; in Indonesia, 78 % own a mobile and 11 %
119 own a smartphone; and in the Philippines, 71 % own a mobile and 17 % own a smartphone. Predictably,

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120 smartphone ownership tends to be higher in countries with higher per capita income (Pew Research
121 Global Attitudes Project 2014).
122 In addition, smartphones tend to be owned by people under 30 (Hussin et al. 2012). In Malaysia, 49 %
123 of 18–29 year olds own a smartphone, 30 % of 30–49 year olds, 11 % of 50+ year olds (Pew Research
124 Global Attitudes Project 2014). In the Philippines, 24 % of 18–29 year olds own a smartphone, 18 % of
125 30–49 year olds, and 9 % of 50+ year olds. In Indonesia, 18 % of 18–29 year olds own a smartphone, 9 %
126 of 30–49 year olds, and 3 % of 50+ year olds. This creates some opportunity for mobile learning with
127 higher levels of smartphone ownership among the demographic that are most likely to engage in formal
128 learning.
129 Tablets are a low cost, flexible alternative to laptop and desktop computers, suitable for learning due to
130 their ability to leverage mobile apps and their portability. They are suited to collaboration and are able to
131 capture data (Johnson et al. 2012). Tablet ownership and penetration among mobile users in a cross
132 section of Southeast Asian countries is rapidly increasing: there are 47 % in Singapore, 42 % in Malaysia,
133 16 % in Thailand, 5 % in Indonesia and 5 % in the Philippines. These figures are as a percentage of mobile
134 phone users in urban areas (Greene 2013). Though these figures are increasing, the overall penetration
135 rates remain too low to leverage ownership for mobile learning. This would indicate that mobile learning
136 initiatives designed for use in most Southeast Asian countries should be designed with smartphones in
137 mind, and to ensure high levels of adoption, with feature phones in mind.
138 In order to maximize the benefits of BYOD policies in educational institutions, any mobile learning
139 intervention should leverage the affordances of mobile devices and users’ familiarity with those devices.
140 It is therefore useful to consider how people in this region are using their mobile phones. The most popular
141 use of mobile phones, after making phone calls, is texting (Pew Research Global Attitudes Project 2014).
142 This is probably due to the very low cost of texting as compared to calling. In Malaysia, 89 % own a
143 mobile phone and 89 % (of mobile phone owners) text, 51 % take pictures or video, and 27 % access
144 social media. In Indonesia, 78 % own a mobile phone, 96 % of those people text, 46 % take pictures or
145 video, and 23 % access social media. In the Philippines, 71 % own a mobile phone, and of those 99 % text,
146 54 % take pictures or video, and 17 % access social media (Pew Research Global Attitudes Project 2014).
147 These figures should be kept in mind when designing mobile learning interventions. If the educator is
148 going to ask students to use their phones in a way that is unfamiliar to them, sufficient training must be
149 supplied in order to ensure the efficacy of the intervention.

150 5 E-Learning and Mobile Learning in Southeast Asia

151 Due to the poor access to broadband internet, and in some cases even electricity, there has been a marked
152 lack of success with e-learning in many parts of Southeast Asia. Recent data suggests that prices for
153 mobile phones and internet access have dropped substantially, opening the door for mobile learning
154 initiatives in these poorer countries (So 2012). Even though mobile devices and subscriptions may still
155 provide a significant cost for many people, mobile technologies are more affordable than both broadband
156 internet and desktop or laptop computers. In addition, mobile learning provides study options to learners
157 who are geographically remote from physical campuses and allowing them to fit study around their work
158 or carer commitments (Chun and Tsui 2010). This flexibility is being demanded by learners, who want to
159 learn wherever and whenever they want (Johnson et al. 2012). Mobile learning allows for both formal and
160 informal learning (see chapter “▶ Moving Towards the Effective Evaluation of Mobile Learning Initia-
161 tives in Higher Education Institutions”). In using their own devices, students are beginning to learn how to
162 use their networks for more than just texting, allowing them to learn to “just in time” in response to
163 emerging questions or problems. It also supports “discovered” learning where students discover the

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164 relevance of information for themselves, apt for their particular learning context (Johnson et al. 2012).
165 There is also a move away from traditional didactic methods towards challenge-based and active learning,
166 leveraging the affordances of mobile technologies to allow learning in real-world situations (Johnson
167 et al. 2012).
168 Mobile learning affords flexibility in open and distance learning institutions (Hussin et al. 2012),
169 allowing those in rural areas greater access to education (Clothey 2010; So 2012; Jambulingam and
170 Sorooshian 2013). Students are more and more wanting to use their own mobile technologies for learning.
171 Mobile phones and tablets are viewed as an extension of an individual’s personality and learning style.
172 Learners are familiar with using the devices in their personal lives and educators can leverage that
173 familiarity to allow students to use these devices for learning (Valk et al. 2010; Johnson et al. 2012).
174 For example, in 2010 researchers in Malaysia surveyed university students with some 84 % of them
175 wanting to participate in mobile learning activities. However, most did not want to incur data usage
176 charges as part of that participation. Interestingly, less than half (46 %) thought that their institution was
177 ready for such a step (Hussin et al. 2012). In the Philippines, learners’ familiarity with their own mobile
178 devices was one of the reasons the University of the Philippines Open University decided to use mobile
179 learning. No expensive training was required as people were already familiar with how to use their own
180 devices (Bandalaria 2005).
181 As a consequence, institutions are increasingly adopting BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) policies.
182 Students can use their own devices for learning and well as in their personal lives (Johnson et al. 2012). By
183 adopting these policies, institutions can spend less money on mobile learning overall. Though they do
184 have to provide infrastructure to support a variety of devices, it is still less expensive than also buying the
185 technology (Johnson et al. 2012). There is no longer any expectation for universities to provide
186 technology directly to students. Since older students are likely to possess their own mobile devices,
187 universities can take advantage of existing devices to encourage mobile learning activities, without
188 having to purchase mobile devices for students (So 2012).
189 Even though rates of mobile ownership is high in many parts of Asia (Chun and Tsui 2010), a survey of
190 mobile learning articles in five prominent educational technology journals revealed that only one
191 Southeast Asian country appeared in the list of the top 22 contributing countries – that country was
192 Singapore (Hwang and Tsai 2011). Though there could be a number of reasons for this, including English
193 not being the first language of educators, it is potentially indicative of the small numbers of mobile
194 learning initiatives occurring in this region.

195 6 Technology Trends Impacting on Mobile Learning in Southeast Asia

196 There are a number of global technology trend that are also impacting on mobile learning in Southeast
197 Asia. The impact of these trends are most evident in the more developed countries such as Singapore or
198 Malaysia. These trends include cloud computing, social networking, and mobile applications or “apps”.
199 In 2012, cloud computing was heralded by technology in education forecasters, the New Media
200 Consortium (NMC), to be adopted within a year or two within K-12 in schools in Singapore. Though
201 Singapore is a wealthy country with good access to both technology and ubiquitous connectivity, cloud
202 computing is expected to make an impact in education on most countries across Southeast Asia. It allows
203 for a shared pool of learning courses, digital assets, and resources to be accessed by educators and
204 students. The cloud can be accessed via computers or laptops but also by a range of mobile devices (Teal
205 et al. 2014). The learner is able to plug into this cloud anywhere and at any time using a mobile device
206 (Teal et al. 2014). The cloud is especially useful in mobile learning as it removes the necessity for storing
207 resources on the phone or tablet which have a necessarily restricted storage capacity.

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208 Social networking is increasingly being used by educators to promote interactivity in classrooms and to
209 enhance collaborative opportunities. Interestingly, people in Southeast Asia are some of the world’s most
210 frequent users of popular social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter. In 2010, Indonesia, the
211 Philippines, and Singapore were among the top ten Twitter users in the world. Similarly, the Philippines
212 and Indonesia are among the top ten markets of unique Facebook users, ranking third and fourth
213 respectively. Though these social networking sites are popular, they are not always accessed by mobile
214 devices. Once people are online, they are very often using social media. In the Philippines, once online,
215 86 % of people are using social media. In Indonesia, this number is 84 % and in Malaysia, 76 %
216 (Jeroschewski et al. 2013). With these numbers, it allows the features of social networking such as
217 discussion boards, the ability to broadcast announcements to select groups, share photos and videos, and
218 so on to be leveraged for mobile learning. Anecdotal evidence would suggest that groups of students
219 frequently form Facebook groups to offer mutual support and discussion opportunities in specific courses
220 and programs. The use of web 2.0 tools to collaborate is becoming increasingly popular in Asia (Tsai and
221 Hwang 2013), including Southeast Asia.
222 In 2012, mobile apps or “applications” were predicted to be adopted in 1–2 years in Singapore. Mobile
223 apps are low cost software extensions to smart phones that challenge the dominance of large, integrated
224 software suites such as Microsoft Office (Johnson et al. 2012). Apps frequently have social functions that
225 can allow sharing of content and discussion between users. Augmented reality apps can allow for
226 exploration of historical sites with just-in-time information. Apps can also allow for creation of content,
227 leveraging the features of the smartphone such as camera and sound recording features (Johnson
228 et al. 2012). The literature indicates that discipline-specific mobile apps will become more popular. For
229 example, there are large numbers of apps for foreign language students including dictionaries and flash
230 cards. For almost every discipline, there are a number of apps available for both Android and iOS devices
231 (Oz 2013).
232 Electronic publishing is making a significant impact on education across the world, often through large
233 publishing companies such as Pearson or Wiley. Publishing in this manner allows for infinite reproduction
234 at low cost while incorporating rich media and publishing to a number of platforms, including mobile
235 (Johnson et al. 2012). The distribution of electronic publications becomes particularly easy through
236 distribution channels such as iTunesU. In 2012, it was said by the NMC to be adopted within 2–3 years in
237 Singapore (Johnson et al. 2012). Enhanced electronic textbooks that can be accessed on mobile devices,
238 particularly tablets, are being used instead of hard-copy textbooks in some countries. These electronic
239 textbooks boast more interactivity and a range of multimedia (Johnson et al. 2012).
240 Gamification is the incorporation of gaming or gaming elements into educational experiences. Games
241 have been proven effective for learning skills and beneficial in cognitive development (Johnson
242 et al. 2012), and are increasingly featuring in the literature pertaining to global education. Consequently,
243 gamification has been used increasingly in education in Asia for the past 10 years (Tsai and Hwang 2013).
244 Games used for learning across a variety of disciplines are generally goal-oriented, have strong social
245 components, and simulate some real-world experience (Johnson et al. 2012). The NMC predicted in 2012
246 that gamification would be adopted in 2–3 years in K-12 education in Singapore (Johnson et al. 2012).
247 As indicated earlier, the most common use of mobile phones, after making phone calls, is texting. There
248 are numerous examples of mobile learning initiatives that have relied on text (Chun and Tsui 2010).
249 Mobile learning initiatives that use texting are very useful as all phones as both smartphones and feature
250 phones can be used for texting. Examples of this kind of learning would include SMS quizzes, where
251 students would receive immediate feedback on their scores. Only in exceptional cases would students
252 need to communicate directly with lecturers or teachers (Mohamad and Woollard 2010). The benefits of
253 immediate feedback are well-documented (e.g., see Peck et al. (2013)), encouraging students to become

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254 independent learners (Mohamad and Woollard 2010). Though this is hardly a new trend, texting being
255 widely available for many years, it remains significant, particularly in the developing countries of
256 Southeast Asia.

257 7 Mobile Learning in Particular Southeast Asian Countries

258 As previously indicated, the countries of Southeast Asia are economically, culturally, and politically
259 diverse. The best way to explore this diversity and its impact on mobile learning is to investigate the status
260 of mobile learning in a cross-section of countries, including government policy and particular mobile
261 learning initiatives.

262 7.1 East Timor

263 It is very difficult to find information about mobile phone use and about mobile learning initiatives in East
264 Timor. It is likely that this is in part with the amount of resources expended by East Timor to gain
265 independence from Indonesia which finally occurred in 2002 (Marques et al. 2013). Now that indepen-
266 dence has been achieved, the government can focus its efforts on reconstructing the country, particularly
267 its struggling education system (Marques et al. 2013). One of the implications of independence from
268 Indonesia was the resulting lack of teachers. Most teachers were Indonesian and subsequently returned to
269 Indonesia after independence (Marques et al. 2013). It has been a struggle for the government and NGOs
270 to make headway in a country where enrolment in school is just 70 % of school age children and literacy
271 rates remain very low (Marques et al. 2013).
272 Only in recent times has the one-company monopoly over the supply of mobile phones has been
273 broken. Mobile phone ownership is now rapidly increasing (Cochrane 2012), though lags far behind other
274 Southeast Asian countries. Though UNESCO has recommended that ICTs and in particular mobile
275 technologies be employed (Capelo et al. 2014), there is little evidence that this has happened. A project
276 whereby SMS messages were sent to new or expectant mothers to give them information about their
277 particular stage of pregnancy of infant development appropriate to them has been trialed. If successful it
278 will be rolled out more extensively (Cochrane 2012). This was the only mobile initiative that the authors
279 could discover.

280 7.2 Indonesia

281 There have been significant improvements to Indonesia’s education system over the past 40 years. The
282 government has worked to decentralize education and thus improve access in rural areas and significant
283 work has been done to improve teacher education (Suharti 2013). Indonesia’s population is spread across
284 13,000 islands, making the provision of education challenging (Bahar 2009). Consequently, much
285 education is delivered at a distance (Soekartawi and Librero 2002). Originally, teacher education was
286 the focus of distance education as most teachers, especially those in rural areas, had low levels of
287 competency (Soekartawi and Librero 2002).
288 High mobile phone penetration in Indonesia makes it an ideal place for mobile learning (Alamsyah and
289 Ramantoko 2012). One of the issues with mobile learning in Indonesia is that reliability and quality of
290 connection is frequently compromised due to too many concurrent users on the networks (Alamsyah and
291 Ramantoko 2012). One way to overcome this would be to have students come to campus and access the
292 university’s internet via Wi-Fi (Alamsyah and Ramantoko 2012). Though this will enable connectivity, it
293 negates many of the positives associated with mobile learning such as access from geographically remote
294 locations and the potential for contextual learning.

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295 In Indonesia, teachers’ participation in training is limited due to training location, time, cost, and
296 opportunity (Yusri and Goodwin 2013). Despite various ICT training programs being conducted for
297 teachers’ professional development, the ICT skill level of teachers in Indonesia is still quite low as shown
298 by the National Examination of Teachers’ Competency which was conducted online in 2011 and 2012.
299 Many failed simply because of their low basic ICT skill level. They did not know how to use a mouse and
300 keyboard, how to open the examination applications, and how to answer the online examination (Yusri
301 and Goodwin 2013). If teachers have low levels of competency in ICTs, it is nearly impossible for them to
302 design and deliver mobile learning initiatives effectively. Much work remains to be done in this area.

303 7.3 Malaysia

304 High levels of ownership of mobile devices in Malaysia indicates that Malaysia may be ripe for mobile
305 learning (Mohamad and Woollard 2010). Malaysians are also among the most prolific users of their
306 smartphones, spending nearly 6½ h per week using them (NST-Business Times 2013). A number of
307 mobile learning initiatives has been developed in Malaysia already, both in schools and in higher
308 education settings (Mohamad and Woollard 2010). Other affirmative developments include the formation
309 of the Mobile Learning Association of Malaysia (MLAM), which was officially registered on 21 January
310 2011; as well as the first International Conference on Mobile Learning, Application and Services
311 (mobilcase2012) that was held in September 2012 (Song et al. 2013). In 2014, a Mobile Learning
312 Symposium was held at the Multimedia University in Cyberjaya which attracted educators and postgrad-
313 uate students from across Malaysia (Farley 2014).
314 The National Higher Education Plan (PSPTN) developed by the Ministry of Higher Education is a
315 document that indicates the direction of national higher education in Malaysia. Its purpose is to realize the
316 country’s aspirations to become a developed, prosperous, and competitive nation. The implementation of
317 the National Higher Education Plan is to be deployed in set phases and the Ministry of Higher Education
318 has developed 21 Critical Agenda Projects to help achieve this. Mobile learning has been identified as one
319 of the Critical Agenda Projects of the Ministry of Higher Education. The potential of mobile learning
320 initiatives often remain unrealized in Malaysia due to a lack of access, bandwidth, and high cost to
321 students (Embi et al. 2013).
322 There are a number of groups in the Malaysian higher education sector who are actively implementing
323 and researching mobile learning initiatives in Malaysia (Song et al. 2013). But even though mobile
324 learning research has been steadily increasing in Malaysia, the deployment of mobile learning in higher
325 education courses and programs has not been widespread (Embi and Nordin 2013).

326 7.4 The Philippines

327 It is difficult to implement distance education strategies in the Philippines due to the fact it is an
328 archipelago of 7,107 islands which makes providing infrastructure difficult (Bandalaria 2005; Marques
329 et al. 2013). Even so, there have been a number of successful mobile learning initiatives deployed in the
330 last several years. By 2010, almost all of the courses and programs offered by the University of the
331 Philippines Open University (UPOU) used some degree of mobile learning (Bandalaria 2005). The
332 university has a mandate to provide high quality education to people no matter where they are and no
333 matter what their circumstances. The university made a strategic decision to go fully online and in doing
334 so inadvertently excluded large parts of the population from participating. The use of mobile learning
335 helped to alleviate this disconnect to a certain extent (Bandalaria 2005).
336 There are relatively high levels of mobile penetration in the Philippines and the population are
337 enthusiastic texters, mostly because it is far less costly to text than to call (Bandalaria 2005). As people
338 are using their mobile phones as part of their everyday lives, no expensive training was required in order to
339 teach people how to use their mobile phones for learning (Bandalaria 2005; Clothey 2010). In addition,

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340 the learning became almost synchronous as educators could take a few moments to answer a student’s
341 query whenever a text arrived. The educator could be traveling on public transport or waiting for an
342 appointment (Bandalaria 2005). The UPOU used mobile phones for learning in a number of ways: to
343 deliver short bites of course content to learners via their phones (in the early days, via feature phones);
344 tutorial support or student consultation with educators; administrative support for learners; notification of
345 results; and dissemination of information about other programs (Bandalaria 2005).
346 The Text-2-Teach project in the Philippines is an example of a successful large-scale project that used
347 mobile technologies to deliver educational content to a diversity of schools. Since its launch in 2004, the
348 Text-2-Teach project has provided schools with mobile learning resources in English, mathematics, and
349 science (Natividad 2007). Students could readily download audio and video resources using their mobile
350 phones. Teachers could also send SMS requests for educational resources to be delivered via satellite to a
351 school television. The project was scaled up, reaching approximately 4,000 students in over 500 schools
352 in the Philippines in 2011 (Ayala Foundation 2011). Similar projects have emerged elsewhere in the
353 developing world where access to internet and computer technologies is limited (see chapter “▶ Increas-
354 ing Learning Outcomes in Developing Countries by Engaging Students Out of the Classroom Using SMS
355 and Voice Mobile Technology”).

356 7.5 Singapore

357 As one of the wealthiest countries in Southeast Asia, Singapore has systemic nationwide planning in
358 ICT. The project FutureSchools@Singapore, launched in 2007, is the government’s initiative to build a
359 new model for education by exploring innovative pedagogical approaches to the integration of ICT into
360 school curricula (Koh and Lee 2008). Schools identified as “future schools” were awarded funding to
361 transform their learning environments by deploying activities using ICT into the school’s curricula. The
362 Singapore Ministry of Education expected to spread the pedagogical innovations developed in “future
363 schools” to other nonparticipating schools in Singapore (Tsinakos 2013).
364 While the use of mobile technology was not specifically mandated in the plan for FutureSchools@-
365 Singapore, some participating schools have already started exploring the potential of mobile learning
366 through pilot projects. By way of example, Crescent Girls’ School, one of the original “future schools,” is
367 making extensive use of tablets in the curriculum. All enrolled students have tablets preloaded with
368 interactive digital textbooks. Nan Chiau Primary School, featured as a “future school” in 2011, has been
369 trialing the deployment of mobile technologies into the curricula through various mobile learning
370 initiatives since 2005 (So 2012).

371 7.6 Thailand

372 Students in Thai universities are ready and willing to trial mobile learning, yet mobile learning initiatives
373 in these higher education institutions are relatively rare (Jairak et al. 2009). Research has shown that the
374 price of mobile subscriptions, handset price, poor network coverage, and low disposable incomes of both
375 educators and students hinder the uptake of mobile learning (Jiranantanagorn et al. 2012).
376 There have been some mobile learning initiatives in Thai higher education institutions, however.
377 A mobile learning initiative was deployed at King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology in North Bangkok.
378 In this project, questions were displayed on a screen and the answers were texted using SMS (Librero
379 et al. 2007). In this study, students were using feature phones with small screens and did express concern
380 at trying to learn with such a small screen size (Valk et al. 2010). As smartphones gain more market share,
381 this concern is likely to be less of a problem. Even so, 90 % of the participating students owned their own
382 mobile phones (Motlik 2008).

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383 8 Future Trends

384 A noteworthy feature of mobile learning in Asia, and more particularly, Southeast Asia, is the movement
385 toward designing learning environments that are future focused. These spaces are typically enriched by
386 technology whereby some or the entirety of the learning experience takes place virtually. As would be
387 expected, this move is more evident in wealthier countries with strong ICT infrastructure including
388 Malaysia and Singapore. In these countries, the government’s focus is on designing technology-enhanced
389 environments that satisfy the needs of contemporary, tech-savvy learners. Mobile learning, while not
390 specifically discussed at a policy level, is subsumed under broader ICT plans to build future learning
391 environments (So 2012), and is likely to result in more, wide scale mobile learning initiatives.
392 There are a number of special considerations that need to be kept in mind when designing mobile
393 learning initiatives in Southeast Asia. The experience of participants with mobile learning or even with
394 mobile phones may be highly variable; the access to and affordability of devices may be problematic; or
395 internet searching, research, and access to social media may be impacted by internet censorship (Murphy
396 et al. 2014).
397 Pedagogical theories need to be re-examined and modified by educators, taking into account the
398 devices used and their affordances. Linking theories to technology will enable educators to better leverage
399 those affordances, allowing them to make best use of the technological context (Embi et al. 2013; Tsai and
400 Hwang 2013). However, the pedagogy must remain the primary concern above the technology
401 (Bandalaria 2005). Deploying mobile learning becomes a balance of leveraging the affordances of mobile
402 devices while not disenfranchising those learners who are unable to afford the latest models.
403 When designing mobile learning initiatives in developing countries, the rules and roles of the social
404 relationships in the mobile learning space must be made explicit. Also, when designing mobile learning
405 initiatives across cultural boundaries, special care must be taken to accommodate the cultural differences
406 between designer and learner (Teal et al. 2014). Regional factors must be considered when designing for
407 the learning behaviors of students. Each country has its own unique economic, political, and cultural
408 context which may impact on how students can learn (Tsai and Hwang 2013). Instead of just using mobile
409 devices for generic learning activities, as far as possible cultural learning and recognition must be
410 incorporated into activities. For example, use mobile learning for cultural or social studies programs
411 (Tsai and Hwang 2013).
412 Cost remains a barrier and must be taken into account when designing and delivering mobile learning
413 programs. There can be significant costs associated with buying a mobile device and then buying internet
414 access or phone subscriptions (Bandalaria 2005). This is obviously going to be a more significant issue in
415 those countries when the per capita income is lower (Tsinakos 2013). However, some consider mobile
416 learning to alleviate the costs associated with some modes of study, face-to-face for example. Mobile
417 learning enables learners to study remotely without the need to travel to a physical campus (Valk
418 et al. 2010).
419 Vigorous research is needed to establish the benefits of mobile learning in Southeast Asia. Large-scale
420 initiatives need to be instigated so that good, reliable quantitative data can be collected to inform both
421 future research and the future deployment of mobile learning (Tsai and Hwang 2013). There is an urgent
422 need to measure the effectiveness and the efficiency of mobile learning systems (Bandalaria 2005).
423 Additionally, good quality research can influence policy initiatives around technology-enhanced learning
424 and inform the planning and resourcing of mobile learning initiatives (Hwang and Tsai 2011).

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425 9 Future Directions

426 In 2012, UNESCO released a report which, among other things, looked at the enablers and barriers to
427 mobile learning in Asia generally. The report named the following enablers: initiatives at the government
428 and ministry levels; research in higher education institutions; and accessibility, connectivity, and afford-
429 ability of mobile devices (So 2012). The governments of both Malaysia and Singapore have policy related
430 to the deployment of ICTs in education which also includes mobile learning; it is unsurprising then, that a
431 number of effective mobile learning initiatives have been deployed in those countries. Effective research
432 is also being conducted in those countries. A number of academic groups are specifically researching
433 mobile learning in Malaysia (Song et al. 2013); there are a significant numbers of academic papers being
434 authored by Singaporean academics (Hwang and Tsai 2011).
435 The same report also identified a number of barriers to the adoption of mobile learning. Some of these
436 are fairly unsurprising including the cost of mobile devices and subscriptions. Others indicate a lack of
437 available information about the affordances of mobile devices and the benefits of mobile learning, as well
438 as general concerns around mobile phone use. These barriers include concerns about the misuse of mobile
439 phones; teachers’ and parents’ mindsets and attitudes; health-related issues (especially fear of radiation);
440 lack of teacher training and support; and lack of high-quality educational content (So 2012). Lack of
441 teacher support is often identified as a barrier to mobile learning and, for example, is the reason given for
442 the low number of mobile learning initiatives in Indonesia (Yusri and Goodwin 2013).
443 It follows then that critical success factors include: a high market penetration of mobile phones;
444 adequate technological infrastructure (wireless network and mobile applications); and specific profes-
445 sional development on mobile learning for teachers (So 2012). Educators need to address the blending of
446 formal and informal learning. In many areas of Southeast Asia, traditional modes of didactic delivery are
447 still dominant (Johnson et al. 2012).

Q1 448 10 Cross-References
449 ▶ Increasing Learning Outcomes in Developing Countries by Engaging Students Out of the Classroom
450 Using SMS and Voice Mobile Technology
451 ▶ Mobillizing the Middle Kingdom – Bringing M-Learning to a Chinese High School
452 ▶ Moving Towards the Effective Evaluation of Mobile Learning Initiatives in Higher Education
453 Institutions

454 References
Q2 455 Alamsyah, A., and G. Ramantoko. 2012. Implementations of m-learning in higher education in Indone-
456 sia. Bandung: Telkom Institute of Management. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/D8111094/Desktop/
457 Handbook%20of%20Mobile%20Learning/Mobile%20SE%20Asia/Articles/Implementation_of_m-
458 learning_in_higher_education_in_indonesia-libre.pdf
459 Ayala Foundation. 2011. Text2Teach goes nationwide, 15 Aug 2011. http://www.ayalafoundation.org/
460 news.php?i=102
461 Bahar, I. 2009. Mobile learning: Indonesia perspective. Paper presented at the APAC Mobile Learning &
462 Edutainment Conference, Kuala Lumpur.
463 Bandalaria, M. P. 2005. Education for all through the mobile phone: The University of the Philippines
464 Open University experience. Paper presented at the 19th AAOU Annual Conference, Jakarta.

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465 Berkman Center. 2006, August 5. OpenNet Initiative Vietnam Report: University Research Team Finds
466 an Increase in Internet Censorship in Vietnam. Berkman Center. Retrieved from http://cyber.law.
467 harvard.edu/newsroom/opennet_vietnam
468 Capelo, A., C. Santos, and M.A. Pedrosa. 2014. Education for sustainable development in East Timor.
469 Asian Education and Development Studies 3(2): 98–117.
470 Chun, D. and E. Tsui. 2010. A reflection of the state of mobile learning in Asia and a conceptual
471 framework. Paper presented at the IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning 2010, Porto.
472 Clothey, R. 2010. Current trends in higher education: Expanding access in Asia Pacific through technol-
473 ogy. Comparative and International Higher Education 2: 3–5.
474 Cochrane, L. 2012, December 10. Using mobile phones to improve maternal health in East Timor. Radio
475 Australia. Retrieved from http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/radio/program/asia-pacific/
476 using-mobile-phones-to-improve-maternal-health-in-east-timor/1058682
477 Deibert, R., J. Palfrey, R. Rohozinski, and J. Zittrain. 2012. Asia overview. In Access contested: Security,
478 identity, and resistance in Asian cyberspace, ed. R. Deibert, J. Palfrey, R. Rohozinski, and J. Zittrain,
479 225–240. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
480 Embi, M.A., and N.M. Nordin. 2013. Mobile learning: Malaysian initiatives & research findings. Kuala
481 Lumpur: Centre for Academic Advancement, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia/Department of Higher
482 Education, Ministry of Higher Education.
483 Embi, M.A., N.M. Nordin, and E. Panah. 2013. Mobile learning research initiatives in Malaysia. In
484 Mobile learning: Malaysian initiatives & research findings, ed. M.A. Embi and N.M. Nordin, 9–18.
485 Kuala Lumpur: Centre for Academic Advancement, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia/Department of
486 Higher Education, Ministry of Higher Education.
487 Farley, Helen. 2014. Getting your head around mobile learning: Just what is it and how can I start? Paper
488 presented at the Mobile Learning Symposium: Addressing Real Issues and Concerns in Institutional
489 and Educators’ Perspectives of Mobile Learning in Higher Education, Cyberjaya.
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491 TigerMine Research.
492 Hussin, S., M.R. Manap, Z. Amir, and P. Krish. 2012. Mobile learning readiness among Malaysian
493 students at higher learning institutes. Asian Social Science 8(12): 276–283. doi:10.5539/ass.
494 v8n12p276.
495 Hwang, G.-J., and C.-C. Tsai. 2011. Research trends in mobile and ubiquitous learning: A review of
496 publications in selected journals from 2001 to 2010_1183 65.70. British Journal of Educational
497 Technology 42(4): E65–E70.
498 Jairak, K., P. Praneetpolgrang, and K. Mekhabunchakij. 2009. An acceptance of mobile learning for
499 higher education students in Thailand. In The Sixth International Conference on eLearning for
500 Knowledge-Based Society.
501 Jambulingam, M., and S. Sorooshian. 2013. Usage of mobile features among undergraduates and mobile
502 learning. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences 5(4): 130–133.
503 Jeroschewski, A., A. Levisse, L. Salazar, R. Tesoriero, and S. Ying. 2013. Connecting Southeast Asia
504 through broadband. In Enhancing ASEAN’s connectivity, ed. B. Das, 72–90. Singapore: Institute of
505 Southeast Asia Studies.
506 Jiranantanagorn, P., R. Goodwin, and C. Mooney. 2012. Mobile learning in Thai public university:
507 Opportunities and barriers. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Computer Science
508 & Education (ICCSE 2012), Melbourne.
509 Johnson, L., S. Adams Becker, H. Ludgate, M. Cummins, and V. Estrada. 2012. Technology Outlook for
510 Singaporean K-12 Education 2012–2017: An NMC Horizon Project Regional Analysis, Austin.

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511 Koh, T.S., and S.C. Lee. 2008. Information communication technology in education: Singapore’s ICT
512 Masterplans 1997–2008. Singapore: World Scientific.
513 La Rue, F. 2011. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom
514 of opinion and expression, Frank La Rue, 22. Geneva: United Nations General Assembly.
515 Librero, F., A.J. Ramos, A.I. Ranga, J. Triñona, and D. Lambert. 2007. Uses of the cell phone for
516 education in the Philippines and Mongolia. Distance Education 28(2): 231–244. doi:10.1080/
517 01587910701439266.
518 Marques, L. A., M. Murata, M. Ito, M. Shiina, T. Matsuo, H. Wada, and R. Nishino. 2013. Philippines and
519 East Timor – History, present reality and its crusade with education. Paper presented at the 2013 JSEE
520 Annual Conference, Niigata.
521 Mohamad, M., and J. Woollard. 2010. Bringing change in secondary schools: Can mobile learning via
522 mobile phones be implemented in Malaysia? Paper presented at the 4th International Malaysian
523 Educational Technology Convention, Kuala Lumpur. http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/162555/1/mohamad
524 %26woollard.pdf
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535 NST-Business Times. 2013. Smartphone penetration seen hitting 60 % in 2 years. Online news retrieved
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539 Peck, S.D., J.L. Stehle Werner, and D.M. Raleigh. 2013. Improved class preparation and learning through
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545 UNESCO working paper. Paris: UNESCO.
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549 Paper presented at the proceedings of the 30th Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in
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552 nications of the International Information Management Association (CIIMA). Advance online publi-
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Q4 554 Suharti. 2013. Trends in education in Indonesia. In Education in Indonesia, ed. D. Suryadarma and
555 G.W. Jones, 15–52. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
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557 guidelines and frameworks. International Journal on E-Learning 13(1): 79–99.

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558 Tsai, C.-C., and G.-J. Hwang. 2013. Issues and challenges of educational technology research in Asia. The
559 Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 22(2): 215–216. doi:10.1007/s40299-012-0038-9.
560 Tsinakos, A. 2013. State of mobile learning around the world. In Global mobile learning implementation
561 and trends. Beijing: China Central Radio/TV University Press.
Q5 562 Valk, J.H., A.T. Rashid, and L. Elder. 2010. Using mobile phones to improve educational outcomes: An
563 analysis of evidence from Asia. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning
564 11(1): 117–140.
565 Yusri, I.K., and R. Goodwin. 2013. Mobile learning for ICT training: Enhancing ICT skill of teachers in
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567 293–296. doi:10.7763/IJEEEE.2013.V3.243.
568 Zambrano, R., K. Seward, and S. Ludwig. 2012. Mobile technologies and empowerment: Enhancing
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571 governance/access_to_informationande-governance/mobiletechnologiesprimer.html

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Index Terms:
Broadband 2
Higher education 8
Internet 2–3
control and censorship 3
mobile 2
Mobile device penetration 2, 8
Mobile learning 3–9
and e-learning 4–5
cloud computing 5
electronic publishing 6
gamification 6
internet control and censorship 3
smartphone ownership 3–4
social networking 6
Southeast Asia 7–9
Mobiles for development 8
Southeast Asia 2–9
e-learning and mobile learning 4–5
mobile device ownership 3–4
mobile internet 2
mobile learning 7–9
East Timor 7
Indonesia 7–8
Malaysia 8
Philippines 8–9
Singapore 9
Thailand 9
technology trend 5–7

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Author Queries
Query Refs. Details required
Q1 Farley et al. (2015), Haagen (2015), Reid and Pruijsen (2015) has been removed from the reference list
and moved to “Cross-References.” Please check.
Q2 Please provide appropriate url link for Alamsyah and Ramantoko (2012).
Q3 Please provide location for Greene (2013), Jairak et al. (2009).
Q4 Please check if inserted publisher location for Suharti (2013) is okay.
Q5 Please check if inserted page range for Valk et al. (2010) is okay.

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