Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions

Hofestede’s Cultural Dimensions
If you’ve ever worked with colleagues based in a different continent, or even just a
neighboring country then you will have likely encountered cultural differences. Even if
you haven’t encountered cultural differences yet, it is increasingly likely that you will
have to at some point as business becomes ever more international in nature. Did you
know that a model already exists to help us understand cultural differences?
It’s called Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, and using it can help us get off to a good
start with new colleagues, new clients, or new projects and programs. Rather than being
a strict set of rules the model is more of a aid to help you think about how to interact and
approach different cultures.
There are five dimensions to the model:
1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
This dimension measures the distribution of wealth and power within a culture. What
this dimension is aiming to show is the extent to which people within a culture submit to
authority. The higher the PDI the more hierarchical the culture, and the lower the figure
the more likely people at all levels are to work together.
2. Individualism and Collectivism (IDV)
This dimension concerns the relationship been a typical individual and larger social
groups. The higher this score the more a culture encourages individuality and
uniqueness. The lower this score the more a culture encourages conformity and
interdependence.
Individualistic cultures are more likely to have people feeling responsible for taking care
of themselves, people are responsible for their own identity and achievement, hiring is
based on merit, and people believe everyone has a right to a private life.
Collective cultures are more likely to value loyalty to the group, including extended
family and company. People value the achievement of the team because they value
belonging, and because of this a persons “personal life” is often invaded by the
demands of the group or organization.
3. Masculinity and Femininity (MAS)

In this dimension masculinity (a higher score) is seen as placing value on the acquisition
of wealth, personal ambition, and discrete gender roles. Femininity is seen
as valuing sexual equality, caring behaviors, and less strict gender roles.
Another way of viewing this is that in masculine societies men are supposed to be
tough, assertive, and breed winners, whereas women are supposed to be more tender
and concerned with quality of life. Conversely, in feminine societies roles intersect and
overlap. Both sexes are expected to be tender and concerned with quality of life.
4. Uncertainty Avoidance Factor (UAI)
This dimension measures how a culture copes and handles uncertainty, that is, how the
culture handles ambiguity. The higher the score less well the culture is at handling
ambiguity.
5. Long-Term Orientation (LTO)
Hofstede’s original work contained just 4 dimensions. However, a later study noted that
these 4 dimensions didn’t fully reflect the Asian perspective. As a result of this, the fifth
dimension, long-term orientation was added.
This dimension measures how much value a culture places on long-term rewards. A low
score signals short-term orientation and measures how much value is placed on past
and present.
Traits of long-term orientation include valuing persistence, thrift, and also that leisure
time isn’t that important. Conversely, short-term orientation includes valuing immediate
gratification and results, spend now, and that leisure time is important.
Cultural Dimensions Example
As an example, let’s compare the cultural differences between China and the US. Each
country’s score for each of the five factors is shown in the table below. Note that the
range for each score is 0 to 120.
Power
Distance Uncertainty Long-Term
Country Index Individualism Masculinity Avoidance Orientation
80 20 66 40 118
China
USA 40 91 62 46 29
What is the Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory?
The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used
to understand the differences in culture across countries and to discern the ways that business is
done across different cultures. In other words, the framework is used to distinguish between
different national cultures, the dimensions of culture, and their impact on a business setting.
The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory was created in 1980 by Dutch management
researcher Geert Hofstede. The aim of the study was to determine the dimensions in which cultures
vary.
Hofstede identified six categories that define culture:
1. Power Distance Index

2. Collectivism vs. Individualism
3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index
4. Femininity vs. Masculinity
5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
6. Restraint vs. Indulgence
Power Distance Index

The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are tolerated. In this
dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint of the followers – the lower level.
 High power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and power differences,
encourages bureaucracy and shows high respect for rank and authority.
 Low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages organizational structures that
are flat, decentralized decision-making responsibility, participative style of management,
and places emphasis on power distribution.
Individualism vs. Collectivism

The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies are
integrated into groups and their perceived obligation and dependence on groups.
 Individualism indicates that there is greater importance on attaining personal goals. A

person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
 Collectivism indicates that there is greater importance on the goals and well-being of the
group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We”.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index

The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity are
tolerated. This dimension considers how unknown situations and unexpected events are dealt with.
 High uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and
risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules, regulations, etc.
 Low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity, and
risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are lax rules, regulations, etc.
Masculinity vs. Femininity

The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender,” and considers
the preference of society for achievement, attitude towards sexuality equality, behavior, etc.
 Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, assertive, and
concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.
 Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest, nurturing,
and concerned with the quality of life.
Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation

The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent to which
society views its time horizon.
 Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying short-term success
or gratification in order to achieve long-term success. Long-term orientation emphasizes
persistence, perseverance, and long-term growth.
 Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term
success or gratification and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future. Short-
term orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for tradition.
Indulgence vs. Restraint

The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a society to fulfill its
desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how societies can control their impulses
and desires.
 Indulgence indicates that a society allows relatively free gratification related to enjoying
life and having fun.
 Restraint indicates that a society suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it through
social norms.
WHAT ABOUT INDIA?
If we explore the Indian culture through the lens of the 6-D Model, we can get a good overview
of the deep drivers of Indian culture relative to other world cultures.
POWER DISTANCE
This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal – it expresses
the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Power Distance is defined
as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a
country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.
India scores high on this dimension, 77, indicating an appreciation for hierarchy and a top-down
structure in society and organizations. If one were to encapsulate the Indian attitude, one could
use the following words and phrases : dependent on the boss or the power holder for direction,
acceptance of un-equal rights between the power-privileged and those who are lesser down in
the pecking order, immediate superiors accessible but one layer above less so, paternalistic
leader, management directs, gives reason / meaning to ones work life and rewards in exchange
for loyalty from employees. Real Power is centralized even though it may not appear to be and
managers count on the obedience of their team members. Employees expect to be directed
clearly as to their functions and what is expected of them. Control is familiar, even a
psychological security, and attitude towards managers are formal even if one is on first name
basis. Communication is top down and directive in its style and often feedback which is
negative is never offered up the ladder.
INDIVIDUALISM
The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society
maintains among its members. It has to do with whether people´s self-image is defined in
terms of “I” or “We”. In Individualist societies people are supposed to look after themselves
and their direct family only. In Collectivist societies people belong to ‘in groups’ that take care
of them in exchange for loyalty.
India, with a rather intermediate score of 48, is a society with both collectivistic and
Individualist traits. The collectivist side means that there is a high preference for belonging to a
larger social framework in which individuals are expected to act in accordance to the greater
good of one’s defined in-group(s). In such situations, the actions of the individual are influenced
by various concepts such as the opinion of one’s family, extended family, neighbours, work
group and other such wider social networks that one has some affiliation toward. For a
collectivist, to be rejected by one’s peers or to be thought lowly of by one’s extended and
immediate in-groups, leaves him or her rudderless and with a sense of intense emptiness. The
employer/employee relationship is one of expectations based on expectations – Loyalty by the
employee and almost familial protection by the Employer. Hiring and promotion decisions are
often made based on relationships which are the key to everything in a Collectivist society.
The Individualist aspect of Indian society is seen as a result of its dominant religion/philosophy
– Hinduism. The Hindus believe in a cycle of death and rebirth, with the manner of each rebirth
being dependent upon how the individual lived the preceding life. People are, therefore,
individually responsible for the way they lead their lives and the impact it will have upon their
rebirth. This focus on individualism interacts with the otherwise collectivist tendencies of the
Indian society which leads to its intermediate score on this dimension.
MASCULINITY
A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner / best in field
– a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.
A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring
for others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of
success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental issue here is what
motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine).
India scores 56 on this dimension and is thus considered a Masculine society. India is actually
very Masculine in terms of visual display of success and power. The designer brand label, the
flash and ostentation that goes with advertising one’s success, is widely practiced. However,
India is also a spiritual country with millions of deities and various religious philosophies. It is
also an ancient country with one of the longest surviving cultures which gives it ample lessons
in the value of humility and abstinence. This often reigns in people from indulging in Masculine
displays to the extent that they might be naturally inclined to. In more Masculine countries the
focus is on success and achievements, validated by material gains. Work is the center of one’s
life and visible symbols of success in the work place are ery important.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact
that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen?
This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have learnt to deal with this anxiety
in different ways. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous
or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is
reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance.
India scores 40 on this dimension and thus has a medium low preference for avoiding
uncertainty. In India, there is acceptance of imperfection; nothing has to be perfect nor has to
go exactly as planned. India is traditionally a patient country where tolerance for the
unexpected is high ; even welcomed as a break from monotony. People generally do not feel
driven and compelled to take action-initiatives and comfortably settle into established rolls and
routines without questioning. Rules are often in place just to be circumvented and one relies on
innovative methods to “bypass the system”. A word used often is “adjust” and means a wide
range of things, from turning a blind eye to rules being flouted to finding a unique and inventive
solution to a seemingly insurmountable problem. It is this attitude that is both the cause of
misery as well as the most empowering aspect of the country. There is a saying that “nothing is
impossible” in India, so long as one knows how to “adjust”.
LONG TERM ORIENTATION
This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while
dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two
existential goals differently. Normative societies. which score low on this dimension, for
example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change
with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more
pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare
for the future.
With an intermediate score of 51 in this dimension, a dominant preference in Indian culture

cannot be determined. In India the concept of “karma” dominates religious and philosophical
thought. Time is not linear, and thus is not as important as to western societies which typically
score low on this dimension. Countries like India have a great tolerance for religious views from
all over the world. Hinduism is often considered a philosophy more than even a religion; an
amalgamation of ideas, views, practices and esoteric beliefs. In India there is an acceptance that
there are many truths and often depends on the seeker. Societies that have a high score on
pragmatism typically forgive a lack of punctuality, a changing game-plan based on changing
reality and a general comfort with discovering the fated path as one goes along rather than
playing to an exact plan.
INDULGENCE
One challenge that confronts humanity, now and in the past, is the degree to which small
children are socialized. Without socialization we do not become “human”. This dimension is
defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the
way they were raised. Relatively weak control is called “Indulgence” and relatively strong
control is called “Restraint”. Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained.
India receives a low score of 26 in this dimension, meaning that it is a culture of Restraint.
Societies with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and pessimism. Also, in
contrast to Indulgent societies, Restrained societies do not put much emphasis on leisure time
and control the gratification of their desires. People with this orientation have the perception
that their actions are Restrained by social norms and feel that indulging themselves is
somewhat wrong.
WHAT ABOUT SAUDI ARABIA?
If we explore the culture of Saudi Arabia through the lens of the 6-D Model©, we can get a
good overview of the deep drivers of its culture relative to other world cultures.
POWER DISTANCE
Saudi Arabia scores high on this dimension (score of 95) which means that people accept a
hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification.
Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular,
subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat
INDIVIDUALISM
Saudi Arabia, with a score of 25 is considered a collectivistic society. This is manifest in a close
long-term commitment to the member ‘group’, be that a family, extended family, or extended
relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other societal
rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes
responsibility for fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to shame
and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a family
link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employee’s in-group, management is
the management of groups.
MASCULINITY
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner/best in field –
a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.
Saudi Arabia scores 60 on this dimension and is thus a Masculine society. In Masculine
countries people “live in order to work”, managers are expected to be decisive and assertive,
the emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and conflicts are resolved by fighting
them out.
Saudi Arabia scores 80 on this dimension and thus has a preference for avoiding uncertainty.
Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour
and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. In these cultures there is an emotional
need for rules (even if the rules never seem to work) time is money, people have an inner urge
to be busy and work hard, precision and punctuality are the norm, innovation may be resisted,
security is an important element in individual motivation.
for the future.
The normative nature of Saudi Arabian society can be seen in its low score of 36 on this
dimension. People in such societies have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth;
they are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small
propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results.
INDULGENCE
control is called “Restraint”. Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained.
Saudi Arabia’s intermediate score of 52 does not point to a clear preference on this dimension.
WHAT ABOUT THE USA?
To compare your personal preferences to the scores of a country of your choice, get the Culture
Compass™ from our store.
If we explore the US culture through the lens of the 6-D Model©, we can get a good overview
of the deep driving factors of American culture relative to other cultures in our world. By
supplying you with this information please realise that culture describes a central tendency in
society. Everybody is unique, yet social control ensures that most people will not deviate too
much from the norm. Moreover, within every country regional cultural differences exist, also in
the States. Americans, however, don’t need to go to a cultural briefing before moving to
another state successfully.
POWER DISTANCE
The fact that everybody is unique implies that we are all unequal. One of the most salient
aspects of inequality is the degree of power each person exerts or can exert over other persons;
power being defined as the degree to which a person is able to influence other people’s ideas
and behavior.
This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal, and it
expresses the attitude of the culture toward these power inequalities amongst us. Power
distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and
organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. It has to
do with the fact that a society’s inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the
leaders.
INDIVIDUALISM
terms of “I” or “We”. In Individualist societies people are only supposed to look after
themselves and their direct family. In Collectivist societies people belong to “in groups” that
take care of them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
The fairly low score on Power Distance(40) in combination with one of the the most
Individualist (91) cultures in the world reflects itself in the following:
The American premise of “liberty and justice for all.” This is evidenced by an explicit emphasis
on equal rights in all aspects of American society and government. Within American
organisations, hierarchy is established for convenience, superiors are accessible and managers
rely on individual employees and teams for their expertise. Both managers and employees
expect to be consulted and information is shared frequently. At the same time, communication
is informal, direct and participative to a degree. The society is loosely-knit in which the
expectation is that people look after themselves and their immediate families only and should
not rely (too much) on authorities for support. There is also a high degree of geographical
mobility in the United States. Americans are the best joiners in the world; however it is often
difficult, especially among men, to develop deep friendships. Americans are accustomed to
doing business or interacting with people they don’t know well. Consequently, Americans are
not shy about approaching their prospective counterparts in order to obtain or seek
information. In the business world, employees are expected to be self-reliant and display
initiative. Also, within the exchange-based world of work we see that hiring, promotion and
decisions are based on merit or evidence of what one has done or can do.
MASCULINITY
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the “winner” or “best-in-
the-field”. This value system starts in childhood and continues throughout one’s life – both in
work and leisure pursuits.
The score of the US on Masculinity is high at 62, and this can be seen in the typical American
behavioral patterns. This can be explained by the the combination of a high Masculinity drive
together with the most Individualist drive in the world. In other words, Americans, so to speak,
all show their Masculine drive individually. The British, however, have the same culture in this
respect. The question, therefore, should be: is the same drive not normally to be seen on the
surface? This difference is a reflection of the higher score of the US on Uncertainty Avoidance
than of the UK. In other words, in both societies we find the same drive, but Americans show it
up-front whereas the British will take you by surprise.
This American combination reflects itself in the following:
Behavior in school, work, and play are based on the shared values that people should “strive to
be the best they can be” and that “the winner takes all”. As a result, Americans will tend to
display and talk freely about their “successes” and achievements in life. Being successful per se
is not the great motivator in American society, but being able to show one’s success Many
American assessment systems are based on precise target setting, by which American
employees can show how well a job they did. There exists a “can-do” mentality which creates a
lot of dynamism in the society, as it is believed that there is always the possibility to do things in
a better way Typically, Americans “live to work” so that they can obtain monetary rewards and
as a consequence attain higher status based on how good one can be. Many white collar
workers will move to a more fancy neighborhood after each and every substantial promotion. It
is believed that a certain degree of conflict will bring out the best of people, as it is the goal to
be “the winner”. As a consequence, we see a lot of polarisation and court cases. This mentality
nowadays undermines the American premise of “liberty and justice for all.” Rising inequality is
endangering democracy, because a widening gap among the classes may slowly push Power
Distance up and Individualism down.
The US scores below average, with a low score of 46, on the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension.
. As a consequence, the perceived context in which Americans find themselves will impact their
behaviour more than if the culture would have either scored higher or lower. Thus, this cultural
pattern reflects itself as follows:
There is a fair degree of acceptance for new ideas, innovative products and a willingness to try
something new or different, whether it pertains to technology, business practices or food.
Americans tend to be more tolerant of ideas or opinions from anyone and allow the freedom of
expression. At the same time, Americans do not require a lot of rules and are less emotionally
expressive than higher-scoring cultures. At the same time, 9/11 has created a lot of fear in the
American society culminating in the efforts of government to monitor everybody through the
NSA and other security organisations
for the future.
The United States scores normative on the fifth dimension with a low score of 26. This is
reflected by the following:
Americans are prone to analyse new information to check whether it is true. Thus, the culture
doesn’t make most Americans pragmatic, but this should not be confused with the fact that
Americans are very practical, being reflected by the “can-do” mentallity mentioned above. The
polarisation mentioned above is, so to speak, strengthened by the fact that many Americans
have very strong ideas about what is “good” and “evil”. This may concern issues such as
abortion, use of drugs, euthanasia, weapons or the size and rights of the government versus the
States and versus citizens. The US is the one of the only “Caucasian” countries in the world
where, since the beginning of the 20th century, visiting church has increased. This increase is
also evident in some post-Soviet republics such as Russia. American businesses measure their
performance on a short-term basis, with profit and loss statements being issued on a quarterly
basis. This also drives individuals to strive for quick results within the work place.
INDULGENCE
children are socialised. Without socialisation we do not become “human”. This dimension is
way they were raised. A tendency toward a relatively weak control over their impulses is called
“Indulgence”, whereas a relatively strong control over their urges is called “Restraint”. Cultures
can be described as Indulgent or Restrained.
The United States scores as an Indulgent (68) society on the sixth dimension. This, in
combination with a normative score, is reflected by the following contradictory attitudes and
behaviour:
Work hard and play hard. The States has waged a war against drugs and is still very busy in
doing so, yet drug addiction in the States is higher than in many other wealthy countries. It is a
prudish society yet even some well-known televangelists appear to be immoral.
WHAT ABOUT FRANCE?
If we explore French culture through the lens of the 6-D Model©, we can get a good overview
of the deep drivers of France’s culture relative to other world cultures.
POWER DISTANCE
With a score of 68, France scores fairly high on Power Distance. Children are raised to be
emotionally dependent, to a degree, on their parents. This dependency will be transferred to
teachers and later on to superiors. It is, therefore, a society in which a fair degree of inequality
is accepted. Power is not only centralised in companies and government, but also
geographically. Just look at the road grid in France; most highways lead to Paris.
Many comparative studies have shown that French companies have normally one or two
hierarchical levels more than comparable companies in Germany and the UK. Superiors have
privileges and are often inaccessible. CEO’s of big companies are called Mr. PDG, which is a
more prestigious abbreviation than CEO, meaning President Director General. These PDGs have
frequently attended the most prestigious universities called “grandes écoles”, big schools.
INDIVIDUALISM
France, with a score of 71, is shown to be an individualist society. Parents make their children
emotionally independent with regard to groups in which they belong. This means that one is
only supposed to take care of oneself and one’s family.
The French combination of a high score on Power Distance and a high score on Individualism is
rather unique. We only find the same combination in Belgium and, to some degree, in Spain
and northern Italy.
This combination is not only unique, but it also creates a contradiction, so to speak. Only so to
speak, because scores in the model don’t influence anything. They just give a structured
reflection of reality. This combination manifests itself in France in the following ways:
It is claimed that one reason why the French are less obese than people in other EU-countries is
that parents still have more sway over children than in other EU-countries. Whether this is true
or not is not known by us. All the same, what is true is that the family has still more emotional
glue than in other Individualist cultures. This is a reflection of the high score on Power Distance
with its stronger respect for the elderly. Subordinates normally pay formal respect and show
deference to their boss, but behind his/her back they may do the opposite of what they
promised to do, as they may think that they know better, yet are not able to express so.
Another reflection of high Power Distance contrary to formal obedience is the total rejection of
those in power as there is no way to change by evolution but only by strikes, revolts and
revolution. Employers and trade unions don’t really talk together as they look at each other as
almost belonging to a separate species. The need to make a strong distinction between work
and private life is even stronger in France than in the US, despite the fact that the US scores
higher on Individualism. This is a reflection of the fact that employees more quickly feel put
under pressure than in the US because of their emotional dependence on what the boss says
and does. In cultures which score high on Power Distance and Collectivism, the “normal”
combination, such dependence is welcomed. At least, if the power holders act as benevolent
fathers. The French prefer to be dependent on the central government, an impersonal power
centre which cannot so easily invade their private life. What is human, but more pronounced in
France, is the need for strong leadership in times of crisis. In spite of that, when the crisis is
resolved the president should make space for much weaker leadership. Many French have the
need to become a “patron”, whether as mayor of a small village or as the chairman of the
bridge club. Customer service is poor in the eyes of all those Anglo-Saxons who believe that the
customer is king. Not so in France. The French are self-motivated to be the best in their trade.
They, therefore, expect respect for what they do, after which they are very much willing to
serve you well.
MASCULINITY
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner / best in field
– a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.
With a score of 43, France has a somewhat Feminine culture. At face value this may be
indicated by its famous welfare system (securité sociale), the 35-hour working week, five weeks
of holidays per year and its focus on the quality of life. French culture in terms of the model
has, however, another unique characteristic. The upper class scores Feminine while the working
class scores Masculine. This characteristic has not been found in any other country. This
difference may be reflected by the following:
Top managers earn on average less than one would expect given the high score on Power
Distance. Married couples of high society could go public with a lover without negative
consequences, at least certainly in the past. The scandal in the US about Clinton and Lewinsky
has never been understood in France. In addition, “crime passionel”, i.e. crimes of passion,
have always been sentenced very leniently in comparison to other murder trials.
This dimension, Uncertainty Avoidance, has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact
This ambiguity brings anxiety with it, and different cultures have learnt to deal with this anxiety
At 86, French culture scores high on Uncertainty Avoidance. This is clearly evident in the
following:
The French don’t like surprises. Structure and planning are required. Before meetings and
negotiations they like to receive all necessary information. As a consequence, the French are
good in developing complex technologies and systems in a stable environment, such as in the
case of nuclear power plants, rapid trains and the aviation industry. There is also a need for
emotional safety valves as a high score on Uncertainty Avoidance and the combination of high
Power Distance and high Individualism strengthen each other, so to speak. The French, for
example, are very talkative and “engueuler”, giving someone the sharp edge of one’s tongue
happens often. There is a strong need for laws, rules and regulations to structure life. This,
however, doesn’t mean that most Frenchmen will try to follow all these rules, the same as in
other Latin countries. Given the high score on Power Distance, which means that power holders
have privileges, power holders don’t necessarily feel obliged to follow all those rules which are
meant to control the people in the street. At the same time, commonners try to relate to power
holders so that they can also claim the exception to the rule.
for the future.
France scores high (63) in this dimension, making it pragmatic. In societies with a pragmatic
orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They
show an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and
invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results.
INDULGENCE
children are socialised. Without socialisation we do not become “human”. This dimension is
way they were raised. A tendency toward a relatively weak control over their impulses is called
“Indulgence”, whereas a relatively strong control over their urges is called “Restraint”. Cultures
can be described as Indulgent or Restrained.
France scores somewhat in the middle (48) where it concerns Indulgence versus Restraint. This,
in combination with a high score on Uncertainty Avoidance, implies that the French are less
relaxed and enjoy life less often than is commonly assumed. Indeed, France scores not all that
high on the happiness indices.
WHAT ABOUT THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES?
If we explore the Emirati culture through the lens of the 6-D Model©, we can get a good
overview of the deep drivers of its culture relative to other world cultures.
POWER DISTANCE
The United Arab Emirates scores high on this dimension (score of 90) which means that people
accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further
justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities,
centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a
benevolent autocrat
INDIVIDUALISM
The United Arab Emirates, with a score of 25 is considered a collectivistic society. This is
manifest in a close long-term commitment to the member ‘group’, be that a family, extended
family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides
most other societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where
everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence
leads to shame and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms
(like a family link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employee’s in-group,
management is the management of groups.
MASCULINITY
competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner/best in field –
a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life.
Arab Emirates scores 50 on this dimension and can be considered to be neither Masculine or
Feminine.
Arab Emirates scores 80 on this dimension and thus has a high preference for avoiding
uncertainty. Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and
behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. In these cultures there is an
emotional need for rules (even if the rules never seem to work) time is money, people have an
inner urge to be busy and work hard, precision and punctuality are the norm, innovation may
be resisted, security is an important element in individual motivation.
for the future.
There is currently no score available for the United Arab Emirates on this dimension.
INDULGENCE
control is called “Restraint”.
There is currently no score available for the United Arab Emirates on this dimension.
Myanmar 5 Dimensions of
National Culture
Power Distance
In recent years after opening its borders, Myanmar has gone from a country with low power distance to
one that is now relatively high. Due to the opening of the borders, the invitation of foreign investments
and tourism has made its way into the country. This of course means there will be a more prominent
hierarchy within society as more jobs become available to the people. The people of Myanmar have
become rather accepting of the shift to a more hierarchical society as shown by the dramatic shift in
power distance score which according to a study done in 2006 (before open borders) by Charles Rarick,
Ph.D., (2006) the power distance score was only in the low 20-30 range. If the trend continues, we can
expect Myanmar to have a higher power distance value in the coming years as the rest of the country
begins to modernize and industrialize its society.
Collectivism
Myanmar remains in the middle of the collectivism score and what this means is that it is hard to
determine if the country is itself leans towards more individualistic tendencies or collective tendencies.
The problem likely arises from the location in which the study was executed. In more rural areas of
Myanmar, collectivism might be more common especially in villages that are tight knit and reliance on
neighbors is high however, in the city where individual wealth is most likely increased and the hierarchy
is much more prominent (rich vs poor), individual thinking is more likely to take place.
Masculine vs. Feminine
The score for masculinity vs. femininity for Myanmar interestingly enough scores lower rather than
higher. Scoring only 25 in this category, Myanmar values quality of life and is more concerned with the
well being of each other. This means they are a more feminine country despite shifting to a more
hierarchical society. One would think that with the shift in power distance scores being the way they
are, that the country would be leaning more towards a masculine way of thinking however, this isn't the
case for Myanmar. The reason could be explained by the primary religion in Myanmar being Buddhism
in which the Four Noble Truths depict greed and desire to cause suffering. Almost 90% of the country
follows this religion and because of this, although power inequality has formed, need to acquire material
goods and money remain low ("Myanmar Religion,"). Whether this value will change is still uncertain,
but one can predict that since the majority of working adults are still of the older generation (pre-border
opening) who are more religious, that once the younger generation who grew up in this more capitalistic
society takes over, they will shift this value towards masculinity due to probably having less reliance on
religion.
Uncertainty Avoidance
Risk taking in the country of Myanmar is extremely low and avoidance of uncertainty remains highly
important for the people of Myanmar. To put it in a better way, the people are wary of what is to come
and skeptical of change. This can be credited to the instability they have had in their country where
oppression is still rife ("Burmese Wary of 'Democracy' After Decades of Oppression," 2011). Power
struggles within the country coupled with bribery of government officials leaves the citizens feeling that
those in charge are not truly helping the people, but instead just helping themselves. Because of this,
they tend to want to avoid uncertainty at least in the controllable aspects of their lives.
Long Term vs. Short Term
Whether Myanmar is more long term oriented or short term oriented is hard to decide. Near the middle
with a score of 55, one can say that Myanmar is slightly more long term however, because it's so close
to the middle, we can't say with certainty whether or not they truly are more long term. This index
number will depend whether the people turn to tradition or believe in the future of their country. At
least according to the numbers, the people of Myanmar are still deciding what direction they want to
take or perhaps have decided the importance of both.
Trompenaars 7 Cultural Dimensions
What is are the Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions?
Organizations all over the world work are dealing with a wide variety of cultures.
According to Fons Trompenaars, cultural differences will create a better understanding
of reality. For an insight into the biggest differences and how organizations are affected
by these differences, Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner developed
a cultural model, that distinguishes seven cultural dimensions. The name of this
management and communication model is the Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions.
These are Trompenaars and Hampden turner’s seven dimensions of culture:
1. Universalism versus Particularism

2. Individualism versus Communitarianism
3. Neutral versus Emotional
4. Specific versus Diffuse
5. Achievement versus Ascription
6. Sequential versus Synchronous time
7. Internal direction versus External direction
1. Universalism versus Particularism
In universalist culture ideas can be applied anywhere and there is always a definition
that can be used to determine the distinction between right and wrong. Standards and
values are important and can only be departed from after consultation. It is generally
accepted that in similar situations people from different origins receive the same salary.
In a particularistic culture, members believe that it the circumstances that determine
how ideas can be applied in practice. Personal relationships and obligations play an
important role when making ethical decisions. Status is important in this as a result of
which for example salary is linked to reputation and origin.
2. Individualism versus Communitarianism
Individualism sees human beings as individuals, whereas communitarianism

characterizes humanity as being part of a group. Fons Trompenaars says that the
individualist culture is linked to the ideas of the western world, whereas the
communitarian culture is linked to non-western countries. Cultures change continuously
and sometimes they change more quickly than people realize. As an example, Fons
Trompenaars mentions Mexico, which was predominantly communitarian at first.
Influenced by the global economy, Mexico is now moving towards a more individualistic
culture.
3. Neutral versus emotional
In a neutral emotions are controlled, whereas in an emotional culture emotions are

expressed openly and spontaneously. Well-known trompenaars cultural dimensions
countries of neutral cultures are Japan and Great Britain, where they frown upon being
angry in public, laughing loudly or displaying any other emotional outbursts. In an
emotional culture, however, this behaviour is allowed. Fons Trompenaars mentions
countries such as the Spain and Mexico where people often laugh, talk loudly and greet
each other enthusiastically. When people from a neutral culture do business with people
from an emotional culture, they could be deterred by the other person’s behaviour. A
good preparation and taking someone’s culture into consideration will prevent awkward
situations.
4. Specific versus diffuse
In a specific culture, individuals have a large public space, which they share easily with
other people. They also have a small private space which they share with good friends
and close associates. People often approach each other informally in both the public
and private space. In a diffuse culture the public space and the private space tend to be
interwoven. People in a diffuse culture will therefore protect their private space because
this will provide easy access to the public space. People from a diffuse culture attach
great value to formality.
5. Achievement versus ascription
This concerns achieved status (achievement) versus ascribed (ascription) status. In an

achievement-oriented culture, a person’s worth is determined on the basis of their
performances and how well they perform their tasks. In a culture in which status is
ascribed, status is based on who the person in question is. Their position is derived
from for example origin, gender, age, career or a person’s career or position. When
someone from an achievement-oriented culture does business with people from an
ascription-oriented culture, it is advisable to deploy older, more experienced people who
are familiar with formal customs and manners and who respect established titles.
In the contrary situation, it is important that people from an ascription-oriented culture

make use of well-informed people who know exactly what the knowledge and skills are
of people from an achievement-oriented culture. Fons Trompenaars says that there is
often a mix, whereby culture determines on which elements from the Achievement or
Ascription cultures the emphasis is put.
6. Sequential versus synchronous time
Time can be measured and understood in different ways. We measure past, present
and future using years, months, weeks, days and hours. This concrete measurement of
time falls within sequential time. ” Time is money” is a typical expression that forms part
of this culture, just like the eternal race against clock. Synchronous time is more
abstract and focuses on being able to work on various projects at once. It does not
concern itself with time zones, but is aware that the human body has its own rhythm. In
a synchronous time it is about the rhythm of the group and that of nature. There is,
however, a risk to doing several things at the same time. It could result in work not
being actually completed.
Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions – The 7 Dimensions of Culture
Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions – The 7 Dimensions of Culture

Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model, also known as The 7 Dimensions of Culture,
can help you to work more effectively with people from different cultures.
Business is becoming ever more global, and as a result of this, teams are becoming
more diverse. Thus, we are likely to need to work with people from other countries and
cultures.
Most of the time things will go well when you work with people from other cultures. But
when things don’t, and misunderstandings arise, Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions
Model can help.
The model was first described in the book, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding
Diversity in Global Business. Written by Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-
Turner in 1993. To create the model, they surveyed over 40,000 managers from 40
countries.
The book won’t help you to learn cultural etiquette. If that is what you’re looking for then
you need a different book. The real advantage of this book and the model is that it
allows you to step outside of your own biases and stereotypes. In doing so you can see
how another culture might approach a problem. This can then prompt you with ideas to
resolve any misunderstanding.
The 7 Dimensions of Culture
The 7 Dimensions of Culture Model (Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model) works

by differentiating cultures based on their preferences in the following 7 dimensions:
1. Universalism vs. particularism.
2. Individualism vs. communitarianism.
3. Specific vs. diffuse.

4. Neutral vs. affective.
5. Achievement vs. ascription.
6. Sequential time vs. synchronous time.
7. Internal direction vs. external direction.
You can also see The 7 Dimensions of Culture in this diagram:
1. Universalism vs. Particularism
This dimension can be summarized by asking what matters more, rules or

relationships?
Cultures based on universalism try to treat all cases the same, even if they involve
friends or loved ones. The focus is more on the rules than the relationship. Universalist
cultures include Canada, the U.S., the U.K., and Australia.
Cultures based on particularism will find relationships more important than rules. You
can bend the rules for family members, close friends, or important people. Each case
has to be examined in light of its special merits. Particularist cultures include Latin
America, Korea, China, and Russia.
Tips for working with universalist cultures:

 Keep your promises.
 Be consistent.
 Explain the logic behind why you have made a certain decision.
Tips for working with particularist cultures:

 Invest in building relationships so you can understand the particular needs of others.
 Respect these needs as much as possible in your decision making.
 Call out specific important rules that must be followed.
2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism
This dimension can be summarized by asking do we work as a team or as individuals?

Do people desire recognition for their individual achievements, or do they want to be
part of a group?
Individualistic cultures believe that your outcomes in life are the result of your choices.
In these cultures, decision makers make decisions and they don’t need to consult to do
so. Thus, decision makers can make decisions at speed. It is your responsibility to look
after your happiness and fulfillment. Individualistic cultures include Canada, the U.S.,
the U.K., and Australia.
Cultures based on communitarianism believe your quality of life is better when we help
each other. Thus, these cultures organize themselves around groups. There is a strong
sense of loyalty within the group. As a result of this group tendency, decision making is
slower as everyone gives input. Job turnover will be lower due to high group loyalty. The
group gets rewarded for high performance, not the individual. Communitarian cultures
include Japan, much of Africa, China, and Latin American countries.
Tips for working with individualistic cultures:

 Reward and issue praise based on a person’s individual performance.
 Encourage people to use their own initiative.
 Align the individual’s need with those of the organization.
Tips for working with communitarian cultures:

 Reward the group for high performance.
 Praise the group in public, but praise individuals for their contribution in private.
 Include the whole team in decision making.
3. Neutral vs. Affective
This dimension can be summarized by asking do we show our emotions?
In a neutral culture, people tend not to share their emotions. Emotions are of course felt
by the individual, but they are kept in check and controlled. Observing these people you
would consider them cool and rational. Neutral cultures include Germany, Netherlands,
and the U.K.
In an affective culture, people tend to share their emotions, even in the workplace. In an
affective culture, it considered normal that people share their emotions. Examples of
affective cultures include Italy, Spain, and Latin America.
Tips for working with neutral cultures:

 Keep your emotions, both what you say and what your face says, in check.
 Remember that people are less likely to express their true emotions. So try to read
between the lines of what people are telling you.
 After initial chit-chat, stay on topic in meetings.
Tips for working with affective cultures:

 Use emotion to communicate what you want and your goals.
 Share how you feel to strengthen your workplace relationships.
 Learn some techniques to diffuse situations where emotions run high.

4. Specific vs. Diffuse
This dimension of Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model can be summarized by

asking how separate is our personal and professional life?
In a specific culture, people tend to keep their personal and work life separate. These
cultures don’t see an overlap between the two spheres. These cultures tend to be
schedule focussed and direct and to the point in their communications. They focus more
on the goal than the relationship. Examples of specific cultures include Germany, the
U.S., the U.K., and the Netherlands.
In a diffusive culture, people tend to see their personal and work life as interconnected.
These cultures believe that objectives can be better achieved when relationships are
strong. As such, in these cultures work colleagues socialize with each other outside of
work more. These cultures are courteous and respect age, status, and background
more. Examples of diffusive cultures include China, India, Argentina, and Spain.
Tips for working with specific cultures:

 Organize agendas for your meetings.
 Stick to your agenda as best you can.
 Focus first on setting objectives for people. Your relationship comes later.
Tips for working with diffusive cultures:

 Build your relationship before you start setting objectives.
 Expect invitations to more social occasions from colleagues. Commit to attending them.
 Expect to discuss business in social situations and personal matters in the workplace.
5. Achievement vs. Ascription
This dimension of Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model can be summarized by

asking do we prove ourselves to get status or is it given to us?
In an achievement culture, you earn status through knowledge or skill. Job titles are
earned and reflect this knowledge and skill. Anyone can challenge a decision if they
have a logical argument. Examples of achievement cultures include the U.S., the U.K.,
Germany, and Scandinavia.
In an ascription culture, you are given status based on who you are. This could be
because of your social status, your education, or your age. You earn respect in these
cultures because of your commitment to the organization, not your abilities. A decision
will only be challenged by someone with higher authority. Examples of ascription
cultures include Japan, Italy, and France.
Tips for working with achievement cultures:

 Issue praise to an individual in front of their peers.
 Avoid using titles.
 Reward individual performance.
Tips for working with ascription cultures:

 Use titles to refer to peers. If you wish to challenge the decision of a superior, handle
this delicately.
 Pay extra care to show respect to your superiors.
6. Sequential time vs. Synchronous time.
This dimension can be summarized by asking, do things get done one at a time or do
many things get done at once?
In a sequential time culture, time is very important. People like projects to be completed
in stages. Time is money, and so it is important that each stage is finished on time. It is
rude to be late for meetings in these cultures. Examples of sequential time cultures
include the U.S., the U.K., and Germany.
In a synchronous time culture, people see the past, present, and future as interwoven.
Because of this people do several things at once, as time is interchangeable. This
results in plans and deadlines being flexible. It also explains why punctuality is less
important. Examples of synchronous time cultures include Japan, India, and Mexico.
Tips for working with sequential time cultures:
 Keep to deadlines and commitments.
 Try not to deviate from the set schedule.
 Show up on time.
Tips for working with synchronous time cultures:

 Allow people some autonomy within the schedule.
 Allow time for people to arrive late to meetings.
 Be explicit, calling out any deadlines that are not flexible and must be reached.
7. Internal direction vs. External direction

This dimension of Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model can be summarized by asking do we
control our environment or are we controlled by it?
In an internal direction culture, people believe that they can control their environment to
achieve their goals. The focus is selfish (one’s self, one’s team, and one’s organization).
Winning is important in these cultures and aggressive personalities are thus prevalent.
Examples of internal direction cultures include the U.S., the U.K., and Australia.
In an external direction culture, people believe that they must work with their
environment to achieve their goals. In these cultures winning isn’t as important as
maintaining a strong relationship. They focus on environmental factors e.g. relationships
to achieve their goals. Examples of external direction cultures include China, Russia,
and Saudi Arabia.
Tips for working with internal direction cultures:

 Allow people to set their own (within reason) learning development plans.
 Allow a degree of constructive criticism.
 Set clear goals and objectives.
Tips for working with external direction cultures:

 Rather than set goals, give feedback so as people can correct their course en route.
 Allow people autonomy to use their relationships to achieve results.
How to Use The Model
Unfortunately, Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model has no clear and consistent

way use it. But here is a very simple process you can use to start using the model:
1. First, self-evaluate that any misunderstanding is, at root caused by cultural differences.
2. Second, score the person (not the country they are from) against each of the 7
dimensions.
3. Third, examine those dimensions with the biggest score. Select from the tips provided
for that dimension to attempt to resolve the problem.
Note that there is a reason we score the person and not the country they are from. This
is because within individual countries there are cultural differences from one region to
the next. So we score the individual to avoid overgeneralizing.
Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Summary
Most of the time when working with different cultures things go fine. But when they don’t
Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model (The 7 Dimensions of Culture) can help you
understand why. And once you understand the root of the problem it’s possible to
generate ideas to resolve it.

Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions

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Hofestede’s Cultural Dimensions

There are five dimensions to the model:

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

2. Individualism and Collectivism (IDV)

3. Masculinity and Femininity (MAS)

4. Uncertainty Avoidance Factor (UAI)

5. Long-Term Orientation (LTO)

Cultural Dimensions Example

What is the Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory?

1. Power Distance Index

Power Distance Index

Individualism vs. Collectivism

 Individualism indicates that there is greater importance on attaining personal goals. A

Uncertainty Avoidance Index

Masculinity vs. Femininity

Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation

Indulgence vs. Restraint

LONG TERM ORIENTATION

With an intermediate score of 51 in this dimension, a dominant preference in Indian culture

WHAT ABOUT SAUDI ARABIA?

LONG TERM ORIENTATION

WHAT ABOUT THE USA?

This American combination reflects itself in the following:

LONG TERM ORIENTATION

WHAT ABOUT FRANCE?

LONG TERM ORIENTATION

WHAT ABOUT THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES?

LONG TERM ORIENTATION

Masculine vs. Feminine

Long Term vs. Short Term

What is are the Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions?

These are Trompenaars and Hampden turner’s seven dimensions of culture:

1. Universalism versus Particularism

1. Universalism versus Particularism

2. Individualism versus Communitarianism

Individualism sees human beings as individuals, whereas communitarianism

In a neutral emotions are controlled, whereas in an emotional culture emotions are

4. Specific versus diffuse

5. Achievement versus ascription

This concerns achieved status (achievement) versus ascribed (ascription) status. In an

In the contrary situation, it is important that people from an ascription-oriented culture

6. Sequential versus synchronous time

Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions – The 7 Dimensions of Culture

Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions – The 7 Dimensions of Culture

The 7 Dimensions of Culture

The 7 Dimensions of Culture Model (Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Model) works

1. Universalism vs. particularism.

2. Individualism vs. communitarianism.

3. Specific vs. diffuse.

5. Achievement vs. ascription.

6. Sequential time vs. synchronous time.

7. Internal direction vs. external direction.

You can also see The 7 Dimensions of Culture in this diagram:

1. Universalism vs. Particularism

This dimension can be summarized by asking what matters more, rules or

Tips for working with universalist cultures:

Tips for working with particularist cultures:

 Respect these needs as much as possible in your decision making.

 Call out specific important rules that must be followed.

2. Individualism vs. Communitarianism

This dimension can be summarized by asking do we work as a team or as individuals?

Tips for working with individualistic cultures:

 Align the individual’s need with those of the organization.